CHAPTER XXVIII ‘THE TIME OF JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Gecond Half of Highth Century) 1. Survey of Science in Second Half of Kighth Century. II. Religious Background. 111 Cultural Background, East and West. IV, Muslim and Latin Mathematics und Astron- omy. 'V. Muslin snd Latio Alchemy; Japanese Technology. VI. Muslim, Chinese, and Jepanese Natural History. VI. Latin and Chinese Geography. VII. Latin, Syriac, Muslim, Hindu, Tibeten, Chinese, and Japanese Medicine. IX. Latin, Nuslim, and “apanese Historiography. X. Muslim Philology. I. SURVEY OF SCIENCE IN SECOND HALF OF EIGHTH CENTJRY 1. The intellectual relaxation which characterized the second half of the seventh century and the first helf of the eighth, at least as far as Europe anc, the Near Fast were concerned, was followed by @ period of renewed activity. This was almost entirely due to Muslim initiative, for the Carolingian renaissax ce did not really begin until the end of the century. Tt is thus entirely proper to give to this period, which marks the beginning of Muslim science, an Arabie name. Yet to call it the time of Jabir is somewhat of a challenge. Let it be so! An elaborate study of all the Jabir texts, whether Arabic or Latin, is one of the most urgent fond promising tasks of scholarship. And even if that study did not substantiate the hopes of some Arabiste, Jabir would still remain a very impressive personality, ‘at once because of his own achievements and because of the glamour traditionally attached to him. 2. Religious Background—An anti-Talmudie movement, the so-called Qaraism, initiated by Anan ben David, is of importance because it considerably influenced ‘Tewish thought for some four centuries. Qaraism did to some exten’ for Isracl ‘what the Protestant Reformation did for Christianity. ‘Tho greatest disciple of Abi Hantfa, the Qadi Abti Yosuf, wrote a legal treatise ‘on taxation which is still authoritative among the Hanifites to-day. ‘The second of the four orthodox schools of Islam, the Milikite, was founded by Malik ibn ‘Anas. This same Malik compiled the earliest collection of tradition». ‘A Buddhist renaissance was initiated in Tibet by King Ti-song De-tsen, with the assistance of the Hindu guru Padma-sambhava. The specific form of Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, may be dated back to this time: it was a mixture of Tan- trism with various Himalayan superstitions. ‘Wa Kung, following the memorable examples of Fa Hsien, Hstian Tsang, and T-ching, sojourned a long time in India in order to collect, books and mvlics and to obtain a deeper knowledge of Buddhism, The earliest Christian monument of China, » Nestorian stela, was erected at Ch’ang-an in 781. Its exirtonce is of considerable archaeological interest; it gives some color of plausibility to the theories according to which Nestorianism influenced some of the Mat 8yna doc- trines, However, this matter is still under dispute; this much 1s certain: if Chinese Buddhism was at all influenced by Christianity, the influence either was very slight or it was eoon smothered by more powerful ones. 520‘TIME, OF JKBIR IBN WAIYAN oan 3. Cullural Background, Bast and West—Many rulers used their authority to promote the intellectual welfare and progress of the peoples which Fate had in- trusted to them. I have already spoken of the efforts made by the Tibetan king ‘Tisong De-tsen. ‘Two of the ‘Abbasid caliphs distinguished themselves grostly in this respect: the second, al-Manstr, who founded Bagdad, and, even more #0, the fifth, Hirdn-al-Rasbid, whose fame has been immortalized by many legen Both encouraged the work of the translators who were busily unlocking treasures of Greek knowledge. While Hirin was ruling Islam, Charlemagne was leading the Christian West. At the very end of the century, on Christmas 800, he revived the imperial dig- nity, being crowned by the Pope, in Rome, Emperor of the West (Holy Roman Enipire). With the help of on English monk, Alcuin, Charlemagne undertook a number of educational reforms. Aleuin took pains to transmit to the Franks the learning and culture accumulated by Bede. He was by far the noblest figure of that time in the West, but even like Bede in the previous period, he was almost entirely alone. Japanese civilization was fostered by the energetic solicitude of the empress Shotoku, who ruled twice, from 749 to 758 and from 765 to 770. Tt was during her first reign that the Daibutsu of Nara was completed. ‘4. Muslim and Latin Mathematics and Astronomy—With the sole exception men tioned at the end of this section, all of the mathematical and astronomical work of this period was done by Muslims. It is interesting to recall that the mathe- matical work of the previous period had been done almost exclusively by Chinese. In both cases some amount of stimulation had come from India, and even as we witnessed in the previous chapter the eastward transmission of Hindu mathe- matics, we shall now find evidences of their westward transmission. But in the case of Muslim mathematics, the Hindu stimulation was aecompanied and com- pleted by a much more powerful one, which failed to reach the Far East until many genturies lnter—the Greek one. Ibrahim al-Fazitt is said to have been the first Muslim to construct astrolabes. ‘Ya'qab ibn Tariq and Muhammad, son of Ybrahim al-Faniri, are the first to be mentioned in connection with Hindu mathematies: Ya'qab met at the court of al-Mansr, a Hindu astronomer called Kankah (2), who sequainted him with the Siddhfinta, and Muhammad was ordered to translate it. ‘The physician al- Batriq translated Ptolemy's Quadripartitum. ‘Two astrologers, one of them a Jew named Misballth, the other a Persian called al-Naubakht, worked together to make the measurements necessary for the building of Bagdad. Al-Naubakht’s son, al-Fadl, wrote astrological treatises and translations from the Persian into Arabie. ‘The only mathematical writer in Europe was Aleuin, who composed some very elementary texts for teaching purposes. One of them is interesting because it contains the earliest examples of arithmetical problems which remained for many centuries a permanent feature of school-books (problems of pursuit). 5. Muslim and Latin Alchemy, Japanese technology-—It is noteworthy that the earliest alchemical texts in Arabic and Latin are contemporaneous, that is, if our dating of them is correct. ‘The most famous alchemist of Isliim, Jabir ibn Haiyau, sees to have had a good experimental knowledge of a number of chem- ical facis; he was also an able theoretician, but it is impossible to appreciate his scientific merit with any finality until a comparative study of all the writings ascribed to him and to Geber has been completed.o22 INTRODUCTION 10 THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE ‘The Compositiones ad tingenda date probably from the time of Chailemagne, but they represent in the main a much older—an Hellenistio—traditian. ‘The recipes are technical or practical rather than alchemieal or speculative. ‘The ‘Mappao clavieula ie another collection of the same kind, representing the same tradition and having the same practieal purposes, but probably of a somewhat later period. ‘During her second reign, the empress Shotoku ordered the printing of a great number of charms. Some of these charms are still extant, being th: earliest printed documents of any country. In all probability, printing had been prac- ticed in China before and imported thenee into Japan, together with a great many other elements of Chinese culture. If similar charms had been printed .n China, the exportation of the printed leaves, o of the blocks, or of the invention itsclf would naturally follow the transmission of religious ideas. During the rule of the emperor Kwammu, at the end of the century, the cotton industry was intro- duced into Japan (2). 6, Muslim, Chinese, and Japanese Natural History—The Arab al-Asma't com- posed various books on the horse, on the camel, on wild animals, on the making of man, which offer some scientific interest, though their purpose was rather anec- dotie and philological. Ln Yo wrote the earliest book on tea; it is a very comprehensive treatise. The cultivation of cotton is said to have been introduced into Japan from India at the end of the century. 7. Latin and Chinese Geography—The historian Paulus Diaconus suggested a novel theory of tides; that theory is wrong but curious. ‘The Spanish monk Beatus drew a map of the world which is one of the earliest Christian mays extant, Chia Tan completed in 801 a map of China and of the barbaric cour:ries sur- rounding it. ‘This was, as far as T am aware, the earliest map of a larg> part of the world on a large scale (20 miles to an inch). ‘The same Chia ‘Tan zompiled 8 series of itineraries from China to Tongking, Korea, Central Asia, India, and ‘Mesopotamia, 8. Latin, Syriac, Muslim, Hindu, Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese Moicino— There was no eminent physician in'the Latin West, but of course medivine con- tinued to be practiced and ancient traditions were kept alive in the Be edictine monasteries. ‘Theophilos of Edessa, a Maronite father, prepared some translations frem Greek into Syriae, including one of Galen. The first member of an illustrious Nestorian family of physicians, the Bakhtya- shi’, appeared at this time. This was George son of Gabriel. ‘He in said to have been the first to translate medical works into Arabic. Other medical trans- lations were made by Tbn al-Mugatfa' and by al-Batriq. ‘Two Sanskrit treatises, one dealing with pathology and the other with thera- peutles, date probably from this time. ‘The former is aseribed to Madhavakara, the latter to Vrinda, but it is probable that these two names cover the same personality. ‘The best-known Tibetan treatise on me to have been published during the rule of the basis of the native medical teaching. Wang Teo published in 752 a very elaborate medical treatise entitled “Impor- tant Secrets of the Outer Terrace.” In 761, Wang Ping compiled the earliest commentary on Huang ‘T's “Simple Questions.” ine, ealled the Four Tantras, is said i-song De-tsen. ‘That treatise is still‘Tir OF SEBIR IBN HAIYAN 533, ‘The Chinese physician Kanjin eame to Japan in 755. Toward the end of the century, the Japanese physician and educator, Wake Hiroyo, compiled a treatise ‘on materia medica, upon the model of the Chinese pén-ts'o. 9. Latin, Muslim, and Japanese Historiography—Paulus Diaconus wrote a his- tory of the Lombards and another of the diocese of Metz. Ibn al-Mugaffa’ translated various books from Pahlawi into Arabic, mainly the Persian annals and the tales of Kaltla wa-Dimna. The earliest biography of Muhammad was written by Ibn Ishaq, but we know it only through a later recension. Various other works dealing with Arabian history and antiquities Were compiled by Ab0 ‘Ubaida, al-Asma's, Hishim ibn Mubammad, and al- Wagidt. The second of the Six National Histories of Japan, the Zoku Nihongi, wao ‘completed in 798. 9 bis. Mustim and Latin Law—T have already dealt with Muslim law, inseparable from theology, in Section II. ‘The vuly important juridieal publications of the ‘West were those ordered by Charlemagne; but they do not really belong to this period, because they date from the beginning of the ninth century only. 10. Muslim Philolopy—Arabie grammar finally took shape within this period Khalil ibn Ahmad, of the school of Basra, was especially active in this field. He systematized Arabic prosody, developed the notion of mensural musie, and began ‘the compilation of the first Arabic lexicon. ‘The first Arabic grammar, called “The Book,” was written by his disciple, the Persian Sibawaihi 11. Final Remarke—In spite of the contributions which were possibly made by the alchemist Jabir and of some Chinese geographical work, this period can hardly be called one of creation. But its cultural importance is very great. ‘The trans- mission of knowledge and its reassimilation by new peoples went on briskly in many places. Chinese culture continued to pour into Japan and to begin there a new development. However, it is in Lower Mesopotamia, the Arabian ‘Iriq, that the greatest intellectual activity could be observed. A new concentration of culture was being accomplished with youthful energy in the newly founded cities of Bagdad, Basra, and Kaf—comparable in many respects to that which had taken place centuries before in Alexandria, Streams of knowledge were con- verging in the Caliphate from the Byzantine Empire, from Persia, and from India. But this new concentration was not by any means as easy as the old Alexandrian one; that hed been mainly a prolongation of the Greek culture, with a few foreign additions of minor importance. On the contrary, the vehicle of the new Muslim civilization was a Ianguage which had never been used before for any scientific Purpose. Almost every bit of knowledge had to be translated either from Greek, ‘or from Sanskrit, or from Pablawt before it could be assimilated. And not oaly that, but these interpretations necessitated the creation of a philosophic and scientific terminology which did not exist. When one takes all this into con- sideration, iuslead of being surprised at the relative smaliness of the frst harvest, fone can not help admiring the immensity of the effort. This effort, was of such a nature that no people could have endured it for a long time, but only during a period of exaltation and youthful optimism, It must be added that the early ‘Muslim men of science were apparently bewildered by the amount of knowledge ouring in upon them from Fast: and West and do not seem to have realised at onee the overwhelming superiority of the western source. Indeed, how could they realize it? For at the beginning, Greek knowledge reached them only in a very impure state, after having filtered through Byzantine and Syrian minds.528 INTRODUCTION 10 THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE at racial and cultural complexity of Islim, even in those early days, is a very curious spectacle. How strong must the religious bond have been to keep together such disparate elements! To begin with, the ‘Abbicid court was en- tirely permeated with foreign influences—Persian, Jewish, ond Nestorisn. The Persian influenee was predominant; one might say that the Persians omquered ‘their Arab victors even as the Greeks conquered the Romans. ‘The consequences ‘were curiously similar in both eases. ‘The Persians introduced into the Caliphate a greater love of beauty, urbanity, intellectual curiosity, and much fon iness for discussion. ‘These conditions were favorable for the progress of science but un- fortunately free thought was often followed by libertinage and immorality. No wonder that the genuine Arabs looked down upon the Persian intradem even as the old Romans looked dowa upon the Grecks. ‘The fact io that every: eiviliza- tion acts as a poison upon those who have not been properly inoculated; it ‘would act that way even wore it perfectly pure and did not contain (as it always does) evil elements. ‘The Arabie strength and virtue were gradually un Jermined by Persian urbanity. "To come back to the Muslim scholars: al-Asms't, Qadi Aba Yas f, Malik ibn Anas, Ibn Ishq, Hishm ibn Mubammad, Khalil ibn Ahmad, vere real Arabs, Arabs of the Arabs, but they were, all of them, historians and theologians, not scientists, Those who might more properly be called scientists were either Persians, or Jews, or Christians. Ibrahim al Faziri and his son Mubammad, Ya'qab ibn Tériq, alNaubakht and his son al-Fadl, Ibn al-Mugafis’, Stbawaihi, were Persians. Mshallsh was an Egyptian Jew and Aba ‘Ubaida a Persian one. ALBatriq was probably Christian of some sort. ‘The powerful Balhtyasha’ family were Nestorians. Jebir ibn Haiyan was either a Sabian or a IMazdean. ‘The linguistic complexity was not less bewildering. ‘To be sure, all of them under- stood Arabic, but some also spoke or read Persian, Syriao, Sanskrit, Hvbrew, or Grock. I repost it, tho confusion was much greater than it had been a Alexan~ dria, where the majority of the élite used ite own native language. In ‘Irdq the intellectual élite was obliged to use @ foreign language and to adapt it gradually to the expression of new ideas. Under these circumstances it is not at a1 surpris~ ing that the first Arabic grammar was composed by a Persian. The remarks which I made in Chapter IX (p. 179) on Hellenistic philology might be re- peated here, mutatis mutandis, with reference to Arabic. I, RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND Brnrw ov Qanarsu ANAN BEN DavID Flourished in the second half of the eighth century in Babylonia; he failed to become exilareh* ¢, 760; wes imprisoned in 767 and thus met Abd ‘Janifa, a fellow prisoner, by whom he was clearly influenced. Died about the ¢nd of the century. Jewish. theologian, Founder of the Qaraite? sect, a powe-ful anti- Talmudic movement, a sort of Jowish Reformation, which has great importance * That is, the civil head of the Babylonian Jews, Anan had some hereditary qualifications {for that office. The Gaon was the religious head. ‘From qara, to read, Qora or migra isthe equivalent of our word Bible, Jews and Mi lime call their encred books readings (Migra, Qur'an), not writings as we do. ‘The Qaraites ‘wore followers ofthe Bible (to the exclusion of rabbinical traditions).‘ME OF JKBIR IBN RATTAN 525 because it stimulated considerably the development of Jowish thought, either directly or by way of resction against it, for some four centuries, He completed €. 770 the “Book of Precepts” (‘Sefer ha-migwot”). Qaraism throve bost in Pal ind Egypt, but it hed exhausted ite strongth by the end of the twelfth century. Tt has now vanished entirely; but for a few remnants in Turkey and Southern Russia, Articles “Anan ben David” by A. Harkavy (Jewish Encyclopaedia, vol. 1, 553~ 4556, 1901) and “Karaites and Karaism’” (?hidem, vol. 7, 438-447, 1904), by the same, with a corrective note by Rabbi Kaufmann Kobler. Mosunu TuzoLoar 480 ¥OSUF Aba Yasuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim ibn Habib sl-Kaft al-Ang&rt, Born of old Arabian stock st Kofa in 731/25 ho lived in Bagdad, being sppointed Bat in 782/334 he died in 798/9. Hanifite jurist; the greatest disciple of AbO Hantfa. Upon the request of Hardin al-Rashid, he wrote a legal treatise on revenue (taxes), called Kitab al-khara}, which is still in use to-day in the Hamiite communities, ‘Text—Arabic edition (Balsq, 1302), French translation with notes by E. Fagnan: Le Livre de V'impst foncier (368 p., Paris, 1921. The contents of this ‘treatise are far more varied than the title suggests; Isis, IV, 579). Criticism —C, Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (Vol. 1, 171, 1898). Bilhard Wiedemann: tiber Wasseranlagen nach dem We= steuern (Beitr, 10, Sitzungsber. d. phys. med. Soz. in Erlangen, Vol. 38, 313- 315, 1906). Carra de Vaux: Les penseurs de I'Islam (vol. 3, 340-349, 1923). MikLn DN ANAS Aba ‘Abdallah Milik ibn Anas al-Asbabi. Born at Medina in 715/6, died there in 795/6. Muslim jurist. Founder of the Milikite school, one of the four orthodex schools of law. His main work, called “Kitab al-muwafta’” ("The Book of the Beaten Road”), contains about 1,700 juridical traditions arranged by ‘subjects, with remarks on the ijm8* of Medina.’ He insisted upon the principle ‘of public advantage (istislah): justice must not be sacrificed to theory. The Muvatta’ was the earliest publication of traditions (but it was restricted to legal ‘raditions). ©. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (Vol, 1, 175, 1898). D. B. Macdonald: perl of Shs Thestgy 8) F He Rixton, Matiki Law (38 p., ‘Traerax Boopaiae It would seem that the efforts made by Song-tsen Gam-po (q. v., first half of the seventh century) to introduce Buddhism into his country, did not bear perma- pent fruits and that after his death ‘Tibet relapsed into barbarism. At any rate, A book bearing the same ttle is ascribed to the cofounder of Qaraism, Benjamin Naba- wwendi (q. ¥.y fret half of ninth century). “THe was the first to receive the digaity of supreme judge (qBd-I-quds). He is often called Qagr Abu Yosuf. Isat n force in Upper Egypt and in Northern Af tive ia the Western Caliphate. 1 The agreement, the sanctioned usage of Medina, ost of Hgypt. Tewasauthorita-526 INTRODUCTION TO THE MISTORY OF SCIENCE his work had to be done anew by one of his successors, the grest king Ti-song De-tsen. ‘Ti-song De-tsen (Thi-sroi Detsan) was the son of a Chinese princess, which helps to explain hia Buddhist forvor. During his reign, Tibet became 026 of tho great military powers of Asia; he extended his rule over the greater part of Yin- nan and Ssich’uan and even conquered Chang-an, the Chinese eaptsl. He established codes of civil and penal law, founded monasteries, and procured the services of a number of Hindu and Kashmiri scholars to translate the Buddhist canon and commentaries into Tibetan. In 747 (or according to Chinese sources, in 755), he invited Padma-sambhava to come to Tibet; this was probably his ‘most pregnant initiative. ‘Guru Padma-eambhava,} born in Udyina (northwost of Kashmir), wai a repre sentative of the Tantric Yogicara school; at the time of the kings invivation he was residing at the great college of Nalanda. He came to Tibet, for nded the earliest monastery ul Sau-yé (0 miles southeast of Lhasa) and ‘was the real originator of the special form of Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism), of which many sects survive unto this day. This was a mixture of Tantric Buddhism with the original Bén superstitions and probably also with Udyna superstitions. Padma sambhava, whom the Tibetans call Guru Rim-po-ch’e (the precious teucher) or simply Lé-pin (teacher), is regarded by them with unbounded venerat.on; they place him on the same level as the Buddha. Padma had 25 disciples each of ‘whom is eredited with some special magical power. In 802, he felt ooliged to leave Tibet to preach the gospel of Buddhism in other lands; his departure took the form of a transfiguration and ascension, in the presence of the king, priests, and a multitude of the people. Lawrence Austin Waddell: Buddhism of Tibet (London, 1895); Lhass and its ‘Mysteries (2d ed., London, 1905). Article by Mrs. S. Couling, in Encyclopaedia Sinion (284, 1917). Sir Charles Bali: Tibet (Oxford, 1924). (Cans Boopmisw—Wo Kosa Wut Kung! (12704, 6595). ‘This is his religious name; his own name was Ch’é! Féngtch'aot (574, 3574, 518). Born at Hsiangtit (4265, 5454), Shensi, in 730; died after 791. Chinese Buddhist who was a member of a mission to Gandhara in 751. After this he spent forty years in India and Central Asis, study ng Sans- crit and collecting books and relies. After his return to China, he devcted him- self to the translation of slits into Chinese. H. A. Giles: Biographical Dictionary (885, 1808). L, Wieger: La Chine (875, 1920). Nesronaw Monomer oF 781 ‘This monument, bearing an inscription in Chinese and another in Syrrine (es- trangelo characters written vertically), was discovered in 1625 in or near the Civung* shéng! sit (2930, 9892, 10295), outside the western gate of Cr angtan! (450, 44), i-e., Hsitant (4031, 44); that was probably the place of ita frst erection ‘+ A number ofthese translators are quoted by Waddell: Buddhism of Tibet (9). * Gurs'meana teacher in Sanakrit; Padmoa-tarthava, the‘"otuschorn one” “The Hed Hat ect represents more especialy the primitive Tibetan Buddhiem of Paduaime oF sinmm im garry 537 in 781. The Chinese call it Ching® chiaot peit (2143, 1352, 8764). It is of great importance as being the e Christian monument in China. A limestone replica of this great tablet was brought to the United States as a result of an expedition undertaken by Fritz V. Holm, of Copenhagen. This replica is in the ‘Metropolitan Museum, New York. Henri Havret (S. J.): La stéle ehrétienne de Si-ngan-fou. Chang-hai, 1805 1902, (Variétés sinologiques No. 7, 1895, Pacsimilé de Vinseription; No. 12, 1897, Histoire du monument; No. 20, Commentaire partiel et pitees justificatives avee la collaboration du P. Louis Cheikho). Alexander Wylie: The Nestorian Tablet in Bisngon Foo (Chinese Researches, Part II, 24-77, Shanghal, 1897). ‘The Nestorian tablet, with special reference to the expedition of Frits V. Holm and with Wylie's translation and notes (The Open Court, January 1909). P, Yoshio Saeki: ‘The Nestorian Mouunuent (352 p London, 1916... Discussing Christian Intluences on China and Japan), Article Nestorian Christians, in Encyclopaedia Sinica (301— 896, 1917). Article Adam (ibidem, 7), Adam is the Persian missionary who wrote the iuscriplion; his Chinese name is Chinig® Ching* (2133, 2177). III, CULTURAL BACKGROUND, EAS? AND WEST ALMANSOR Aba Jafar ‘Abdallah al-Mansir, i. e., the vietorious. Died in 775 at Bir Moaimntn, near Mecca, at the age of 63 to 68 Muslim years, I. e., 61 to 00 Christian years. Second ‘Abbasid caliph from 754 to his death. A great statesman and the founder of Bagdad, Memorable because of the many translations from the Syriae, Persian, Greek, and Hindu languages into the Arabie which were accom- plished in his reign. Theodor Noldeke: Orientalische Skizsen (Berlin, 1892); English translation revised (Edinburgh, 1892. Chapter IV, p. 107-145, is devoted to al-Mangir, but little is said of the translations). Guy Le Strange: Baghdad During the ‘Abbasid Caliphate from Contemporary Sources (Oxford, 1900; reprinted 1921). HARON at-rasito Born in 763 or 760 at al-Ray; died at Tas in 809, Caliph from 780. to his death; the fifth and one of the «restest “Abbasid monarchs. Magnificent patron of science, art, and literature. Many more Greek works were translated by his order. In 807 he presented a very remarkable water-clock to Charlemagne (Binhard). B. H. Palmer: Haroun Alraschid (228 p., London, 1881). Article by K. Y. Zetterstéen, in the Encyclopaedia of Islam (Vol. 11, 271, 1916. Very little on the intellectual side). Like his contemporary Charlemagne, Hartn soon became a legendary figure (See the AIflaila wa-laila (the Thousand and One Nights). For example, Payne's edition, vol. 9, p. 318 fl., Burton's 1-vol. ed., vol. 8, p. 121 fl.) (CHARLEMAGNE Charles the Groat. Born e. 742; died in $14, King of the Franks oinee 768; crowned Emperor of the West on Christmas 800 by Leo ITI in Rome. He eatised Aleuin to organize schools and promote the eduestion of his people, He ordered ‘the execution of yreut public works, introduced @ new system of weights and ‘measures, a new calendar, reformed the coinage, and issued ordinances (capitu-328, MeTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE laries) to advance commerce, agriculture, and civilization, His favorite residence was Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). One of his eapitularies, dated Thionville 805, deals with medical education; 2 Inter one (813) condemns medical superstitions. He began’ a grammer of his native language and gave Germanic names to the months and to the points of the wind-rose (Einhard, sec. 20). The names of the months failed to be adopted (igstead of the Latin names), but the names of the winds are those in uso to-day (east, south, west, north, and their combinations). ‘Texts —The text of the Capitularia regum Francorum will be found in the Monu- menta Germaniae historiea, Leges, edited by Alfred Boretius (Hannover, 1883), Selections have been edited by Dana Carleton Munro: Translations and Reprints, from the Original Sources of Furopean History (VI, 5, 33 p., Philadelphia, 1900. Contains extracts relating to education), Karl Gareis: Die Landgiterordnung Kaiser Karl des Grossen (capitulare de villis vel curtis imperii). Text w:th notes and Intzoduction (68 p., Rerlin, 1895. This eapitulary dates probably from 812; itis very important for the history of agriculture). New German translat on, with notes by Wilhelm Fleishman (76 p., Berlin, 1919). "Biographies and General Shulies—'The early biographies and annals have been published in the Monumenta Germaniae historica (Seriptores, Vols. Land IL), A.J. Grant: Barly Lives of Charlemagne by Fginhard and the Monk of St. Gal. 210 p., Tondon, 1905). Rinbard’s (d. 840) Life of Charlemagne, Latin text, edived, with notes and introduction, by H.W. Garrod and R. B, Mowat (140 p., Oxford, 1915). Heinrich Hoffmann: Karl der Grosse im Bilde der Geschichtschreibung des frithen Mittolaltors, 800 to 1250 (180 p., Berlin, 1919). H.W. Carless Davis: Charlemagne, the Hero of 'Two Nations (New York, 1699). Hans Pruts: The Age of Charlemagne (translated by J. H. Wright, 332 p., Phila- dclphia, 1005). Franz Kampers: Dio Grundlogung der mittelalterlichey Kultur und Weltanschauung (Mainz, 1910). Louis Halphen: Btudes critiques sur Vhistoire de Charlemagne (314 p., Paris, 1921). ‘Charlemagne soon becamo 0 logondary figure, For a summary of the Charle- magne legends, see Margaret Bryant's article in the Eneyclopaedia Britannica, ith ed., under Charlemagne (p. 894-807, 1911). Special Stulice—E. H. F. Moyer: Geschichte der Botanik (vol. 3, 306-435, 1856) Henry Card: The Reign of Charlemagne considered Chiefly with Reference to Religion, Law, Literature, and Manners (208 p., London, 1807). | F. Piper: Karl der Grosse, Kalendarium und Ostertafel (Berlin, 1858), F. von Wyss: Karl der Grosse als Gesetzgeber (Ziirich, 1809). J. B. Mullinger: The Schools of Charles the Great and the Restoration of Education in the Ninth Century (London, 1877. Bee also under Alcuin), Friedrich Beck: Der Karlegraben (02 p., Nurnberg, 1011, ‘Also published as a Munich Gymn. Progr.; deals with the Fossa Caroline, a canal built by Charlemagne in 793 between the Rednitz and the Altmabl, Remains of it, tare sill exlaul). "Karl Manitius: Naturwissenschaftliches in der Geschichtachrei bung der Kerolingerzeit (Archiv fir Geschichte der Medizin, 15, 68-77, 1923); Naturwissenschaft im beginnenden Mittelalter (41 p., Crimmitschau, 1924... Georg Slicker: Die gebviuchlichen Heilkuduter in Deutschland zur Zeit Katls det Groseen (anus, 28, 21-41, 1924; Isis, VIII, 685) aucune Or Albinus. His original English name was Ealwhine, Alchyine. Born in York, c. 735. He was educated there and became eventually, in 778, the master of the York school. He went to Rome in 780 and, on his way baek, me: Charle- mague at Parma in 781. Charlemagne intrusted to him the educational reo‘rime oF JA5IR TBN HAIVAN 220 ganization of the enopite. He retired in 706 as abbot of St. Martin in Tours and died thereon May'19, 804. English theologian end educator. ‘The greatest representative of learning and eulture in the West in those days; the most promi tient Bguro of the Carolingian rovival, He organised @ eott of ecademy at tho imperial palaee,a library, and school, It was under his inspiration that Charlee magne published the famous manifesto “De literis colendis” "The value. of ‘leuin’s serviees can hardly be exaggerated; he was the main instrument in the transmission to the ignorant Franks of the relatively high culture which had been attained in English monasteries under Bede's guidance. He wrote theo- logical and. philosophical works, a life of Willibrondy and various sehool-hooks (on grammar and arithmetic). One of them, the *Propositiones ad acuendos iuvenes” deserves separate montion, because it containe «collection of pusile problems which has influenced text-book writers for a thowstnd. years Test and Translation—Complete, works edited by And. Quercetanus (Paris, 17). ‘New edition by Frobenius (2 vols., Ratisbon, 1772). Epistolae, edited by. Ernest Duemmler, in the Moutmenta Aletiniana quoted below (p. 132-012, 1873). Aleninspidagogsche Schriften. bere, ear und mit einer Eniitng versehen yon Joseph Freundgen (180 p,, Paderborn, 1880). ‘Biographies and Criticiom—Nlontmenta Alcuinana a Philippo Taffeo praeparata ediderunt Wilhelm Wattenbach et Ernst Duemmler (Bibliotheca rerum german earum, ed, Philppus Iafé, vol. 6,920 p. Berlin, 1873. Fundamental). Jrederick Yorens: The Life of Aleuin, translated by Jane Mary Slee (200 p., London, 1837), Karl Werner: Alcuin und sein Jahrhundert (Neue Ausgabe, 428 p, Wien, 1881). ‘Andrey Fleming West: Aleuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools (205 p., Now York, 1802° With many extracts from Aleuin's writings). C-, B. Gaskoin Aleuin, his Life and his Work (207 p., Cambridge, 1904). Rolph Barlow Page: ‘The Letters of Alcuin (Thesis, Columbia, 108 p., New York, 1900). M- Manitius: ateinische Literatur des Mittelaters. (vol fy 273-288, 1911; vol. 2, 800-801) H. Bastgen; Allin und Karl der Grosce in ihren swssenscha(tiichen und kirchen- polltischen Ancchatungen (Histories Jahrbuch, Bd. 82, 809-825, 1011). Don Cabrot: Les éeritsliturgiques d’Alewin (Congres international d'histoire de Brus: clles, 1923). "D. E. Smith: History of Mathematies (vol. 1, 186, 1923, apropos of the puzele-problens), vol. 2, 510, 1929 (problem of the hound pursuing a hare, tarlest European form ofthe traditional prebleme of pursuit. subroKe-te! Express of Japan from 749 to 748, under the name of Koken, then again from 765 until her death in 770, under the name of Shotoku.! She was then at once the forty-sixth and the forty-eighth emperor of Japan. Her own name was Abe Nai-shinnd; she was the daughter of Shému-tennd, whom she succeeded in 749. Ardent Buddhist. The Daibutsu of Nara was east during her first reign, ¢. 750. ‘The first temple of Nikko was built during her second reign (767). he ordered the printing of one million charms which were distributed ¢. 770 among ten temples. Some of these charms are still extant; they are of con- siderable interest, being the earliest printed documents of any country (two pieces 4 Not to be confused with Shotoku-taishi, q. v., Srst half of the seventh century. Taishi ‘means prince; tennd, emperor, For mbiel see my wute ou Jujmauene eclulgy i Use Grst laf of the eighth century. neni (735-817) it was called Sbibonry0-)i; rebuilt in 808, it was then called530 INTRODUCTION 10 THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE of printed silk in the treasure of Nara are dated 734 and 740, but that iz another matter). ‘The art of printing had certainly eome from China together with many other features of Chinese civilization, which the Japanese of that time were as- similating as fast as they could, Six different charms were’ printed on two dif- ferent kinds of paper; they are extracts from the “‘Vimala nirbhasa stitra”* in Sanskrit, transliterated by means of Chinese characters. For a description and a photograph of the charms, and an account, of their printing derived from the Shoku Nihongi, see Thomas Franc +: Invention of, Printing in China (1925; Isis, VIII, 865). IV. MUSLIM AND LATIN MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY vonkuda aLrazknd Aba Ishdq Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulaiman ibn Samura ibn Jundeb. Died. ©. 777. Muslim astronomer. The first to construct astrolabes. Author of a oem (qaslda) on astrology and of various astronomical writings (on the astro abe, on the armillary spheres, on the calendar). UH, Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (3, 208, 1900). yagon tmx 7iRI0 Probably of Persian origin, flourished in Bagdad, ¢. 767-778, died ¢. 796. One of the greatest astronomers of his time. He probably met, e. 767, at the court of al-Mansiir, the Hindu Kankah (or Mankah?), who had brought there the Siddhanta, He’ wrote memoirs on the sphere (c. 777); on the division of the kardaja;* on the tables derived from the Siddhinta. H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (p. 4, 1900) MUMANMEAD TON DRAIN AL-rALRET Abo ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazéri. Son of the astronomer Ibrahim dealt with above, for whom he is sometimes mistaken (he may be the author of the astrological poem ascribed to his father). Died e. 793 to 806, Muslim scientist and astronomer. He was ordered by the Caliph al-Manstr in 72/3 to tronelate tho Sanskrit astroromical work Siddhénts.” ‘This transla tion was possibly the vehicle by means of which the Hindu numerals were trans- mitted from India to Islim. H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (p.4,1900). Cantor: Geschichte der Mathematik (1, 3d ed., 698, 1907). D.E. Smith and L. C. Karpin- ski: The Hindu-Arabie Numerale (p. 2, Boston, 1011). Carra do Vaux: Pencours de I'Islam (vol. 2, 197-201, 1921), For al-Batrig, see my note in Section VIII, below. 1 See my note oa Ming Hang (rat half of eighth entry). fs Jupanene, Marken }010 f ‘The Hinds tod Muslims divided the cree into 06 part (that was an Archimedian tradi- tion). "The ar 2) oF these of each ofthese parte was called Lardaja,patibly a ot upton of Saoakrit erm, for which eee my note on the Sidahtatas rat ball of the Ath *AiBiront says that the translation of the Siddhinta was already completed in 710-7. ‘Does he refer to the same work? uamuMp OF 35pm YN yAIYaN 531 aXsHKoukH, His real name was probably Manasseh (in Arabic, Misha). Latin translators named him Messthala (with many variants, as) Macellama, Macelarama). Michallah is o contraction of ma sha’ Allah meaning “What wonders Allah: has willed.” (What hath God wrought.) Flourished under al-Manstr, died c. 815 or 820. One of the earliest astronomers and astrologers in Islém, himeelf an Egyptian (2) Jew. Only one of his writings is extant in Arabic, but there are many mediaeval Latin and Hebrew translations. ‘The Arabic text extant deals with the prices of wares and is the earliest book of its kind in that language. He took part with the Persian astrologer al-Naubakht in the surveying preliminary to the foundation of Bagdad in 762-63. His most popular book in the Middle Agee was tho “De cofontia motus orbie,” tranalated by Gherardo Cremonese. Test and Translation—The De scientia motus orbis is probably the treatise called in Arabic ‘‘the twenty-seventh;” printed in Nuremberg 1504, 1549. ‘The second edition is entitled: De elementis et orbibus coelestibus, and contains 27 chapters. The De compositione et utilitate astrolabii was included in Greg. Reisch: ‘Margarita phylosophica (ed. pr., Freiburg, 1503; Suter says the text is included in ‘the Basel edition of 1583), Other astronomical and astrological writings are quoted by Suter and Steinschneider. ‘An Irish astronomical tract based in part on a mediaeval Latin version of a work by Messahalah. Edited, with preface, translation, and glossary, by Maura Power (Irish Texts Society, vol. 14, 194 p., 1014. A relatively modern translation of the De scientia motus orbis; the preface is uncritical). Criticism —Pibrist (273-274. Also in commentary, p. 129, note 10). H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (5-6, 1900; Nachtriige, 158, 1902). M, Steinschneider: Die arabische Literatur der Juden (15-23, Frankfurt, 1902). F Dubem: Systime du Monde (vol 2, 204-206, 114. On th procesion ofthe equinoxes). Astrologer to al-Mansar; he died . 776-77. Persian astronomer and engineer. ‘Together with Mashaliah he made the measurements preliminary to the eon struction of Bagdad” (762-63). A book on astrological judgments (Kitab al-abkim) is aseribed to him, H. Suter: Mathematiker und Astronomen (3, 1900; 158, 1902). AL-FADL IBN NAUBAKET. Abi Sahl al-Fad] ibn Naubakht. Son of the preceding, thus of Persian origin. Chief librarian to Haran al-Rashid; died ¢. 815-6, Muslim astronomer. He made translations from Persian into Atabie for the caliph. He wrole various astrological treatises. ‘Two other astrologers of the same family, presumably grandsons or nephews of al-Fadl, tlounshed a little later (frst half of ninth century): Al-Kasan ibn Sahl ibn Naubakht (who was also a translator from Persian into Arabie) and (his brother?) ‘Abdallah ibn Sahl ibn Naubakht. ‘Better than Nabakht, Naubakht means, in Persian, new luck. "This construction took place under the direction of Khalid ibm Barmak +The "Liber alfadiol i, est arab do buch" (1) quoted among the writings of Gherardo ‘Cremonese may he the translation of one of these treatises?382 INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE, Fihrist, in Suter’s translation (p.28). H. Suter: Mathematiker und Astronomen, (5, 16, 1900; 158, 1902). For Latin mathemati and astronomy, eee my notes on Charlemagne anc Aleuin, \V, MUSLIM AND LATIN ALCHEMY, JAPANESE TECHNOLOGY {InDIR BN HATVAN Aba Masi Jabir ibn Haiyin al-Azdt (a-Tast, al-Tartast; al-Harrant_neaning that he was a Sabian?; alS0fi). Flourished mostly in Kofa, c. 776. The most Famnous Arabict alchemist; the alchemist Geber* of the Middle Ages. He may be the author of a book on the astrolabe, but his fame rests on his alchemical writings presorved in Arabic: the “Book of the Kingdom,” the “Little Book of the Belances,” ‘the “Book of Mercy,” the Book of Concentration,” the “Book of Eastern Mer- cury,” and others. According to the treatises already translated (by Berthelot), his alchemical doctrine were very anthropomoxphie and animistic. Rut other treatises (not yot available in translation) show him in a better light. We find in them remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research; theory on the geologic formation of metals; the so-called sulphurmercury theury of uietals (the six metals differ essentially because of different proportions of sulpaur and mercury in them); preparation of various substances (e. g., basic lead carbonate; arsenic and antimony from their sulphides). Jabir deals aso with various applica tions, . g,, refinement of metals, preparation of steel, dyeing of cloth and leather, varnishes to water-proof cloth and protect iron, use of manganese dioxide in elass- making, use of iron pyrites for writing in gold, distillation of vinegar to con- centrate acetic acid. He observed the imponderability of magnetic force. It is possible that some of the facts mentioned in the Latin works, ascribed to Geber and dating from the twelfth century and later, must also be placed to Jabir's credit, It is impossible to reach definite conclusions until all the Arabic ‘writings aseribed to Jabir have been properly edited and discussed. It is only then that we shall be able to measure the full extent of his contributions, but even ‘on the slender basis of our present knowledge, Jabir appears already as a vory great personality, one of the greatest in mediaeval science. ‘Tertand Translations—M. Berthelot: La chimie au moyen Age (vol. 3, Lialchimie arabe, Paris, 1893. ‘The Arabic text of a few of Jabir's writings is edited by Octave Houdas. French translation, p. 126-224. See E. J. Holmyard’s criticism in Tsis, VI, 479-499, 1924). Ernst Darmstaedter: Die Aichemie des Geber (212), 10 pl., Berlin, 1923. "German translation of the Latin treatises aseribed to Gober; re- viewed by J. Ruska in Isis, V, 451-455, concluding that these Latin trestises are apocryphal); Liber miserieordiae Geber. Eine lateinische Ubersetzung sles grds- geren AD abrahnn (Arehv for Gesehiehte der Mein, vol 11, 181-1, 1825 Isis, VIII, 73: Criticism —M. Berthelot: Article Géber in Grande Encyclopédie (8 cols. c.1802) ; article in the Revue des Deux Mondes (Sept, 15, Uct. 1, 1803). “H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (p. 3, 208, 1900). "E. Wiedemann: ‘Uber Magnetisinus (Beitrige, 2, Sitsungsber der phys. med. Gesellschaft, Erlangen, Yol. 36, 322-331, 1904). Jolin’ Ferguson: Bibliotheca ehemica (p. 29-914, Glas "Leay Arabic end not Muslim, for he waa posebly a Sabian, wTGoaot use this name, because it ie a eouree of confusion. Jabir means literall one who ets bones, and by extension a restorer, roorganizer.ume oY Kein 18 gAIYAN 533 gow, 1906). Baron Carra de Vaux: Article Djabir ibn Haiyan, in Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 1, 997, 1912, with bibliography); Les Penseurs de I'Islam (vol, 2, 369, 375, 382, 1931). 'E. J. Holmyard: Arabic Chemistry (Nature, vol. 110, 573, 1923. Believes that, Berthelot’s opinion needs revision; Jabir and Geber might after all be one and the same?). EO. von Lippmann: Uber den Dschabir des 8 und den sog. Geber des 13. Jahrhundert (Chemiker. Z., 321, 1923, against. Holm- yard: Isis, V,404). FE. J. Hoimyard, Jabir ibn Hayyin (Proe, Roy. Soe. Medicine, Vol. 16, histor. section, p. 46-57, 1923. Plaborate study with catalogue raisonné of Jabir’s works); ‘The Identity’ of Geber (Nature, vi 219, 1923; Emerald Table (Nature 112, 525-526, 1923; Isis, VI, 215)! : (Nature, 115, 963, 1925! Isis) VITT, 535); Chemistry to the Time of Dalton (16-20, 43-44, London, 1925); Science Progress (January 1925. Considering the ilentity of Geler and Jabir as def. nitely established). Julius Ruska: Uber dasSehiriftenverzeiehnis des Jabir und die Unechtheit einiger ihm zugeschriebenen Abhandlungen (Archiv fiir Geschichte der Medizin, vol. 15, 53-67, 1923. Ruska shows that the Jabir question can not be solved until we have critical editions of the Arabie texts ascribed to him); Ara- ischen Alchemisten II. Jafar al-Sadiq (Heidelberg, 1924; Isis, VII, 119-121), ‘ast Darmstaedter: Geber-Handschriften (Chemiker-Z., 48, 441, 1924); Die ber Inkunatel Hain 7904 (Archiv fir Geschichte der Medizin, vol. 16, 214-217, 1925, Analysis of this incunable, Flos naturarum, s. 1., 1473, whieh has nothing to do with Geber; it is an account of organotherapeutie superstitions). Composiriones aD ‘TraEnD Collection of technical recipes dating from the time of Charlemagne. These recipes were probably collected by a master craftsman; they deal with decorative arts of various kinds: preparation of pigments (¢. g., cinnabar from mereury and sulphur), gilding of metals, dyeing of ekins, coloring of glass used in mosaics, writing in gold, ete. First use of the names vitriol (vitriolum) to designate an (impure) sulphate of iron, and bronze (brandisium), to designate an alloy of copper, tin, and lead. ese recipes are clearly of Hellenistic origin. ne of the recipes (Berthelot, p. 10) is almost literally identical with one in the Leiden papyrus (q. v., second. half of third century). It is probable that some of the recipes represent even older traditions, the technical traditions of ancient Egypt which bed become an integral part of Hellenistic knowledge. The collection is purely technical and entirely free from superstition ‘The text was first published from a Lucca manuscript by Ludovieo Antonio Muratori in his Antiquitates italicae medii aevi (vol. 2, 365-302, Milan, 1739), under the following deseriptive title: Compositiones ad’tingenda’ musiva, pelles et alia, ad deaurandum ferrurm, ad mineralia, ad chrysographiam, ad glutina quae- am conficienda, aliaque artium documenta, ante annos nongentos seripta, Marrar CLavicua ‘This work, very similar to the “Compositiones” but more extensive and of a later date, exists in two manuscripts, the earlier dating from the tenth century is, in the library of Schlettstadt, Alsace, the later is probably of the first half of the twelfth century. Its text is more elaborate than that of the earlier manuserint and contains many interpolations, ¢. g., Arabic names and two English words which suggest that it was edited by an'Fnglishman. ‘This second edition of the54 STHODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE “Mappa Clavicula” has been ascribed to Adelard of Bath (q. v., first half of twelfth century). ‘We are concerned here only with the earlier text, which, like the “Compusitiones,” shows no trace of Muslim infuence. Yet the Clavicula ip a later work than the “Compositiones” and is largely based upon it or upon identical sources. The “Clavieula” contains most of the reeipes of the “Compositiones” plas many more, and also a number of magical and mystical formulas. It deals with t-ansmuta- tion, a subject hardly touched upon in the “‘Compositiones.”” It includes the so-called “Cardan’s suspension,” for which see my note on Philon of Fxyzantium (second half of second century 8. c.). It is possible that the “Clavicula” dates only from the ninth century, but it was better to consider it together with the ‘earlier work. ‘The earlier text of the “Little Key to Painting” has not been published, but the later one was edited by Sic Thomas Phillipps: ‘“Mappae clavicula,” a manuscript, treatise on the preparation of pigments and on various processes of theslecorative arts practied during the Middle Ages (Archaclogia, vl. 32, 185-244, London, 17 ‘The later edition of the Clavicula contains @ recipe for the preparation of al- cohol, this being the earliest known (first half of twelfth century). I would not ‘mention this at this place, but for the fact that there has been much discussion ag to the possible discovery of alcohol at an earlier time. H. Diels would hive traced it back to antiquity (Die Entdeckung des Alkohols, Abhd. der Preuss. Ak., phil. KL, Nr. 3, 1913); Hermann Degering claimed to have found an eighth century recipe (Sitzungsber. der Preuss. Ak., vol. 36, 503-515, 1917); the recive of the Clavicula was considered as a link connecting the Inter mediaeval recipes with Hellenistic alchemy. I can not go into that at present, but the following ref- genes will enable the reader to begin his study: Ini, 1,760; TH, 222, 225, 924; , SA, For both treatises, Compositiones and Clavicula, see M. Berthelot. Chimi ‘au Moyen-Age (vol. 1, 1893). Ed. O. von Lippmann: Alchemie (407~72, 1919) J. M. Stillman: The Story of Early Chemistry (185-189, New York, 1924). For contemporary Japancee technology, eee my notes on Shotoki-tonnd in Section III, and on the introduetion of cotton in Section VI YI, MUSLIM, CHINESE, AND JAPANESE NATURAL HISTORY ALASMAT ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Quraib al-Asma't. A true Arab born at Basra in 739-40; he fourished at Bagdad and Basra, and died at Basra c. 831. Arab scholar; one of the greatest. of his time; the rival of Abii ‘Uhaida. Being an Arah of the Arabs, he execrated the Shu‘dbite tendencies of the Intter and was very pious. He wrote many works, chicfiy on the horse (Kitab al-khail), on the camel (Kitt al-il), on wild animals (Kitab al-wultish), on the sheep (Kitab al-sha’), on the making of man (Kitab khalq akinsin), The latter shows that the Arabs already had a con- siderable knowledge of human anatomy. His studies on Arabie postry were fundamental, Or tousean American vulgarism, a 100 per cont Arabi‘TIME OF JABIR IBN YAIYAN 585, Text—The book of distinction (Kitt al-farg) was edited by D. H. Miller (Vienna, 1876); the book of the wild animals by K. Geyer (Vienna, 1887); the book of the horse by A. Haffner (Vienna, 1895); the book of the sheep by the same (Vienna, 1896 Criticlem—Ibn Khallikin (De Slane) (vol. 2, 123-127, 1843). C: Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 104, 1898). wo Lu‘* Yur (7432, 13617). Born and educated in Ching'ling* (2166, 7235), Hupeh, hence he is often called Ching-ling tzt. Became » hermit c. 775; died in 804. Chinese writer. Author of the Ch’a* ching’ (208, 2122), the earliest work on tea, divided into 10 sections, as follows: Origin of the plant, utensils for gathering, manufacture of the leaf, implements for the preparation, infusion, drinking, history, producing distriets, summary, explanation of plates. Tect—Origiual test aul aulditions published by Lut* ‘Ting’-ts'an‘ (7432, 11284, 11568) in 1735 under the title Hstit* Ch'a’-ching! (4773) Criticism—A. Wylie: Chinese Literature (148, (1867) 1902) H. A. Giles: Biographical Dictionary (652, 1898). Savawzse Corrox ‘The cultivation and technical use of cotton originated in India or in Fgypt or independently in both countries, at a very remote but unknown time. The earliest literary references to cotton are found in Herodotos, Book III, chapters 47 and 106; the first (cua xd €ihov) is only incidental, the second 'is more specific: “Phere too (i €., in India) grows on wild trees wool more beautiful and excellent than the wool of sheep; these trees supply the Indians with clothing.” The Asiatic wars acquainted the Romans with the use of cotton. ‘The earliest speci- ‘mens of cotton fabric were found in a tomb at, Akhmim in Upper Egypt. A sum- mary ef the history of cotton will be found in F. M. Feldhaus: Die Technik (78-75, 1914). Tn 799, daring the reign of Kwammu-tonn6, fiftisth emporor of Japan (782 to 805), cotton grains were introduced from India into Japan. According to tradition, these grains were brought in a junk which drifted to the coast of Mikawa. They were planted in Nankaid® and Saiked6. This marks the beginning of cotton culture in Japan and of the making of cotton fabries (momen) "That account needs further evidence to be accepted. An astonishing feature of itis that the introduction of cotton is reported as having been made directly from India by sea. This is not impossible, but it is not convincing. As a matter of Tact, the earliest record of cotton culture and industry in China ie of « much later date (Mareo Polo). BE, Papinot: Historieal Dictionary (837, 1909). F. Brinkley: History of the Japanese People (280, 1915). Encyclopaedia Siniea (134, 1917). B. Laufer: ‘Sino-Iranica (1919). VIL. LATIN AND CHINESE GEOGRAPHY For the curious theory of tides of Paulus Diaconus, see the note relative to him in Section TX, below.536 INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE peaus Beatus Libaniensis or Livaniensis from the place, Licbana, Asturias de Santil- Jana, where St. Beatus flourished. Born c. 730; died in 798 in the abbey of V leeava (Valeavado), near Saldafia, ‘The map of the world (Mappa Munci, 77 illustrating his Commentaria in Apolypsin is one of the earliest Christian maps Many (10) later maps were derived from it. Konrad Miller: Die Weltkarte des Beatus (776 n. Chr., 70 p. illustr. and fac- simile, Mappae mundi, 1, Stuttgart, 1895). ‘The second number of th> same collection, also 1895, contains reproductions of later Beatus maps, J. K. Wright: Geographical lore (68-69, 1924). cou TAN Chiat Tant (1181, 10615). Born in 730, died in 805. Chinese geographer. ‘The most famous cartographer of the ‘T’ang dynasty. He was ordered in 785 by the emperor to draw up # map of China, His work, entitled “Map of China and of the barbaric countries within the seas” Hai'-neit hus'i tut (3767, 8177, 5005, 5897, 12128), was completed in 801. It was 30 feet long and 33 feet high, fn the seale of one inch to one hundred li.” Another work of Chia Tan is pre= served, in an abbreviated form, in the “New ‘T'ang History” (chtian 43). ‘That work, compiled during the period 785 to 805, contains a scrics of itinorarics from various parts of China (including Tongking) to Korea, Central Asia, Incia and Bagdad. It is of great value for the historical geography of Asia. See Chiu T'ang shu, chapter 138 and T’ang shu, chapter 166, quoted sy. Ed. Chavannes: Les deux plus anciens spécimens de la cartographic chinoise (Eulletin de I'Ecole francaise d’Extréme Orient, vol. 3, 214-247, 244, Hanoi, 1903). Paul Pelliot: Deux itinéraires de Chine en inde a fa fin du VIII" sitele (;bidem, vol. 4, 131-413, 1904). Very elaborate memoir dealing with two of the itineraries above mentioned. It is derived from the Hsin ‘T’ang shu and subsidiarily from tho ‘Man' shu* (7644, 10024) of Fan‘-ch’o* (3408, 2439) composed ¢. 860." A rench translation of the two itineraries is given on p. 304-878. That translation is preceded by an abundant commentary and followed by a number of complo- mentary notes. VIII. LATIN, SYRIAG, MUSLIM, HINDU, TIBETAN, CHINESE, AND JAPANESE ‘MEDICINE Leste Muprcinm We have only glimpses of the medical practice and thinking in the West. It was largely restricted to Benedictine monasteries. One of these glimpses i ‘afforded to ue by the Bamborgor Codox L, ii, 8, written in Germany in tht ninth century. ‘The main text of this manuscript is the “Libri V eurationum,” essen- tially derived from the “Medicina Plini,” as it. appears in the Roman edi:ion of 1509. But this text is preceded by a defense of medicine written in a German Benedictine monastery, ¢, 750-850. ‘This defense was edited by Karl Sudhoft: Kine Verteidigung der'Heilkunde aus den Zeiten der Ménchsmedizin (Archiv fir Geschichte der Medizin, vol. 7, 223-237, 1913). "For information on the Man chu and on Fan eh'o, see P. Pelliot’s memoir, p. 122,inte OF JXUIR IBN AIYAN 337 ‘THBOPHILOS OF EDESSA Theophitos son of Thomas. Thiydfil bn Thimd. Died in 785, nearly ninety years old. Maronite. Chief astrologer to the third “Abbasid caliph, al-Mahdt 75-785). ‘Translator from Greek into Syrise. Me composed a poor transie, tion of Galen's “De tuenda sanitate” (revised later hy Hunain ibn Ishaq), a chronology of the world’s history, and at least a partial translation of Home), H, Suter: Die Mathematiker der Araber (223, 1900). Anton Dauinstark: Sytische Litteratur ($41, 1922). Max Meyerhof:'New Light on Hunain (Isis, VIIT, 704, 1996). IN DAKETYASHO™ Jirits ibn Jibsil thn Bakbtyashi'* In charge of the hospital of Juudt-shspa until 765/6, when he was ealled to Bagdad by al-Mangir; he returned to Jur shéptr in 760/70 and died in 771. Christian (Nestorian) Persian physilan; the eaelost known to us of a great medical family (the Bakhtyashi'), chek wag Attached to a Tong series of ‘Abbasid caliphs and exerted a deep ingluence upon ‘Muslim medicine in the eighth and ninth centuries. His arrival at. Bagelad, with (vo pupils, marked the beginning of a great seientifi activity. "He is sid to have been the first, upon the ealiph’s request, to translate medical works into Arahin = See my note on his grandson Jibril (rst half of ninth century). F, Wiistenfeld: Arabische Aerzte (14, 1840). 1. Leclere: Médecine arabe (vol.1, 96-98, 1876). anaratg , died c. 796-808. One of the translators employed by al-Mansir. He translated into Arabio eome of the works of Mipposmiies and Galen and, for ‘Umar ibn al-Farrukhan, Ptolemy's Quadripartitum. L, Lerclere; Médecine arabe (vol. 1, 178, 1876). Suter: Dio Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (p. 4, 1900). Other medical translations were made by Ibn al-Muqalfa’, q. v., in Section IX below. MADMAVAKARA Son of Induksra, Flourished at an unknown time in the eighth or ninth con- tury. Hindu physician, Author of treatise called “Rugviniseaya” ("Study of the Diseases) or “Midhavanidina” (Nidina for short.) It deals mainly. wish pathology and, judging by the number af commentaries, ia very popular, Text—Many Hindu popular editions, but no critical edition, Extracts translated by M. Vallauri in Giornale della Soc. Aviat, tal,, vol. 26 258. 0q., 1914. Criticism Mario Vallauri: Un testo medioevale indiano di medicina (Riv. di storia della scienza, vol.3, 6-10, 1916, Contains a table of contents of the treatise), vRENDA indu physician who flourished not long after Midhavakara, if not at about ‘the same time. “It is even probable that Vrinda and Madhavakara are but two names of the same person. Author of a medical treatise entitled *Vrindany George son of Gabriel. Bakbtyast' would mean Jesus's bappinces, * However, these works are not named and his stay in Bagdad was Very short538, INTRODUCTION 10 THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE hava’ or “Biddhiyoga’” (“Perfect Cure”), wherein prescriptions are given for & ‘number of diseases arranged in the same order as in the Rugvinigcays. ‘Tert—Published in Anandérama’s Sanskrit, series (No. 27, Poona, 1804) together with a commentary by Srikanthadatta. Criliciem-—A. F. B. Hoernlé: Studies in ancient Indian medicine (Jcurnal R. ‘As. Soe., 283-805, 288, 1906. Hoernlé and Vallauri maintain that Madhava- Tura = Vrinds). M. Winternita: Geschichte der indischen Literatur (vol. 3, 550, 1922), ‘Timerax Maotenee In my note on Tibetan Buddhism in the first half of the seventh century, T gave a bidet sceount of the Kanjur and the Tanjur. T mentioned that the Intter follection includes five volumes on medicine. Some medical information may also be gleaned in the Kanjur. But outside of these two collections, there is an inde~ pendent medical treatise entitled “rGyudebsi" (The Four Tantras"), According, Yo native traditions, a Tibetan interpreter, Bairotsana (Vairocana), translated iin Kashmir with the assistance of « physician-pandit and presented it to King Trsong De-tsen (q. vs, supra). We may assume that it dates back to shat time, at least in its original (Tibetan) form. It is divided (as the title indieates) into four parts, a2 follows: (J) Artaries, veing, nerves, and pulses; (2) “explanation” of the body end causes of diseases; (3) “instruction” as to the treatment of diseases; (4) “external” treatment, manual operation, ete. ‘Alexander Ceoma de Korés published an English analysis of it on the bisis of the ‘Tibetan summary prepared for him by his Lama instructor (Journal Asiavic Society Of Bengal, vol- 4, 1885; reprinted in the Tibetan Studies, Journal Asia-ie Soe. of Bengal vol. 7, 1011, extra No,, 47-65). See also Heinrich Laufer: Beitrige zur Kenntnis der tibetischen Medizin (2 parts, 90 p., Berlin, and Leipzig, 1900. Elab- orate study of Tibetan medicine arranged in systematic order, all the facts relative toeach medical subject, say physiology, special pathology, disgnostic or balneology being put together; this very important investigation was carried ou with the Pirlsldgical assistance of the author's brother, Berthold, Unfortunate, only 200 Ropies were printed). E. H. C. Walsh: ‘The Tibetan Anatomical Systera (Journal RAs, Soe., 1215-1245, 1910, 1 large plate, This deals mainly with an :natomical Ghart kept in the Temple of Medicine at Lhasa, which, together with its connected fnonastery, forms the medical college of Tibet. Every Tibetan doctor is, taught Hisanatomy fromit. Tt is called Pyang-khok las-thig, je., the chart divided by Ines it is divided into a number of equares to identify the locations of particular organs. A facsimile of the chart is attached to this memoir). _K, Sudhoff: Die Quatomischen Ganzfiguren in tibetanischer Uberlieferang (Archiv far Geschichte Ger Medizin, vol. 8, 143-145, 2 fig, 1915). ‘WANG TAO Wang? Taot (12493, 10788). Flourished under the T'aug, ¢. 752. Chinese physician, Author of a very comprehensive medical treatise, published in 752, entitled “Important Seerets of the Outer Terrace” Waitt’ait-pit*-yuot (12442, 10577, 8922, 12889), in 40 parts, It includes every branch of medicine and thera peutics, and even a brief summary of veterinary art (diseases of mules, horses, feows, suid dogs). ‘Text—The text at present available is very doubtful, Criticism--F. Huebotter: Guide (31, Kumamoto, 1924)‘rite oF 3XBIR IBN BATYAN 539 WANG PING Wang? Ping! (12493, 9277). “lourished ¢. 761. Chinese physician, He ‘wrote in 761 the earliest commentary (in 24 books) on the “Huang-ti Nei-ching su-wén,” traditionally considered the oldest Chinese treatise on medicine. A. Wylie: Chinese Literature (96, (1867) 1902). L. Wieger: La Chine (462, 495, 1920); Histoire des croyances (305-809, 1922. ‘Analysis of the Su-wen). F. Huebotter: Guide (6-9, 30, Kumamoto, 1924). His name reads in Chinese Chientchén' (1644, 589). He died in 763 at the age of 77. Chinese physician who came to Japan in 755 and secms to have been the most important physician of that time in Japan. The earliest (Fapanese) hospital of any importance was founded at Nara, in 758, by order of the empress Kémyd, who had become a nun at the time of the abdi- cation of her husband, Shomu, in 749. This foundation may thus be ascribed to Buddhist influence. Y. Fujikawa: Geschichte der Medizin in Japan (10, 97, Tokyo, 1911). ‘WAKE nIROYO Flourished toward the end of the eighth century. Japanese educator and physician. He wrote an important treatise on materia, medica, called ‘"Yakkkei- taiso,” in two volumes. It is derived from the Chinese work, Hsin'-hsiu! pén*- ts'ao! (4574, 4661, $846, 11634) by Sutching! (10320, 2144). "(See my note on Chinese materia medica in second half of seventh century.) It deals with 254 drugs, borrowed from the three kingdoms of nature, explaining their preparation, preservation, use, and effects. He was the chief of the medical department (ten- yaku-ry@) of the imperial court. He was also the head of the university (Daigaku- betto) and endowed it. Toward the year 800 he founded a private school, with a large library. Thie school, Kobun-in, was the first free schoo! in Japan. E, Papinot: Historical Dictionary (298, 734, 1909), Y. Fujikawa: Geschichte der Medizin in Japan (20, 1911). IX, LATIN, MUSLIM, AND JAPANESE HISTORIOGRAPHY PAULUS DIACONUS Paulus Casinensis (Paul Warnefrid). Born in Istria, near Cividale del Fridli, etween 720 and 725, died at Monte Cassino ¢. 797. ' Benedictine monk. His: torian. His “History of the Lombards” (to 744) was widely read in the Middle ‘Ages. He also wrote a history of the diocese of Mets (to 706) He explained the tides by assuming the existence of abysses (sea-navels), wherein the waters were absorbed, and wherefrom they were rejected, twice & day. He assumed the existence of such an abyss (the main of them) off the Norwegian coast. He had probably heard of the Maelstrom whirlpool in the Lofot islands, which was so famous that its name became 8 common name (“a maelstrom of vice"). See my note on Chinege medicine in the first half of the fourth century ».540 INTRODUCTION 70 THE HISTORY OF Sci=NcE ‘Text—The Historia Langobardum was first edited by Guillaume Petit, (Paris, 1514). Edition by Hugo Grotius, appended to his Historia Gotthorum (Amster- dam, 1655). By Bianchi, in Muratori’s Rerum italicarum soriptores; reprinted in Migne's Latin patrology (vol. 95). By Georg Waits, in Mon. Germ. hist. (1878). History of the Langobards, translated by William’ Dudley Foulke (479 ., New York, 1907). Paulus Diaconus und die Ubrigen Geschichtschreiber der Lango- barden Gbersetat von Otto Abel (Berlin, 1849; Leipzig, 1888). “The Gesta episcoporum mettensium are also edited in the Mon. Germ. Hist Sexti Pompei Festi de verborum significatu cum Pauli epitome, edited by Wallace ‘M, Lindsay (Loipsig, 1913) ‘Die Gedichte des Paulus Diaconus ed. by Karl Neff (251 p., Minchen, 1908) Criticism—Article by C. Coudere (2 cols. in Grande Encyclopédie, vol. 14, ©. 1802). Roberto Almagii: La dottrina della marea nell’ antichith classiea e nel medio evo (Lincei, Memorie, serie 5, vol. 5, 425, 1905). M. Manitius: Latei- nische Literatur des Mittelalters (vol. 1, 257-272, 1911; vol.2, 800). P, Duhem: Byotdme du monde (vol. 3, 112-125, 1015). DN AL-MUQAFPAY “Abdallah ibn al-Mugatfa’. Of Persian origin;- flourished at Basra, wiiero he was executed in 757-58. Translator from Pablaw! into Arabic. le translated works on logic and medicine, but is chiefly known (I) for his translation of the "Book of Kings” (Khudhay-namak, q. v., first half of seventh century; entitled, in Arabie, the “History of the Kings of Persia,” Siyar mull al-ajam) ;* (2) for the ‘“Kallla we-Dimna,'"an Arabie translation of the Pablaw? version of the “Publes of Bidpai.”* The “Kalila wa-Dimna” is one of the earliest Arabie classics in prose. Tect~The Kalila wa-Dimna. was edited by Silvestre de Sacy (Paris, 1816). English translation of the Arabic text by the Rev. Wyndham Knatehbull "378 p., Oxford, 1819). German translation of the Arabic text by Philipp Wolf (Suittgart, 1837; 2. ed i 180), Critcism™—Keith-Falconer: Kalilah and Dimpah, or the Fables of Bidpai (Cam- bridge, 1885. With a table showing the relationships of the different versions and their dates). Vietor Chauvin: Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes (ase. 2 Kall. Ligge, 1807). C. ‘Brockelmann' Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, i61, 1808). "J. H. Breasted: The tales of Kalila and Dimna (Oriental Institute Com= munications, vol. 1, 82-87, 1922; Isis, V, 264). C. Brockelmann: Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 2, 694-498, 1924) (oriental versions of the tales). BN ISHQ AbO ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ishfig. Flourished at Medina until 733/4; he spent the last years of his life in Bagdad under al-Mansar and died there in. 768/9. Arabic historian. ‘The first biographer of Mulunmad. Tle completed his bivg- raphy at Bagdad. ‘The original (Kitab sirat rasal allah, the life of the apostle of Go) i ost and known only through Ibn Hishkm’s recension (qv, fret half ninth century) C, Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 134). “Hii Persian name was Roa} Zorosatrian, 'Thie translation ia Toot "Or Pilpay..‘The original Sanskrit text dates from c, 200; the Pablawt version froin. 610, See my note on Bursoya, second half of sixth century. See also Sprengling (Isis, V, 264) Innumerable versions ofthis text (or its prototypes) exist in almost every language He professed Islim, but seems to have remained at heart ane or spin 19N WAIYRN oaL 480 “UBAIDA AbQ "Ubaida Ma'mar ibm al-Muthanng. Born as a slave of Jewish-Persian parents at Basra in 728; he flourished at Basra and died there ¢. 825. One of tho groatest Muslim echolars of hia time. His abundant. works on historieal and philological subjects are lost, but have been extensively used” by Abiel-Fara} allsfahint (q. v., first half of tenth century) and by Ibn al-Athir (q. v., first halt of thirteenth century), Ho was an ardent Shu'tbiter and rendered himself odious to the people of Basra. ism—Ibn Khallikain (Do Slane) (vol. 3, 368-08, 1868. Including a list itings; there is also a very long list in the Fihrist), I. Goldaiher: Mubiame medanische Studien (vol. 1, 194-206, Halle, 1888). C. Brockelmann: Arabische Titteratur (vol. 1, 103, 1808). See the note devoted to Abd ‘Ubaida’s main opponent, al-Asma’y in Seetion VI. -MISHAM IPN MUBAMEAD Abt-l-Mundhir Hishim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Sa’ib al-Kalbi, Born at Kita, flourished at Bagdad; died ¢. 820. Arab histori aud archeologist. "Ife com. pleted the studies of his father’ on Arabian antiquity and became the leading authority of his time on the subject. His main work deals with the genealogy of the Arabs (Kitab al-nasab al-kabir or al-jamhara fil-nasal). ©, Brockelmann: Arabische litteratur (vol. 1, 188-140, 1898). AL-WReIDT Abt ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi, Dorn at Medina in 7: flourished at Medina and later at Bagdad, where he died in 823. Arab He wrote a history of Muhammad's campaigns (History of the wars, Kitah al-maghdat) Text ~The first third of this work has been edited by A. von Kremer (Calcutta, 1856). Abridged German translation by J. Wellhausen: Muhammed in Medina (Berlin 182) Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol, 1, 135, 1898). ‘The second of the Six National Historios of Japan, tho Zoku Nihongi, deal ing with the period 697 to 791, was completed in 798 by Fujiwara Tsuginawa, and others (see my note on historiography in the first half of the eighth century) X, MUSLIM PHILOLOGY MALI TRY atnean Born in ‘Oméin, Arabia; flourished at Basra; died in 7912, aged 74 years. Arab grammarian and lexicographer. ‘The discovery of (Arabie) prosody is unanimously ascribed to him.” He contributed much to the systematization of Arabic grammar and was the first to attempt the compilation of an Arabic lexicon 1 Bapecially the Kitab aiyam al'arab (Book of the days of battle of the Arabs) # The Shidbites were Muslims refusing to acknowledge the superiority of the Arab race. On the contrary, they insisted on the superior qualities of other races, chiety the Persian, ‘Abi “Uoaida’s main work on this subject was the Keith al-mathalib (the vices uf the Arshs rentehended) *Muhumaad fbn al-Sa'b, who died io 763.4oan INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE (the Kitab alain). His Book of Rhythm (Kitab al-{qa"), unfortunstely lost, contained already some notion of mensural music. ©. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 100, 1898). H. G. Farmer: Clues for the Arabian Influence on European Musical Theory (Jour. As. Soc., 72, 1925; Isis, VIET, 508-511). stBaWarEr His original name was Stbuya. Abd Bishr (or AbQ--Hasan) ‘Amr ibri ‘Uthman ibn Qanbar. A Persian who came to Basra, at the age of 32; later Ee went to Bagdad and, finally, retumed to his own country; he died near Shirsz, at the age of 40, ¢. 795, Pupil of Khalil ibn Ahmad. “He wrote an Arabic grammar, called simply “The Book” (al-Kitab), which is the earliest systematic presenta- tion of the subject. It is essentially complete, and further improversents snd changes in the terminology have hardly altered its substance, Tect—Le livre de Sibawsihi, ‘Texte arabe, publié par Hartwig Derenbourg (2 vols., Paris, 1881-1889). German translation based upon Derenboxrg’s text, with extracts from the commentaries of Siréff (d. 978/9) and others by Q. Jahn (2 yols. in 3, Berlin, (1895) 1804-1900), Criticisem--C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 101, 1898. "He did not live to complete It.