2016-09-09

Principles of Communications
Chapter 1 – 2

2016. 9.

Seokjoo Shin
Chosun University

Contents
• Introduction to Communications
• Signals and Systems
• Basic modulation techniques
– AM/PM/FM
– Pulse modulation
• Line coding
• Multiplexing
• Probability and Random Signals
• MATLAB examples

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Introduction

History-1800’s
• 1826: G.S. Ohm (I-V relationship in resistors)
• 1838: S.F.B. Morse (telegraph)
• 1864: J.C. Maxwell (prediction of EM
radiation)
• 1876: A.G.Bell (invention of telephone)
• 1887: H.Hertz (verification of Maxwell’s
theory)
• 1897: G.Marconi (invention of wireless
telegraph) 4

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History-(1900-1936)
• 1904: Fleming invents the diode
• 1915: Bell System (US transcontinental
telephone line)
• 1918: B.H.Armstrong (superheterodyne radio
receiver)
• 1933: E. Armstrong (FM)
• 1937: A. Reeves (PCM)
• 1936: TV broadcasting by BBC

History-(WW II-1960)
• WW II: Radar, microwave systems, statistical
methods to signal extraction problems
• 1948: TR invented (W. Brattain, J. Bardeen, W.
Shockley)
• 1950: TDM to telephony, Color TV in US
• 1956: First successful transoceanic telephone
cable

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History-(1960-1970)
• 1960: Laser (Maiman)
• 1962: Telstar 1 (first comm. Satellite)
• Experimental laser communications
• IC
• DSP
• 1968: Live TV coverage of the moon
exploration

History-(1970-1980)
• Gigabit signaling rates
• LSI
• IC realization of communication circuits
• Low-loss optical fibers & Optical communication
system
• Packet-switched digital data systems
• Microprocessor
• Computed tomography
• Supercomputers developed

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History-(1980-1990)
• Mobile, cellular telephone systems
• 2 Gsamples/s digital oscilloscopes
• Programmable DSPs
• Digitally tuned receivers
• CD audio players
• Ethernet developed
• Long-haul telephone services

History-(1990-)
• GPS
• HDTV
• Cellular telephones widely used
• Widespread application of the internet
• ???
• Semiconductor illumination ???
• I-pod, I-phone ??
• Humanoid ???
• Telepresence ???
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Frequency Bands-(1/2)
• 1826: G.S. Ohm (I-V relationship in resistors)

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Frequency Bands-(2/2)

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Communication System

Reasons of modulation using carrier

- For ease of radiation
Analog or digital - To reduce noise and interference
- For channel assignment
- For multiplexing or transmission of several messages over a single channel
- To overcome equipment limitations

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Channels for EM Waves

[The various propagation modes for electromagnetic waves]

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Specific attenuation for atmospheric

gases and rain

(a) Specific attenuation due to oxygen

and water vapor (concentration of 7.5
g/m3.
(b) Specific attenuation due to rainfall
at rates of 10, 50, and 100 mm/h.

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Signals

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Signals : generation

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Signals : Deterministic vs Random

-Deterministic signals can be modeled as completely specified functions of time.

-Random signal are signals that take on random values at any given time instant
and must be modeled probabilistically.
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Periodic vs Aperiodic
• Periodic

x(t)=Acos(w0t)

x(t+T0)=x(t), -∞ <t<∞ (2.3)

- T0 : period
- (fundamental) period : the smallest number satisfying Eq.
(2.3)

• Aperiodic (or nonperiodic)

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Periodic Signals : Phasor-(1/3)

x t Aej ω0 t θ
, ∞ ∞

x t Acos ω0 t θ Re x t
Re Aej ω0 t θ

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Periodic Signals : Phasor-(2/3)

• Double-sided spectra

1 1 ∗
Acos ω0 t θ x t x t
2 2
1 1
Aej ω0 t θ
Ae j ω0 t θ
2 2

[Addition of complex conjugate rotating phasors]

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Periodic Signals : Phasor-(3/3)

• The rotating phasor signal is completely specified if A and θ
are given for a particular f0.

 Plots of the magnitude and angle of Aejθ versus frequency give

sufficient information to characterize x(t) completely.

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Signal Spectrum

• Amplitude line spectrum

• Phase line spectrum
• Single-sided amplitude and phase spectra (a)
• Double-sided amplitude and phase spectra (b)

Singularity Function : δ(t)

Unit Impulse
<Definition> ∞
∞
x t δ t dt x 0 2.11

<Sifting property>
∞
x t δ t t 0 dt x t0 2.12
∞

t2
δ t t 0 dt 1, t1 t0 t2 2.13
t1

δ t t0 0, t t0

From the integrand in (2.12) x t δ t t0 x t0 δ t t0

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Properties of δ(t) –(1/3)

Properties from (2.11)
1.
1
δ at δ t
|a|
2.
δ t δ t

3.
t2 x t 0 , t1 t 0 t 2
x t δ t t 0 dt 0, otherwise
t1 undefined for t 0 t1 or t 2

4. x t δ t t0 x t0 δ t t0 , x t continuous at t t0

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Properties of δ(t) –(2/3)

t2 n n n
5. t1
x t δ t t 0 dt 1 x t0 , t1 t0 t2

The superscript n denotes the nth derivative.

6. f(t)=g(t), where f t a0 δ t a1 δ 1 t ⋯ an δ n
t and
1
g t b0 δ t b1 δ t ⋯ bn δ n t

 a0 b0 , a1 b1 , … , an bn

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Properties of δ(t) –(3/3)

- Two suitable representations of impulse function
1
1 , | |
∏ 2
2 2
0,

1 2
1

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Singularity Function : u(t)

Unit step
- Defined to be the integral of the unit impulse,

0, 0
u ≜ ∞
1, 0
, 0

1 1
Π
2 2

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Energy signal vs. Power signal

• Signal classes: energy signal and power signal
• For an arbitrary signal x(t)

• <DEF> Energy T
 
2 2
E  lim x(t ) dt  x(t ) dt
t   T 

• <DEF> Power 1 T

2
P  lim x(t ) dt
t  2T T

• <DEF> energy signal

iff 0< E <∞, so that P = 0
• <DEF> power signal
iff 0 < P < ∞, so that E = ∞

 Energy(J): capability to do something

 Power (W=J/s): the rate of flow of energy 29
 iff => if and only if => AB

Generalized Fourier Series

• Representation of signals as a series of orthogonal
functions or a generalized Fourier Series
• GFS allows signals to be represented as points in a
generalized vector space ( signal space)

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Basis Set
A1 A2 A3 2.29

• The vectors a, b, and c are said to be linearly independent, for

no one of them can be expressed as a linear combination of the
other two.
• Such a set of linearly independent vectors is said to form a
basis set for a 3-D vector space.
• Such vectors in a basis set spans a 3-D vector space in the
sense that any vector A can be expressed as a linear
combination of them.

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Basis Function Set

• x(t) can be represented with multiple orthogonal basis functions,
and expressed as xa(t) approximately.
N

xa t X n ∅n t , t 0 t t0 T 2.30
n 0

• Assumption: n (t ) s are linearly independent

– No one of them can be expressed as a weighted sum of the other N-1.
– A set of linearly independent n (t ) is called a basis function set.

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Orthogonality/Orthonormality
t0 T
cn , n m
∅m t ∅∗n t dt cn δn,m 0, n m all m and n 2.31
t0

• n (t ) s are said to be orthogonal on the interval (t0, t0+T) if

(2.31) holds.
• If cn =1 for all n, the n (t ) s are said to be nomalized.
• The asterisk in (2.31) denotes complex conjugate.
• A normalized orthogonal set of functions  Orthonormal basis set
• δnm : Kronecker delta function
– δnm = 1 if m = n
– δnm = 0 if m ≠ n

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GFS Example (Exam 2.5)

Approximation of a sine wave pulse with a generalized

Fourier series. (a) Orthonormal functions. (b) Sine wave
and approximation. (c) Signal space representation.

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Approximation of x(t) by xa(t)

• Objective : Represent a time function x(t) on (t0, t0+T) with a
set of orthogonal functions

Integral Squared Error ISE ϵN |x t xa t |2 dt 2.32

T

• Problem : Find the set of coefficient Xn that minimize ISE

• Solution : Choose Xn that minimize ϵN
1
Xn x t ∅∗n t dt 2.35 Fourier coefficients
cn T

x t X n ∅n t ISE 0 2.39
n 1
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Parseval’s theorem
• Assuming a complete orthogonal set of functions,
∞

|x t | 2 dt cn |Xn | 2 2.40
T n 0

• For Fourier series

∞
1
P |x t |2 dt |X n |2 2.61
T0 T0 n ∞
or
∞

P X02 2|X n |2 2.62

n 1

• The average power of a periodic signal x(t) is the sum of the powers in the
phasor component of its Fourier series.
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Fourier Series
-Complex Exponential F.S.-
x(t) is defined over the interval (t0, t0+T0)

x t X n ejn ω 0 t , t 0 t t0 T0 2.46
n ∞

t0 T0
1 jn ω 0 t
Xn x t e dt 2.47
T0 t0

• If x(t) is periodic with period T0, the Fourier series of (2.46) is an accurate
representation for x(t) for all t (except at points of discontinuity).

• The Fourier series is unique.

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Symmetry : Fourier Coefficients

t0 T0
1 jn ω 0 t
Xn x t e dt 2.47
T0 t0

X n∗ X n 2.51  obtained by (2.47)

Xn |X n |ej∠X n 2.52

|X n | |X n| and ∠Xn ∠X n

• For real signal x(t), the magnitude of the Fourier coefficients is an even
function of n, and the argument is odd.
T 0 ⁄2 T 0 ⁄2
1 j
Xn x t cos nω0 t dt x t sin nω0 t dt 2.54
T0 T 0 ⁄2 T0 T 0 ⁄2

• The second term in (2.54) is an odd function resulting 0. Thus Xn is real

and even function.
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Fourier Series
-Trigonometric-
X n ejn ω 0 t X ne
jn ω 0 t |X n |ej nω 0 t ∠X n |X n |e j nω 0 t ∠X n

2|X n | cos ω0 ∠
∞

x t X0 2|X n | cos ω0 ∠ 2.58

n 1

∞ ∞

x t X0 An cos nω0 t Bn sin ω0 2.59

n 1 n 1

t0 T0
2
An 2|X n |cos∠X n x t cos nω0 t dt 2.60
T0 t0

t0 T0
2
Bn 2|X n |sin∠X n x t sin nω0 t dt 2.61
T0 t0

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Line Spectra
• A phasor characterized in the frequency domain in two plots: amplitude
and phase versus frequency.
• Ex. For half-rectified sine wave

0 1
0 , 0 , 1
x t 2 4
|X |
0
0, 0 2
,
2 1

x t x t 0 for all t
, 2, 4, …
1
, 1
2
, 0, 2, 4, … 2
1 ∠X 0, 0
X 0, 3, 5, … 1
1 , 1
, 1 2
4 π, n 2, 4, …

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Line Spectra
• Ex. For half-rectified sine wave

(a) Double sided, (b) single sided 41

Line Spectra
• Ex. Spectra for a periodic pulse train signal

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Fourier Transform
• Suppose x(t) is nonperiodic but an energy signal, so that it is absolutely
∞
intergrable, |x t | dt ∞
∞

∞ T 0 ⁄2
1 j2πnf 0 λ
T0
x t x λ e dλ ej2πnf 0 t , |t| 2.75
T0 T 0 ⁄2 2
n ∞

∞ ∞
j2πfλ
x t x λ e dλ ej2πft df 2.76
∞ ∞

∞
x t X f ej2πft df 2.78 : Inverse FT
∞

∞
X f x λ e j2πfλ
dλ 2.77 : FT
∞

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Amplitude & Phase Spectra-FT

X f |X f |ejθ f , θ f ∠X f 2.80

For real x(t), |X f | |X f | and θ f θ f 2.81

∞
R Re X f x t cos 2πft dt 2.82
∞
∞
I Im X f x t sin 2πft dt 2.83
∞

-Amplitude spectrum : A plot of |X f | versus f

-Phase spectrum : A plot of ∠X f θ f versus f

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Symmetry properties : FT
• If x(t) is even

• x(t)sin(2πft) is odd and Im X(f)=0

• Re X(f) is an even function of f.
•  The F. T. of a real, even function is real and even.

• If x(t) is odd

• x(t)cos(2πft) is odd and Re X(f)=0

• Im X(f) is an odd function of f.
•  The F. T. of a real, odd function is imaginary.

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Ex. 2.8
• For the pulse 0
x t A

2
X f Aτsinc fτ 0

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Energy Spectral Density (ESD)

∞ ∞ ∞
E≜ |x t |2 dt x∗ t X f ej2πft df dt 2.88
∞ ∞ ∞

∞ ∞
E X f x ∗ t ej2πft dt df
∞ ∞
∞ ∞ ∗
j2πft
X f x t e dt df
∞ ∞
∞
X f X ∗ f df
∞

∞ ∞
E |x t |2 dt |X f |2 df 2.89
∞ ∞

Rayleigh’s energy theorem (or Parseval’s theorem for Fourier transforms)

G(f) is defined as the energy spectral density
G f ≜ |X f |2
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Transform Theorems-(1/3)
·Superposition Theorem
a1 x1 t a2 x2 t ↔ a1 X 1 f a2 X2 f 2.100

·Time-Delay Theorem
j2πft 0
x t t0 ↔ X f e 2.102

·Scale-Change Theorem
1 f
x at ↔ X 2.104
|a| a

·Duality Theorem
X t ↔x f 2.107

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Transform Theorems-(2/3)
·Frequency Translation Theorem
x t ej2πf 0 t ↔ X f f0
·Modulation Theorem
1 1
x t cos 2 0 ↔ X f f0 X f f0 2.110
2 2
·Differentiation Theorem
dn x t
↔ j2πf n X f 2.111
dt n
·Integration Theorem
t
1
x λ dλ ↔ j2πf 1 X f X 0 δ f 2.113
∞ 2

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Transform Theorems-(3/3)
·Convolution Theorem
∞ ∞
x1 λ x2 t λ dλ ≜ x1 t λ x2 λ dλ ↔ X1 f X2 f 2.115
∞ ∞
·Multiplication Theorem
∞
x1 t x2 t ↔ X1 f ∗ X 2 f X1 λ X 2 f λ d λ 2.119
∞
∞
δ t t0 ∗ x t δ λ t0 x t λ dλ x t t0 2.144
∞

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FT of Periodic Signals
∞ ∞ ∞

x t δ t mTs ∗p t δ t mTs ∗ p t p t mTs 2.149

m ∞ m ∞ m ∞

X f δ t mTs P f
Refer to Exam. 2.14
m ∄∞
∞ ∞

fs δ f nfs P f fs δ f nfs P f
n ∞ n ∞
∞

fs P nfs δ f nfs 2.150

n ∞

∞ ∞

p t mTs ↔ fs P nfs δ f nfs 2.151

m ∞ n ∞

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Poisson Sum Formula

∞ ∞
1
fs P nfs δ f nfs fs P nfs ej2πnf s t 2.154
n ∞ n ∞

∞ ∞

p t mTs fs P nfs ej2πnf s t 2.155

m ∞ n ∞

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PSD vs. ESD

• Power spectral density S(f) of a signal x(t) as a real, even,
nonnegative function of frequency is defined as

P   S ( f )df  x 2 (t )


1 T
x 2 (t )  lim
T  2T T
x 2 (t )dt

• Power spectral density = total average power per ohm

cf: ESD

∞ ∞
E |x t |2 dt |X f |2 df 2.89
∞ ∞

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Time-Average Autocorrelation
Function (energy signal)
( )1[G (f )]  1[X (f )X *(f )]
 1[X (f )] * 1[X *(f )]


( )  x ( ) * x ( )  

x ( )x (   )d
T
 lim  x ( )x (   )d (energy signal) (2.160)
T  T

-A measure of the similarity, or coherence, between a signal and

a delayed version of the signal
 ( 0)  E

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Time-Average Autocorrelation
Function (power signal)
R ( )  x(t ) x(t   ) 
1 T
 lim
T  2T 
T
x(t ) x(t   )dt (power signal)

If x(t) is periodic with period T0,

1
R ( ) 
T0 
T0
x(t ) x(t   )dt [ x(t) periodic]

- R ( ) is a measure of the similarity, or coherence, between a power signal at

time t and at time t+τ

R (0)  x 2(t )  Δ S(f)df

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Wiener-Khinchine theorem
-The time-average autocorrelation function of a signal and
its power spectral density are Fourier transform pairs

S ( f )  F [ R( )]   R ( )e  j 2f d



R ( )  F 1[ S ( f )]   S ( f )e j 2f df


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Properties of R ( )

57

Ex. 2.20

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LTI System-(1/3)

y (t )  H [1 x1 (t )   2 x2 (t )]  1 H [ x1 (t )]   2 H [ x2 (t )]
 1 y1 (t )   2 y2 (t )
- Time-invariant
y (t  t0 )  H [ x(t  t0 )]

- Impulse response
h(t )  H [ (t )]

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LTI System-(2/3)
- Superposition integrals gives y(t) as a function of input x(t) and
impulse response h(t);

y (t )  

x ( )h(t   )dt  x (t )  h(t )
- A system is bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable iff

 
h(t ) dt  
- Transfer function (frequency response)

Y( f )  H ( f )X ( f )
- A system is causal if

h(t )  0, t0
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LTI System-(3/3)

61

Ex. 2.21

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Distortions
1. Ideal signal transmission results only if there is no attenuation and
phase-shift of the spectral components of the input.  too stringent

2. A distortionless system introduces the same attenuation and

time delay to all spectral components of the input

Three major types of distortion

- Amplitude distortion : amplitude response is not constant with frequency

- Phase distortion (or delay distortion):

the phase function is not a linear function of frequency

- Nonlinear distortion : the system is not linear

63

Example. A linear system

x(t ) y (t )  x(t ) * h(t )
h(t )

X(f ) Y( f ) Y ( f )  X ( f )H ( f )
H( f ) 
X(f )

If y (t )  H 0  x(t  t0 ) H0, t0 (>0): constants

The output is a scaled, delayed replica of the input.

H ( f )  H 0 e  j 2ft0

- The amplitude response is constant.

Distortionless system
- The phase shift is linear with frequency.

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Group delay & Phase delay

Group delay :
the delay that a group of two or more frequency components undergo
in passing through a linear system
1 d ( f )
Tg ( f )  
2 df

Phase delay : the delay of the single component

( f )
Tp ( f )  
2f

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Ex. of distortions and delays

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Ideal Filters (H(f))

67

Ideal Filters (h(t))

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Realizable Filters (1/2)

1. Butterworth filter :
a constant amplitude response in the passband
at the cost of less stopband attenuation

2. Chebyshev filter :
a minimum allowable attenuation in the passband
maximizing the attenuation in the stopband

3. Bessel filter :
a linear phase response in the passband
at the expense of the amplitude response

69

Realizable Filters (2/2)

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Sampling Theory (1/2)

xδ t 2.259
n ∞

X ∑∞ ∞ 2.263

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Sampling Theory (2/2)

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DFT and FFT

N 1
2 /
Xk ,k 0, 1, … , N 1 2.338
n 0

1 1 2 /
x ∑ 0 , 2.263

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