Chapter Two

Assessment FOR Learning

Objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to:

 Make planning decisions for assessment FOR learning purposes
 Audit their own assessment practices to see how well they provide timely
feedback to students that assists student learning
 Recognize the types of written feedback teachers commonly give to
students, and give better quality feedback
 Create additional formal and informal opportunities to gain evidence of
student learning in order to improve it
 Ask better quality questions as a key strategy in assessment for learning
to gain feedback that shapes their teaching
 Plan strategies to implement assessment FOR learning tools.

Commentary
Assessment for learning is one of the most distinct purpose of assessment. Teachers
trying to improve student performance and instructional strategies and plans adapt
assessment as a tool for gathering required information. Assessment for learning serve
this purpose. In this chapter you will be studying to make planning decisions for
assessment FOR learning. You will be learning how to gather evidences of students
learning and how you would be giving better quality feedback to students based on the
evidences. You would also be looking at the strategies that could be used in assessment
for learning.

Think about an example of assessment for learning in your own teaching and try to
develop it further as you read this chapter.
What Is Assessment for Learning?
Source: Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in Mind (Earl, L and Katz, S, 2006).

Throughout the learning process assessment for learning can take place. It helps the teachers
to understand the level of students’ understanding, so that the teachers can bring the
necessary changes to help the students’ progress. The learning patterns and ways of student
learning are different. Each student have their own way and pattern of learning yet there are
predictable patterns of connections and preconceptions that some students may experience as
they progress in the continuum from emergent to proficient. Teachers use assessment for
learning as an investigative tool to gather information as much as they can about the students’
knowledge, abilities and skills abilities. It is also used to identify the weakness, gaps and
areas that needs improvement and help. The information that were collected about students’
learning processes gives a basis for deciding the next step that needs to be taken to help the
students to progress and improve the classroom instruction.

Assessment for learning also helps students to understand their level of performance as a
form of descriptive feedback. This enables teachers to enhance motivation and commitment
to learning that the students show. It helps to bring a favourable change to classroom
environment, when teacher used assessment as a tool for learning.

Plan decisions for assessment FOR learning purposes

Source: Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in Mind (Earl, L and Katz, S, 2006).

In planning assessment teachers need to ask several questions like:

Why am I assessing?
All the work that the teachers do for the assessment is intended to improve students’
learning. Assessment for learning helps to understand the prior knowledge of the students,
what the students believe is true, gaps and the learning styles. For structuring the strategies
for differentiated instruction these information is used. This help to build and reinforce the
learning in a productive manner. It also helps to challenge ideas and beliefs that create
problems. To provide constructive and descriptive feedback these information can be used.

What am I assessing?
 Curriculum is the most important tool that is used as the beginning point to decide
what to be assessed, teachers can focus on why and how students gain their understanding.
The curriculum dictates the broad learning goals and objectives that the students need to
achieve. Ongoing or continuous assessment is required by the assessment for learning to
achieve the curriculum objectives that will lead to intended learning. By using assessment
for learning teachers help the students to expose students’ thinking and skills in relation to the
intended learning, concepts and ideas.

What assessment method should I use?

There are various assessment methods that can be utilised in classroom teaching.
Focussed observations, questioning, conversations, quizzes, computer-based assessments, and
learning logs are some of the assessment methods teacher use. The type of methods is
decided based on the intension of the assessment and what needs to be assessed. While
planning teachers select the best method that give them information that will be useful for
their planning and their classroom instruction. They also must decide which assessment
approaches are most likely to give detailed information about what each student is thinking
and learning. Assessment for learning requires a method that can expose the essential
information. Teachers need to focus on individual differences when conducting assessment
and should focus on a method(s) which can involve variety of ways for students to show their
knowledge and understanding. Opportunities need to be open for students to take the
assessment orally or visual representation for those having problems with reading or
problems in understanding the language that is used.

How can I ensure quality in this assessment process?

If the teacher aim is to provide assistance to improve the performance of the students and if
the teacher can give specific and descriptive feedback in order to move to the next step, the
assessment for learning is considered as high quality assessment.

1. Reliability
Reliability of assessment will be the prime concern in setting any assessment. ‘Reliability
depends on the accuracy and consistency of teachers’ description of the learning’ (Earl, L and
Katz, S, 2006). Since it depends on teachers’ description, the assessment should be focused
on the nature of students’ thinking and learning. If the pictures that is gained from the
assessments are clear and give proper understanding of how student are thinking and what is
understood by the students and what is not, those assessment can be considered reliable. A
single assessment hardly gives sufficient information to understand detailed picture of
students’ learning. To overcome this issue teachers can use a range of assessment of different
types like oral, visual, active and written assessments. It is also important to make assessment
a continuous process to develop a rolling picture of each student’s progress. Understanding
status of each student is important, because the assessment to be reliable, it is important to
gain clear descriptive understanding of how much each student has understood a particular
concept or knowledge.
Collaborative work with other teachers can give more chance to gain reliable insight of how
student think and learn. Sharing the views about students’ work and the nature of their
learning in relation to curriculum outcome will give more room to improve teachers in
describing the students’ learning and performances and teachers will be more confident about
their final decisions and will be surer of the next step of instruction.
2. Reference Points
Learning outcomes of the curriculum and learning outcomes of individualized educational
plans are the reference points for assessment for learning. It act as a guide for teachers in
providing feedback to students and plan instruction for next step. Clear and detailed learning
outcome and expectations with examples and criteria that differentiate the quality and the
changes along the learning continuum, will help the teachers to draw a clear picture of each
student’s performance with the criteria and expectation.

3. Validity
If the assessment can provide more help on students’ understanding and gain the learning
outcome prescribed in the curriculum and instructional plan and if the teaches can use the
information that is gained from the assessment for planning next step of instruction, the
assessment can be considered as valid assessment in assessment for learning. Validity of the
assessments given can be judged by continuous monitoring of the students’ progress in
comparison with the prescribed outcomes in the curriculum.

4. Record-Keeping
Record keeping is one of the most important task in ensuring quality in assessment for
learning. By keeping detailed notes will help to provide individualized descriptive feedback
to improve students’ leaning. It also helps the teachers to understand how students have been
performing in given period of time. This will enable teachers to bring necessary changes in
the instructional plan.

How can I use the information from this assessment?

1. Feedback to Students
One of the most important uses of
assessment for learning is giving descriptive Evaluative and Descriptive feedback
Evaluative Feedback
feedback to the students. Teacher’s descriptive • judgements of value or
appropriateness of responses
feedback enables for the students to learn from • judgements of correctness or
their assessments. It also act as a guide for the incorrectness
Descriptive Feedback
students in their learning. It is also considered as • descriptions of why a response is
appropriate
a process of teaching process. To be successful in
• descriptions of what students have
the teaching and learning process, feedback achieved
• suggestions of a better way of
needs to be immediate and should identify a way doing something
to move forward in their learning continuum. The • prompts to suggest ways students
can improve
feedback should not be simply telling whether
the answers are right or wrong, but it should give clear descriptive explanation which can
help students to move forward. The descriptive feedback give more explicit connection
between students’ thinking and the learning outcomes. It also identify faulty interpretations
and misunderstanding. This helps the students to move to next step of learning

2. Differentiating Learning
Assessment for learning gives information about students gained knowledge, abilities
and skills. This helps teachers to design the most appropriate instruction for the next step of
learning. Assessment for learning helps teachers to focus on doing continuous comparison of
students’ progress in relation to the curriculum expectation for each individual students. This
enables to adjust differentiated instructions, grouping practices and providing resources. This
enables the teacher to provide materials, support and guidance that individual students need
to progress. This can reduce confusion, frustration, misunderstandings in their learning.

3. Reporting
In assessment for learning reporting is built on
open, regular communication with students and parent
about student performance. The method used in  How have you used
assessment to determine the
differences in your students’
learning needs?
 How did this influence the
instruction that followed?
reporting ensures smooth progress and showing a way to move forward. With the reporting
parents and teachers can help the students to move forward in their learning continuum with
minimal confusion and misunderstanding. A single outcome in a more often series, or cluster
of outcomes are focused when reporting in assessment for learning.

Continuous Assessment
Source: Educational Quality in the Developing World (EQUIP1, 2003)
What is continuous assessment?
Continuous assessment is a classroom strategy used by teacher to assess the knowledge,
understanding, abilities and skill of the students. Continuous assessment is administered in
variety of ways across the learning period to collect information about what students know,
understand, abilities and skills. It is bases on the outcomes prescribed in curriculum and are
based on lessons taught in previous lessons. It is a part of regular teacher student interaction
and occurs regularly and frequently during a learning period. Students get feedback from
teachers based on their performance which allows students to focus on the lessons that is not
learned. During the process of assessment and feedback teaches can identify students who
need remediation and help. This also helps teachers to identify good performers who can
work on more complex tasks. Thus, result of continuous assessment aid to confirm all
pupils’ make progress in their learning continuum.

What are the benefits of continuous assessment?

A diagnostic tool: continuous assessment is more than an examination of student
performance, it also work as a powerful tool for students to understand the areas they face
difficulty and can concentrate more on those areas. It also helps teachers to monitor the
effect of their lessons on students understanding. The pedagogical strategies and
instructional techniques could be modified based on the interpretation of the assessments.
Teachers can plan remedial activities for students need help and plan more enrichment
task for gifted learners and students perform above the expected level, thus enabling
differentiated instruction.

Helps to foster teacher students’ relationship: regular interaction between teachers and
students will enable the teachers to understand the strengths and weakness of the students.
This process will foster the relationship between them. Students learn that the work of
them is valued by teachers and this helps to motivate the students to learn, attend the
school regularly and work hard to achieve higher level of mastery.
A self-assessment tool: continuous assessment helps to assess the curriculum
implemented in classroom. This helps teachers to assess the effectiveness of their
pedagogical strategies in delivering curriculum objectives. Achievement of particular
level of skills, understanding and knowledge can be understood rather than just marks and
grades, using continuous assessment. This helps students to monitor their own learning
and achievement and this helps to visualise their progress towards the intended outcomes.

Assessment tools used in assessment for learning

Source: Classroom assessment: concepts and applications (Airasian, 2005).

The assessment tools used in assessment for learning can be considered as performance
assessment through which the abilities, skills, knowledge and understanding is assessed.
Here we are going to discuss most important assessment tools that are used in assessment
for learning.
1. Anecdotal records
Anecdotal records are significant, individual pupil events and
behaviours that the teacher observe during the course of the Anecdotal records
lesson. Only significant observations which cannot be obtained are written
accounts of
from any other classroom assessment are included in anecdotal significant events
records. and behaviours the
teacher has
Teachers record anecdotal notes or comments concerning various observed in a
aspects of student learning (e.g., concept development, reading student during the
course of the
abilities, group interaction or summarizing skills). The comments lesson.
document and describe significant daily events and relevant
aspects of student activity, progress and need. These notes can be taken during student
activity or summarized at the end of the activity. Formats for collection of data should be
flexible and easy to use immediately and later for assessment purposes.

Some guidelines for making and using anecdotal notes follow:

 Record the observation and the circumstance in which it occurred. Take time to reflect
upon and analyse the notes at a later time, perhaps at the end of each day, or after
accumulating several observations about one student.
  Manage the task of daily note taking by focusing on clearly defined objectives,
purposes, or criteria, and by selecting only a few students to observe during a
designated period of time. However, as learning and progress cannot be scheduled, it
is valuable to record other significant observations as they occur.
 Record data on loose-leaf sheets in a three-ring binder with a page designated for each
student, and organize it alphabetically by students’ last names or by class. This format
allows the teacher to add pages as necessary.
 Record notes on recipe cards and organize them alphabetically in a file box. Attach
additional cards to the first one as the amount of information increases.
 Design structured forms for collection of specific data (e.g., criteria for an oral
presentation)
Student: Ali Hussain
Figure 2.1
Observer: Fathin
Date: 15 Feb 2011 Anecdotal

All term Ali has been quiet and passive, rarely interacting with classmates in class Record for Ali
or on the playground. Today Ali suddenly “opened up” and wanted continual
Hussian
interaction with classmates. He could not settle down, kept moving around the
room until he became bothersome to me and his classmates. I tried to settle him
down, but was unsuccessful.

Checklists

Observation checklists, usually completed while students are

A checklist is a
engaged in activities or processes, are lists of specific criteria that written list of
performance
pertain to aspects of a learning experience. Checklists are used to criteria, can be used
record whether students have acquired certain knowledge, skills, repeatedly overtime
to diagnose
thinking and research processes, abilities and attitudes with respect to strengths, weakness,
and changes in
the identified activity. They provide information about where performance.
instruction has been successful, and where students require further
instruction. Formats for checklists should be varied and easy to use.

How We Work With Our Partners When Cooperative Learning

Figure 2.2: A
Names:………………………… and…………… sample checklist
What did we do? Yes No for cooperative

Did we stay in our places? group learning

Did we share our things?
Did we take turns?
.
Did we use 30 cm voices?

What can we do better next time?

…….…………………………………………………
 Some guidelines for constructing and using checklists follow:
 Determine the observation criteria from curriculum objectives and student needs.
 Review criteria with students prior to the observation.
 Involve students in developing some or all of the criteria whenever possible and
appropriate.
 Choose criteria that are easily observable to avoid vagueness and increase objectivity.
 Use jargon-free language to describe criteria so that data can be used effectively to inform
students or parents/guardians.
 In most cases, limit the number of criteria to eight and the number of students observed to
three or four at one time in order to keep the assessment task manageable.
 Analyse and summarize checklist data regularly.
 Use or adapt existing checklists from other sources.
 Use yes-no checklists to identify whether a specific action has been completed or if a
particular quality is present.
 Use tally checklists to note the frequency of the action observed.
 Construct all checklists with space for recording anecdotal comments and summaries
2. Rating Scales
Rating scales record the extent to which certain criteria have been
Rating scales
achieved by the student, the extent to which certain characteristics are are listing of
present in the student’s work. Rating scales also record the quality of specific
outcomes
the student’s performance at a given time or within a given process. which are
Teachers can often convert checklists into rating scales by assigning observed by the
teacher and
number values to the various criteria listed. Rating scales can be evaluated using
designed as number lines or holistic scales or rubrics. All formats for a scale.
rating student progress should be clear and concise.
Some guidelines for developing and using rating scales include:
 Determine specific assessment criteria from curriculum objectives, components of a
particular activity, and student needs.
 Discuss or develop the criteria with students prior to beginning the assessment.
 Choose criteria that are readily observable in order to increase objectivity and avoid
vagueness.
 Select criteria that students have had the opportunity to practice. These criteria may differ
from student to student, depending upon their strengths and needs.
 Use jargon-free language to describe criteria so that data can be used effectively in
interviews with students and parents/guardians.
 Make the assessment manageable by keeping the number of criteria to eight or less and by
limiting the number of students observed to a few at one time.
 Use or adapt rating scales from other sources.
 Use numbered continuums to measure the degree to which students are successful at
accomplishing a skill or process.

Inferring: Rating Scale for Assessment

The skill of inferring requires that students create and use generalizations to
reach and express conclusions that go beyond what the data explicitly
suggests.

Rate students on the ability to apply the key skills of making inferences.

1____________________________5

Needs Improvement Superior

Student: _____________ Date: _______________

1 2 3 4 5
Key Skills in Inferring
The facts and the situation are identified
and described.

A relevant generalization is identified.

The extension of what is given is

reasonable and makes sense.

The extension is based on a sound

generalization that fits the situation.

The inference is related to what is

given.

Reasons that support inference are the

stated.

Anecdotal Comments

Figure 2.3: Rating scale for assessment

 3. Rubrics
Rubrics are a form of rating scale. They describe expectations at each level of the rating scale
and are used to determine student progress in comparison to the
stated expectations. Rubrics are expressed numerically and
certain criteria can be given greater weight than others, Rubric summarize
performance in a
depending upon the objectives to be measured. general way, whereas
checklists and rating
Rubrics enable students to develop critical thinking skills in scales provide specific
areas such as self-reflection and self-assessment. Through the diagnostic information
about pupil strengths
use of such tools students develop metacognitive ability, or the and weaknesses.
ability to reflect on their own thinking. Ideally, teachers and
students develop rubrics together, so that students are aware of expectations prior to engaging
in an activity.

Guidelines for developing rubrics include:

 brainstorm a list of criteria related to the objectives to be achieved
 generate a list of indicators that specify the types of performances on a graduated
scale for each criterion
 create a scale that lists indicators of expectations for each criterion
 ensure that the expected performance is correlated with the appropriate learning
objective
 explain to students the value of the task and the intended objectives
 monitor and assess students’ efforts throughout the process
 use the rubrics for teacher evaluation and/or teacher self-assessment to identify
strengths and instructional needs for subsequent tasks
 Record a list of students’ goals for continuing learning.
 Rubric to Assess Group Work Skills
Performance
Factors
Superior
Formation Moves into groups quietly
and quickly; stays with the
group; accepts everyone as
part of the group; is
considerate of other groups.
Participation Speaks and listens in a
courteous manner;
encourages every member
to contribute; listens
actively to others’ views;
displays sensitivity to
others’ points of view;
helps others to understand;
expresses support.
Leadership Takes leadership roles;
decides what needs to be
done; keeps self and group
on task; asks questions and
seeks
clarification;
contributes to discussion;
shares information, ideas
and material; praises or
criticizes ideas rather than
people;
Demonstrates confidence in
speaking.
Figure 2.4: a sample Rubric to Assess Group Work Skills
Making an Effort Needs Improvement
Moves into groups Reluctantly moves into
quietly and quickly; groups; must be
usually stays with the reminded to stay with
group; makes some effort the group; often
to accept everyone as challenges in which
part of the group; usually group he/she is placed;
is considerate of other is inconsiderate of other
groups. individuals or groups.
Usually speaks and Seldom speaks and
listens in a courteous listens in a courteous
manner; makes attempts manner; objects or
to encourage others to interferes when others
contribute; attempts to contribute; struggles to
listen actively to others’ listen to others’ views;
views, but tends to ignores or refuses to
wander; usually displays consider other points of
sensitivity to others' view.
points of view;
sometimes helps others
to understand.
Sometimes takes Refuses to take
leadership roles; leadership roles; has
attempts to decide what difficulty staying on
needs to be done; usually task; often criticizes
keeps self and group on others; lacks confidence
task; usually contributes in speaking.
to discussion and shares
information, ideas, and
material; usually praises
or criticizes ideas rather
than people; often
demonstrates confidence
in speaking.
 4. Portfolios
Portfolios are collections of relevant work that reflects students’ individual efforts,
development and progress over a designated period of time.
Portfolios provide students, teachers, parents and administrators Teachers can
with a broad picture of each student’s growth over time, including encourage critical
and reflective
abilities, knowledge, skills, processes and attitudes. Students should thinking by having
be involved in selecting the items to be included. students decide
which of their
works to include
in their portfolios
Instruction and assessment are integrated as students and teachers
and explain why
collaborate to compile relevant and individual portfolios they have chosen
those particular
representing each student’s progress. Some guidelines for
items.
developing and using portfolio assessment include:

Strategic Questioning
Source: Classroom questioning (Cotton, n.d)
Questions are any sentence which has an inquiring form or function. Questions used by
teachers are defined as instructional cues or stimuli that convey to students the content
elements to be mastered. What could be the purposes of questioning in any classroom
instruction? Here are some:
 To develop interest and motivate students to become actively involved in lessons
 To evaluate students’ preparation and check on homework or seatwork completion
 To develop critical thinking skills and inquiring attitudes
 To review and summarize previous lessons
 To nurture insights by exposing new relationships
 To assess achievement of instructional goals and objectives
 To stimulate students to pursue knowledge on their own

Series of teacher’s questions elicit the student responses in a classroom. This serve the above
purposes. Sometimes a teacher reaction elicit students’ responses too. Within this process
students follow a series of steps intentionally or unintentionally in order to give responses to
the question that is posed to the class.

These steps include:

 Attending to the question
  Deciphering the meaning of the question
 Generating a covert response (i.e., formulating a response in one's mind)
 Generating an overt response; and often
 Revising the response (based on teacher probing or other feedback)

Placement and Timing of Questions

Questions need to be asked frequently during the class discussion and this shows a positive
correlation to learn facts. Asking questions frequently dose not boost the learning of complex
knowledge. Some research has found no correlation and others have found negative
correlation (Cotton, n.d). For students who are older, high ability, or known to be interested
in the subject matter, posing questions before reading and studying material is effective. If
these are posed before the lesson, young children and poor readers tend to focus only on
material that will help them answer questions.

Factors to think about when asking questions

1. Cognitive Level of Questions
Do we need to ask question that belongs to the level of recalling or basic reasoning?
Or should it call foe speculative, inferential and evaluative thinking? Research shows
designing questions at different level is highly important. Bloom’s Taxonomy is one
criteria that can be used to design question at different level.

Figure 2.4: Bloom’s Taxonomy

Lower cognitive questions focus on just recalling exact words or own words materials
that were read previously or taught by the teacher. These level of question are as
facts, closed, direct, recall and knowledge level questions.
 Higher cognitive questions focus on asking the student to mentally manipulate the
information that were previously learnt to create an answer or give an answer which
can support with logical reasoning. Higher cognitive questions are open-ended,
interpretive, evaluative, inquiry, inferential, and synthesis questions.
2. Wait-Time
Wait time refers to the amount of time the teacher allows to elapse after the question
is posed and before a student begins to respond to the questions. Research has shown
that there is a positive effect for student performance because of wait time given in
questioning. Increasing wait-time beyond three seconds is positively related to the
following student outcomes:
 Improvements in the student achievement
 Improvements in student retention, as measured by delayed tests
 Increases in the number of higher cognitive responses generated by students
 Increases in the length of student responses
 Increases in the number of unsolicited responses
 Decreases in students’ failure to respond
 Increases in the amount and quality of evidence students offer to support their
inferences
 Increases in contributions by students who do not participate much when wait-
time is under three seconds
 Expansion of the variety of responses offered by students
 Decreases in student interruptions
 Increases in student-student interactions
 Increases in the number of questions posed by students

Increasing wait-time beyond three seconds is positively related to the following teacher
outcomes:
 in flexibility of teacher responses, with teachers listening more and engaging
students in more discussions
 Increases in teacher expectations regarding students usually thought of as slow
 Expansion of the variety of questions asked by teachers
 Increases in the number of higher cognitive questions asked by teachers.

Guidelines for Classroom Questioning

Based on the foregoing findings from the research on classroom questioning, the following
recommendations are offered:
 Incorporate questioning into classroom teaching/learning practices.
 Ask questions which focus on the salient elements in the lesson; avoid questioning
students about extraneous matters.
 When teaching students factual material, keep up a brisk instructional pace,
frequently posing lower cognitive questions.
 With older and higher ability students, ask questions before (as well as after)
material is read and studied.
 Question younger and lower ability students only after material has been read and
studied.
 Ask a majority of lower cognitive questions when instructing younger and lower
ability students. Structure these questions so that most of them will elicit correct
responses.* Ask a majority of higher cognitive questions when instructing older and
higher ability students.
 In settings where higher cognitive questions are appropriate, teach students
strategies for drawing inferences.
 Keep wait-time to about three seconds when conducting recitations involving a
majority of lower cognitive questions?
 Increase wait-time beyond three seconds when asking higher cognitive questions.
 Be particularly careful to allow generous amounts of wait-time to students perceived
as lower ability.
 Use redirection and probing as part of classroom questioning and keep these
focused on salient elements of students' responses.
 Avoid vague or critical responses to student answers during recitations.
 During recitations, use praise sparingly and make certain it is sincere, credible, and
directly connected to the students' responses.
Summary of Planning Assessment for Learning
Why Assess? to enable teachers to determine next steps in advancing student
learning
Assess What?  each student’s progress and learning needs in relation to the
curricular outcomes

What Methods?  a range of methods in different modes that make students’

skills and understanding visible

Ensuring Quality  accuracy and consistency of observations and interpretations

of student learning
 clear, detailed learning expectations
 accurate, detailed notes for descriptive feedback to each
student

Using the  provide each student with accurate descriptive feedback to

Information further his or her learning
 differentiate instruction by continually checking where each
student is in relation to the curricular outcomes
 provide parents or guardians with descriptive feedback about
student learning and ideas for support