Digestive System Important activities for the maintenance of life:

Functions:  Eating
 Ingestion  Breathing
 Digestion  Ability to respond to stimuli
 Absorption  Nutrient procurement and processing
 Elimination of Undigested food  Gas exchange
Digestive Tube- Starting from the mouth and ending in  Internal transport
the anus.  Regulation of body fluids
Mouth- Anterior opening of the tube for the entrance of Nutrient- refers to any substance required for the growth
the food. and maintenance of an organism.
Oral Cavity- Cavity immediately posterior to the mouth Autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight
and bounded by the cheeks, tongue, hard and soft palate, and chemicals to produce their own food.
teeth and tonsils. Heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own
Pharynx- Posterior part of the oral cavity for passage of food and obtain their energy from other organisms.
air and the food.
Esophagus- Collapsible muscular tube extending from the
REMEMBER:
pharynx through an opening in the diaphragm to the
stomach. Although PLANTS are capable of producing
Stomach- Highly muscular pouch found in the epigastric their own food (Autotrophic organisms)
and left hypochondriac portions of the abdominal cavity. through PHOTOSYNTHESIS they also require
 Cardiac Sphincter- guards the opening of the RAW MATERIALS from the environment
the esophagus and stomach for the maintenance of life.
 Pyloric Sphincter- this guards the opening  Water
of the pylorys into the duodenum.  Carbon dioxide
Small intestine - longest part of the digestive tube.  Minerals
3 PORTIONS:
 Anterior duodenum
 Middle jejunum 2 ROUTES FOR ABSORPTION:
 Posterior ileum  Symplast route – through plasmodesmata
Large intestines - most posterior part  Apoplast route – along cell walls
3 PARTS: Root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal
 caecum cells that greatly increase the surface area available for
 colon absorption.
 rectum Root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain
- for fater and Na ion absorption and temporary plants where bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the
storage of the fecal matter. plant.
Anus - terminal opening of the digestive tube Nutritional adaptation by plants:
Digestive Glands - responsible for secretion of digestive  Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
juices containing enzymes for digestion of food.  Symbiosis of plants and fungi
Salivary glands  Parasitism
 Parotid gland  Predation
 Sub maxillary gland Calorie- is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of
 Sublingual gland energy contained in food.
Gastric glands - secret gastric juice provided with Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the
enzymes. cells in the body.
Goblet cells- secrete intestinal juice or succusentericus Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the
with enzymes. body mainly uses these as building materials for cell
Liver – largest organ structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles,
FUNCTIONS: and bones.
 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Fat metabolism Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid
 Protein metabolism hormones, and other cellular structures
 Secrete bile  insulate nervous tissue,
 Decotaminates various substances  an energy sources.
 Vitamin metabolism 
Pancreas- secrete pancreatic juice and enzymes.  contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are
Accessory Parts - like lips, teeth, tongue, which aid in the important for good health.
physical digestion of food.  obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried
Digestion- physical and chemical conversion of food to foods, meat, and processed snack foods.
simple absorbable forms Essential Nutrients- include substances that animals can
 Simple sugar from carbohydrates only get from the foods they eat because they could not be
 Amino acids from proteins synthesized inside the body.
 Fatty acids and glycerol from lipids Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins
and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, eight could not
 Nucleotides from nucleic acid
be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine,
methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine.
Plants and Animals
Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane
lipids; an example is linoleic acid in humans.
Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts
for normal metabolism
Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients needed
by the body in minute amounts; these form part of
enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids.
3 TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS:
 Phagocytosis– engulfment of organic
fragments or big particles
 Pinocytosis– uptake of extracellular fluid
by a cell using small vesicles derived from the
 Absorption of water plus
plasma membrane.
macronutrients and micronutrients through
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis – this the root system by diffusion
relies on membrane receptor recognition of
 Root hairs increases the surface area
specific solutes which are then taken up by the cell
for transport
via receptor-coated pits.
 Epidermis—cortex—endodermis--
Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with
pericycle -- move upwards by means of
lysosomes that contain hydrolytic enzymes.
xylem vessels
Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system–
composed of a single opening through which food is taken
in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a saclike body
cavity.
Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with
an opening at one end for taking in food (mouth) and an
opening at the other end where unabsorbed waste
materials are eliminated (anus).
XYLEM
Feedback mechanism – process of nervous and hormonal
regulation.
Negative feedback- process when the receptor detect
change and response that will go against the change.
Positive feedback -process of stimulus causes a response.
Feedback loops:
Stimulus –something that environment causes change.
Receptor- cells that receive stimulus.
Relay – transmitter of message
Homeostasis – state of balance body
The tree components interact:
The receptor- free nerve
The integrator-brain
The integrator- muscle

----------------------------------------------------------------
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Compare and Contrast Process in Plants and
Animals: Transport and Circulation

Plant Transport:
 Phloem cells transport substances
such as products of photosynthesis, water
and other compounds up and down the
plant body

 Two major hypotheses on how

substances can move up and down the
plant body:
- Ascent of xylem sap
- Pressure flow or bulk flow

1. Ascent of xylem sap

1. “push” from below by the water molecules

gushing upwards through xylem vessels
2. “pull” from above by a combination of
transpiration (evaporation of water from the
 plant body) and cohesion of water molecules
through hydrogen bonds

Evolution of the heart

Heart
2. Pressure flow or bulk flow maintains that
- Typical tetrapod blood pumped
in the plant there is a source cell and a sink cell
- By pulmonary arteries, from heart to lungs
By pulmonary veins, back to heart
1. “source” cell is where photosynthesis occurs
(leaf cells)
Heart
2. “sink” cell is where the nutrients are needed
(sucrose and other substances, growing parts of the plants
e.g. buds, flowers, fruits, root tips)

Heart

Animal Circulation
*Fishes have one atrium and one ventricle. *Amphibians
have two atria and one common ventricle where
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix.
*In mammals and birds there is a complete separation of
the four chambers of the heart by a tissue, called the
septum.
Fish Heart
- Fish heart- tube like
4 chambers:
 Sinus venosus
 Atrium
 Ventricle
 Conus arteriosus
Lungfish and Amphibian vs Dogfish
 Modifications of partial or complete partition in
atrium
- Left and right atria
 Advent of lungs
- Double circulation
- Modification in conus arteriosus
- Semi-lunar valve modified to shunt deoxygenated
blood to lungs (spiral valve)
Amphibian Heart
- Spiral valve directs oxy. blood entering ventricle
from left atrium
- Conus (truncus) arteriosus; also called bulbous
cordis
- Bulbous arteriosus
o Swelling of ventral aorta
o Smooth muscle
- Urodele - partially divided circulation
o Right and left atrium
o Sinus venosus dumps into right atrium
o Pulmonary veins leave left ventricle
- Reptile - fully divided circulation, but additional
chamber (as in turtle)
Birds and Mammal Circulation
Animal Circulation
Systemic Circulation Pathway:
Blood from the rest of the body→Superior/Inferior Vena
Cava→
Right Atrium→Tricuspid valve→Right
ventricle→Pulmonary Artery→Lungs→Pulmonary
vein→Left atrium→Bicuspid valve→Left
ventricle→Aorta→Rest of the body
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
Compare and Contrast Process in Plants and Animals:
Reproduction and Development
Reproduction of Plants and Animals
- Asexual
Reproduction
Mode of reproduction that does not involve the use of
gametes or sex cells
- Sexual
Reproduction
Mode of reproduction that involves the use of gametes or
sex cells
Types of Asexual reproduction
1. Binary Fission - involving the division of body into
two or more equal parts
ex. Paramecium
2. Budding - where a new individual arises as an
outgrowth (bud) from its parent, develops organs like
those of the parent, and then detaches itself.
ex. Hydra
3. Fragmentation- where the body breaks into two or
more parts, with each fragment capable of becoming a
complete individual; in animals, fragmentation is usually
followed by regeneration where the missing parts are
produced.
- filamentous alga, i.e. Spirogyra or Oedogonium, and a
detached starfish arm growing lost parts as example
4. Sporulation - where a new individual forms from an
aggregation of cells surrounded by a resistant capsule or
spore, which later on germinates.
ex. fungus, i.e. Rhizopus, as example
Types of union of gamete
Isogamy - Fusion of similar gametes which are usually
motile
ex. Chlamydomonas producing gametes or Spirogyra
undergoing conjugation
Heterogamy - Fusion of dissimilar gametes. In oogamy,
a large immotile gamete, the egg is fertilized by a small
motile gamete, the sperm.
ex. animal sperm and egg
Special terms for sexual reproduction
Bisexual reproduction - Type of sexual reproduction
involving the union of gametes from two genetically
different parents
ex. in humans, and papaya among others
Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and
female reproductive tissues. In animals “self fertilization”
is not common. In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male
to donate sperms in order to fertilize the oocytes in its
body.
ex. barnacles; worms
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
- Number of Parents Involved one two
- Gametes No need for gamete union Present;
sperm has to fertilize the egg
- Genetic composition of offspring Genetically
identical to parent (Clone) Generally are hybrids of
parents
GAMETOPHYTE
- Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is haploid; stage that
produces gametes via mitosis; these gametes fuse to form
a zygote that develops into a sporophyte.
SPOROPHYTE
-Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is diploid; it is the
most recognizable structure in most flowering plants; it
produces haploid spores by meiosis in structures called
sporangia
Haplontic life cycle
Diplontic life cycle
Haplodiplontic life cycle
ANGIOSPERMS
- Also known as flowering plants; group of plants that
produce reproductive structures called flowers in their
sporophyte stages
Flower - Reproductive structure in flowering plants; made
up of four major whorls
4 major whorls
1. Sepals - The outermost whorls of a flower;
collectively called the calyx
2. Petals - Whorl inner to the sepals; may be brightly
colored in some; collectively called the corolla
3. Stamen - Whorl inner to the petals; the male
reproductive structure of the flower; bears the male
sporangia (also known as microsporangia)
A. Anther - Part of the stamen that contains the
microsporangia that develops into pollen grains
B. Filament - Part of the stamen that serves as the
stalk of the anther
4. Pistil or carpels - Innermost whorl of the flower; the
female reproductive structure of the flower; bears the
female sporangia (also known as the megasporangia)
a. Stigma - pollen grain derived from the
microsporangium attaches during pollination.
b. Style - serves as the stalk of the stigma;
leads to the ovary
c. Ovary - base of the pistil; contains one or
more ovules; becomes the fruit.
d. Ovule - Contains the female sporangia or
megasporangia; eventually becomes the seed
Types of flowers based on the presence of reproductive
whorls
1. Perfect / Bisexual - has both stamens and carpels,
and may be described as "bisexual" or "hermaphroditic“.
e.g those of tomatoes, morning glories, snapdragons,
petunias, lilies and irises.
2. Imperfect / Unisexual - contain only one sex
organ.
I. Staminate flower
II. Carpellate flower
e.g asparagus, spinach, willow and cottonwood.
Plant types based on the presence of reproductive
structures
I. Gametophyte - Development through
gametogenesis
a. Male gametophyte
- The microsporangium in the anther contains numerous
microsporocytes. Each microsporocyte will undergo
meiosis to produce four haploid microspores each
microspore develops into a pollen grain (containing two
sperm nuclei and one tube nucleus)
b. Female gametophyte - The megasporangium in the
ovule contains megasporocytes. One megasporocyte will
undergo meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores
three megaspores degenerate remaining megaspore divides
mitotically three times, an embryo sac with eight haploid
nuclei membranes partition to make the embryo sac
multicellular
II. Pollination
A. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma 4. Gastrulation- Stage of development involving
B. May be animal-aided or wind-aided
2. Fertilization- Stage of development that results in a
unicellular diploid zygote
3. . Cleavage- Stage of development involving a series of
mitotic divisions to produce a multicellular blastula from a
unicellular zygote
morphogenetic movements of the cells to produce a
gastrula with distinct germ cell layers; in vertebrates, this
will result in three layers: the outermost ectoderm; the
inner endoderm, and the middle layer, the mesoderm

5. Organogenesis- Stage of development where the

III. Double fertilization different germ layers differentiate into specific organ
systems

Ectoderm
Gives rise to:
1. Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal
Cord)
2. PNS
3. Sensory Epithelia of the eye, ear and nose
4. Epidermis, nails and hair
5. Mammary glands
MYCROPYLE 6. Hypophysis
-The opening through the integuments of the ovule that 7. Subscutaneous glands
surrounds the embryo sac; this is where the pollen tube 8. Enamel of the teeth
enters in order to reach the embryo sac
Mesoderm
IV. Embryo development (embryogenesis) Gives rise to:
1. Connective tissues
V. Maturation of ovary and ovule 2. Cartilage
A. Ovary matures into fruit while the ovule 3. Bones
becomes the seed. The seed may become dormant for 4. Striates and smooth muscles
some time. 5. Heart walls, blood and lymph vessels
6. Kidneys, gonads (ovaries and testis) and genital
VI. Seed germination ducts
i. Epigeal germination 7. Lining of body cavities
ii. Hypogeal germination 8. Spleen
9. Suprerenal cortices
VII. Seedling growth to mature plant
A. Primary meristems differentiate to become the Endoderm
different plant tissues Gives rise to:
1. Epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal and
Development respiratory tracts
- involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation, 2. Tonsillar parenchyma
subsequent stages in one’s life span. 3. Liver, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, and
- is terminated by death. pancreas
4. Epithelial lining of the urinary bladder and
Haploid (n) condition urethra
- When a cell has only half the chromosome number or 5. Epithelial lining of the tympanic cavity,
only one set of chromosomes tympanic antrum and auditory tube.

Diploid (2n) condition 6. Growth- Stage of development characterized by an

- When a cell has the full chromosome number or two sets increase in size of an individual
of chromosomes
Monozygotic twins
Totipotent cell- A cell that is capable of differentiating to - Also known as identical twins; result from the union of a
become any kind of cell sperm and egg to form a single zygote that splits up during
the first cleavage stage.
Stages of Animal Development
Dizygotic twins
1. Gametogenesis- Stage of development that yields - Also known as fraternal twins; results from the
haploid gametes development of two or more separate fertilization events
where the resulting zygotes develop almost simultaneously

Male Reproductive System
1. Testis- Where sperms are produced
2. Epididymis- Where sperms are temporarily stored
3. Scrotal sac/scrotum - Supports the testis and
epididymis
4. Vas deferens - Where the sperm passes through from
the testis before it joins the urethra
5. Urethra - Connected to the urethra and the urinary
bladder; serves as passageway of both sperm and urine
and terminates in the external urinary meatus of the penis
6. Seminal vesicle - Secretes fluid that forms part of the
semen; secretion gives the semen its alkaline characteristic Human embryo- Corresponds to the first two months of
to counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract and therefore gestation
protect the sperm; the fluid also contains sugars like
fructose
7. Prostate gland - Secretes fluid that also provides
alkalinity to the semen; it also contains proteolytic
enzymes, citric acid, phosphatases, and lipids
8. Bulbourethral glands- Paired glands that produce
clear, viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate that helps
to lubricate the urethra for sperm to pass through,
neutralizing traces of acidic urine in the urethra, and helps
flush out any residual urine or foreign matter
Female Reproductive System
1. Clitoris- The homologue (equivalent) of the penis
in females
2. Vagina- Main entrance to the female reproductive
tract; receives the penis during sexual intercourse
3. Cervix- Where the vagina ends; projection of the
uterus into the vagina; leads to the uterus
4. Uterus- Also known as the womb; where the
embryo develops; with thick muscular walls, blood
vessels; and the endometrial lining
5. Endometrial lining/endometrium- Innermost
lining of the uterus where the embryo implants and
develop
6. Fallopian tubes- Also known as oviducts; paired
tubes that are connected to the uterus and terminate near
the ovaries; this is where fertilization takes place
7. Ovaries- Female gonads that release the oocytes
during ovulation, which are then caught by the fimbrae of
the fallopian tubes in order for the oocytes to pass on to
the fallopian tubes
Human Embryogenesis
Morula- A human blastula made up of a solid ball of cells
Blastocyst- A human blastula composed of the inner cell
mass, which becomes the embryo, and the
trophoectoderm, which becomes the placenta
Implantation- Process where the blastocyst implants itself
in the endometrium; this signals the start of pregnancy
Gestation - Carrying of the embryo inside the female
reproductive tract, specifically the uterus; can last up to 9
months in humans
Human fetus- Corresponds to the months 3-9 of human
gestation
Menstrual Cycle:
Ovarian Cycle
1. Follicular phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of
the ovary in humans where the follicles begin to mature; it
is marked by secretions of the follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and the leutinizing hormone (LH) by the
anterior pituitary gland and the estrogen by the ovaries;
both FSH and LH stimulate the maturation of the oocytes
while estrogen stimulates uterine lining growth in
preparation for implantation of the embryo
2. Luteal phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the
ovary after the oocytes are released from the follicles; the
remains of the follicle become the corpus luteum, which
then secretes progesterone, which stimulates the uterus to
undergo final maturational changes that prepare it for
gestation to house and nourish an embryo
Uterine Cycle
1. Menstrual phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the
uterus; also known as the “period”; corresponds to the
early part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days 1-5)
when endometrium degenerates and sloughs off,
producing the menstrual discharge
2.Proliferative phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the
uterus; corresponds to the latter part of the follicular phase
of the ovaries (days 8-14) when the endometrium heals
and begins to thicken as a consequence of estrogen
secretion
3.Secretory phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the
uterus; corresponds to the luteal phase of the ovaries; the
endometrium undergoes final changes before it receives 9. Abstinence- Type of contraception where the man and
the embryo during implantation the woman do not engage in sexual intercourse

Contraception - Process that blocks any one of the ===============================

following stages of reproduction in humans: (1) release Digestive System
and transport of gametes; (2) fertilization; (3)
implantation; (4) actual completion of development of theFunctions
embryo/fetus 1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
Types of Contraception 3. Absorption
1. Ovulation-suppressing methods- prevents the oocyte to 4. Elimination of Undigested food.
mature Parts

2. Oral contraceptives- Type of contraception taken in by 1. Digestive Tube - starting from the mouth and ending in
women to prevent them from ovulating
e.g Alesse, Apri, Aranelle, Aviane, Enpresse, Estrostep,
Lessina, Levlen, Levlite
3. Barrier methods- Type of contraception that prevents
fertilization
Barrier Methods
1. Condom- Type of barrier method that is inserted on the
male penis to prevent release of sperm into the female
reproductive tract
the anus
a. Mouth - anterior opening of the tube for the entrance of
food
b. Oral Cavity - cavity immediately posterior to the
mouth and bounded by the cheeks, tongue, hard and soft
palate, teeth, tonsils
c. Pharynx - posterior part of the oral cavity for passage
of food and air

2. Diaphragm- Type of barrier method that blocks the d. Esophagus - collapsible muscular tube extending from
cervix, thereby preventing the passage of the sperm into the pharynx through an opening in the diaphragm to the
the uterus stomach.

3. .Cervical cap- Type of barrier method that covers the e. Stomach - highly muscular pouch found in the
cervix and blocks passage of the sperm into the uterus epigastric and left hypochondriac portions of the
abdominal cavity
4. Chemicals
1. Spermicidal jelly or foam- Type of barrier method that A. Cardiac Sphincter - guards the opening of the
kills the sperm on contact; they are placed inside the esophagus and stomach
vaginal canal B. Pyloric sphincter - this guards the opening of the
pylorys into the duodenum.
5. Surgical methods- A special type of contraception - where food is partially digested and stored prior
preventing fertilization that involves surgery to passage into the duodenum.
Surgical methods
1. Vasectomy- Type of surgical method for men; entails f. Small intestine - longest part of the digestive tube
cutting the vas deferens 3 portions:
Anterior duodenum
2.Tubal ligation- Type of surgical method for women; Middle jejunum
entails cutting the fallopian tubes Posterior ileum

6. Suppressing methods g. Large intestines - most posterior part

1. Implantation-Type of contraception that prevents the 3 parts:
blastocyst from being implanted in the endometrium caecum
colon
Intra-uterine devise (IUD)- rectum
Type of implantation-suppressing method that physically - Na ion absorption and temporary storage of the
blocks the blastocyst form implanting into the fecal matter
endometrium
h. anus - terminal opening of the digestive tube
Morning-after pill-
Type of implantation-suppressing method that blocks the 2. Digestive Glands - responsible for secretion of
action of hormones that prepare the uterus to receive the digestive juices containing enzymes for digestion of food
embryo
a. Salivary glands
7. Abortion- Type of contraception that involves the 1. Parotid gland
deliberate removal of the embryo/fetus before it completes 2. Sub maxillary gland
gestation 3. Sublingual gland

8. Coitus interruptus- Type of contraception that requires b. Gastric glands - secret gastric juice provided with
the man to remove the penis before ejaculation enzymes
c. Goblet cells C. essential nutrients or elements – which include
- secrete intestinal juice or succusentericus with macronutrients which are normally required in amounts
enzymes above 0.5% of the plant’s dry weight; and micronutrients
which are required in minute or trace amounts;
d. Liver - largest D. examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg,
Functions: P, S E. examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn,
1. Carbohydrate metabolism Zn, Co, Mo
2. Fat metabolism
3. Protein metabolism REMEMBER:
4. Secrete bile Although PLANTS are capable of producing their own
5. Decotaminates various substances food (Autotrophic organisms) through
6. Vitamin metabolism PHOTOSYNTHESIS they also require the RAW
MATERIALS from the environment for the maintenance
e. Pancreas of life.
- secrete pancreatic juice and enzymes Water
Carbon dioxide
3. Accessory Parts - like lips, teeth, tongue, which aid in Minerals
the physical digestion of food.
Digestion ROUTES FOR THE ABSORPTION OF WATER
- physical and chemical conversion of food to simple AND MINERALS ACROSS PLANT ROOTS
absorbable forms
1. Simple sugar from carbohydrates SYMPLAST
2. Amino acids from proteins - Absorbs water and minerals through the plasmodesmata
3. Fatty acids and glycerol from lipids
4. Nucleotides from nucleic acid routes for the absorption of water and minerals across
plant roots:
Compare and Contrast Process in Plants and Animals: A. symplast route – through plasmodesmata
Nutrient Procurement and Processing B. apoplast route – along cell walls 


What are the important activities for the maintenance Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to
of life? reach the conducting tissues of plants, specifically the
xylem. The two routes mentioned show how this can
-Eating happen. 

-Breathing
-Ability to respond to stimuli ABSORPTIVE STRUCTURES OF PLANTS
-Nutrient procurement and processing
-Gas exchange A. ROOT HAIRS
-Internal transport - slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that
-Regulation of body fluids greatly increase the surface area available for absorption.

Nutrient – B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain

refers to any substance required for the growth and plants where bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the
maintenance of an organism. plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn,
the bacteria are able to utilize some organic compounds
PLANT NUTRITION provided by the plant.

2 TYPES OF ORGANISM BASED ON HOW THEY C. mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic

ACQUIRE NUTRIENTS interaction between a young root and a fungus. The fungus
obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from
AUTOTROPHS root cells while the plant is able to get some scarce
– organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and minerals that the fungus is better able to absorb from the
chemicals to produce their own food. soil. 


2 types nutritional adaptation by plants:

A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
sunlight and chemicals to produce their own food. B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi
Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria C. Parasitism
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own D. Predation
food and obtain their energy from other organisms.
Examples: animals, fungi Animal Nutrition

Nutritional requirements of plants: CALORIE

A. water
B. carbon dioxide
Further, note that water and carbon dioxide are the raw
materials needed for photosynthesis, the process by which
plants convert the energy from sunlight into chemical
energy.
– is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy
contained in food.
nutritional requirements of animals:
I. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for
the cells in the body. These are usually obtained from
grains, cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables. On average,Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals:
carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram. I. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse
with lysosomes that contain hydrolytic enzymes. Example:
II. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium
body mainly uses these as building materials for cell
structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY
and bones. Proteins come from dairy products, poultry, - composed of a single opening through which food is
fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also taken in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a saclike
contain 4 Calories per gram. body cavity.

III. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid
hormones, and other cellular structures
-insulate nervous tissue,
-an energy source.
- contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are important
for good health.
-obtained from, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and
processed snack foods.
V. Essential Nutrients –
include substances that animals can only get from the
foods they eat because they could not be synthesized
inside the body. These include:
A. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of
proteins and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, eight
could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan,
threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine
and valine.
II. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive
system – composed of a single opening through which
food is taken in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a
saclike body cavity. Examples: in the cnidarian Hydra and
in flatworm Planaria
III. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube
with an opening at one end for taking in food (mouth) and
an opening at the other end where unabsorbed waste
materials are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and
anus, are specialized organs that carry out transport,
processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.

B. Essential fatty acids – used for making special

membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in humans.

C. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small

amounts for normal metabolism; examples include fat-
soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins
B, B2, B3, B12, C.

D. Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients

needed by the body in minute amounts; these form part of
enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples include:
iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium.

TYPES OF ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING

MECHANISMS:

SUBSTRATE FEEDER
-animals that live in or on their food source.

types of animals based on feeding mechanisms:

I. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food
source. Examples: earthworms that feed through the soil
where they live in; caterpillars that eat through the leaves
where they live on.

II. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which

draw in water and strain small organisms and food
particles present in the medium. Examples: whales and
coelenterates

III. fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a

living host. Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice,
aphids

IV. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and

have adaptations like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers,
etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to pieces.
Examples: snakes, cats, man