Curs

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA
FACULTY OF ELECTRONICS,TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
Antenna & RFID Sensors
Assoc. Prof. Nicolae CRISAN, PhD

Introduction
Microwaves band
- Radio Society of Great

Britain
2
Small antennas - Introduction
• In microstrip
technology
• Antenna pattern
3
Small Antennas for mobile phones
• Balanis
4
Antennas for macrocells
• Spatial
diversity
• CDF
• Gain
Antene pentru microunde - Nicolae 5

Crisan
Smart antennas - Introduction
• Network
design
• Optimization
with
Optimetrix
• In
reverberation
chamber
6
Smart spectrum analyzer up to 10
GHz
- C programmable ultra
portable spectrum
analyzer
- USB data exchange
- AAronia (Germany)
7
Ultra portable and programmable
Vector Network Analyzer kit
Specifications:
• Frequency range 1MHz – 3GHz
• Calibration using open-short-load for
accurate results
• Range of Z from 1 to 1000 ohm
• Two ports VNA with S11 and
S21; displayed and save results
• RF Generator with output power of -6dBm
@ 500 MHz
• Powered from USB
• SMA connectors for better isolation
• Dynamic range – up to 70 dB @ 500 MHz
• Boot loader for future firmware upgrades
• User friendly interface for PC Windows,
Linux and Mac
• Integrated Smith chart in software
• Android Mobile Phone software
• Export data in several formats JPEG, 8
EXCEL, ZPLOT, S2P, PDF
LEAT- ASL Antennas
- Microstrip antenna for:
- 3G & 4G systems UMTS & LTE
- Wireless Network sensors
- Array antennas measurements for
LTE systems simulation and arrays
processing in MATLAB
9
Texas instruments embedded kit
- 868-915 MHz
- 433-442 MHz
- 2.4-2.5 GHz
- C programmable
- Antenna testing

Crisan
Smart packet sniffer
11
RFID - Sensors
12
RFID – For deposit management
13
ASL - RFIDs
14
GPS – Sensors on RASPBERRY PI 3-B
15
Software defined radio - SDR
16
Open source GNU Radio under Linux – SDR –
Concatenated coding and OFDM for WiMAX
17
Examples: LTE Antenna beamforming effect over the
64QAM constellation
% Set PDSCH beamforming
vector
if (ntx==1)
% Use equal
transmission gains for each
antenna
rmc.PDSCH.W = [17 17
17 17]/34;
else
% Beamforming vector
matched to channel response
rmc.PDSCH.W = [17 8-
15*1i -8+15*1i 15+8*1i]/34;
end
18
Powerful FEM simulator
- HFSS v13
- Small scale simulation
- Antenna design in
microwave
- Simulations
- Optimization
- Antenna
parameterization
- Implementation
- Laboratory works
- Semester thesis
- Dissertation
19
Powerful FEM/SYS simulator
- ADS v2013.06
- Systems
- Simulations
- Array network design
- Implementation
- 15 licenses for ASL use
only
20
FEKO – Momentum/FEM
• Large scale antenna
modeling
• Automotive
• Radar
21
Compact yet powerful FEM/SYS
simulator
- SystemVue v2013.01
- Systems simulations
- Implementation
- Semester Thesis
- Dissertations
22
Academic SYS simulator
- Matlab vR2014a
- LTE Systems
- Simulations
- Toolboxes:
- LTE system toolbox
- Phased Array System
toolbox
- Semester Thesis
- Dissertations
23
Multiband
GSM / 3G / LTE
antenna design example
Targeted Parameters:
• S11 <-6dB in each band
• Antenna radiation efficiency >80%
Notes:
•The feeding and ground pins have arbitrary positions
•To avoid a large capacitance between the two GND planes on the main PCB many viases can be drawn arbitrary
•The antenna material can be copper
•Antenna bending is allowed. Freedom to choose its size.
•Parasitic elements can be applied on one face or the other of the vertical PCB to extend bandwidth
•Minimum antenna copper widths >0.5mm
•Use parameters for antenna elements size ->Optimetrics can be used to fine-tune the antenna
GSM / 3G antenna 824 – 960 MHz &1710 – 2170 MHz
Problem 1:
Design a dual band IFA antenna on the vertical PCB from the below picture
PCB – FR4 (thickness: 1,6mm; εr= 4.4; loss tangent= 0.02; 2 ground layers top and bottom on main PCB)
60mm
20mm 125mm
85mm
Antenna design for automotive challenge – Continental Timisoara
- Career opportunities : The easiest way is to …
- Write scientific
papers in journals
(easy!)
- to accept challenges like

this one and find some
innovative solutions (hard!)
27
Antenna coordinates
• PHI & THETA relationships

- Every point in its
surrounding is pointed
by the position vector r
- The magnitude
- The inclination (Theta)
- The azimuth (Phi)
- It is used for antenna pattern plotting in

3D or 2D (using sections through 3D plot)
28
• Antenna feed terminal
- The dipole antenna
29
EM wave
30
E field along the transmission line
• There is a mutual coupling

between the two line
• When the coupling decreses

the wire begin to radiate
through air
• E & H fields can generate

one another in a self
sustained manner
31
- Front wave is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
60Pt
E  2 Erms
R
Erms is the root mean square of E field
32
33
Pattern along the three regions
34
Antenna basics
- A critical device present in each wireless system

- Energy converter (reciprocal)
- Two important distinct regions of the field
2𝐷2
- Near (ends at )
(is interesting for fields
𝜆
applicators in medicine)
- Far (here we are going to work in
communications and radar field)
35
Antenna parameters
1. Imput impedance
2. Bandwidth
3. Radiation pattern
4. Beamwidth
5. Imput impedance vs radiation
6. Polarization
7. Equivalent area, Gain and Directivity
8. SWAP – Size weight and power
36
Antenna parameters
1. Input impedance
Is a measure of the total opposition to the current flow and is evaluating
by two components (real + imaginary)
1 
Z in  Z 0  R  jX
1 
1 
VSVR  1 Voltage standing wave ratio
1   RL[ dB ]
10 20
1
VSWR   RL[ dB ]
RLdB  20 lg  return loss 10 20
1
 RL[ dB ]
Reflection coefficient
  10 20
37
Impedance matching (Important!)
- 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 possible only at resonance

- 𝑍𝑔 = 𝑍0 more realistic condition
- 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛_𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 idealistic
- Mismatching leads to losses
- Insertion loss (generator/cable)
- Return loss (cable/antenna)
38
• Insertion loss
Insertion loss is defined as the ratio of power received at the end of the line and
transmitted power source line. It is a size that characterizes the line in terms of
losses incurred by the applied signal. In decibels losses are estimated to be as
small as possible (0 dB). Its determination taken into account final length of the
transmition line, so the effective value is expressed in terms of the line length in
dB / m and is positive (the argument of the logarithm lower than one).
𝑃
𝐼𝐿[𝑑𝐵] = −10𝑙𝑔 𝑃𝑅> 0
𝑇
39
• Return loss
Insertion loss is defined as the ratio of power received at the end of the line and
transmitted power source line. It is a size that characterizes the line in terms of
losses incurred by the applied signal. In decibels losses are estimated to be as
small as possible (0 dB). Its determination taken into account final length of the
transmition line, so the effective value is expressed in terms of the line length in
dB / m and is positive (the argument of the logarithm lower than one).
𝑅𝐿[𝑑𝐵] = −10𝑙𝑔 Γ = −10𝑙𝑔𝑆11 > 0
S11 is named in HFSS!
40
Relations between return loss, SWR and reflection coefficient
Convertion table: RL,
SWR and Г
Antenna matching through the load - Tektronics
41
2. Bandwidth
42
Calculation of the antenna frequency band by using the RL
if an antenna has two resonant frequencies (dual band)
43
3. Radiation pattern
An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical function
or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function
of space coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far-field
region and is represented as a function of the directional coordinates.
Directivity
D ,   
puterea radiata pe unitatea de unghi solid

puterea medie pe unitatea de unghi solid
dPrad d dP d
 4 rad
Prad 4 Prad
d  sin d d
44
Antenna pattern examples
- Its shape depends by the

antenna gain
45
46
Example – Pyramidal horn antenna simulated in HFSS
47
4. Beamwidth
-The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two identical
points
on opposite sides of the pattern maximum (Pmax – 3 dB HPBW).
SLL-Side
lobes level
Polar and cartezian plot

48
5. Radiation impedance vs input impedance
Definition
Expression of the antenna radiation resistance is equal, by definition, to
the ratio between the average effective radiated power and average value
of the current that runs through the antenna.
Pr Pd
Rr  2 2 Rin  Rr  2 2
I0 I0
P  Pd  2 j WH  WE 
2
36,565 I 0
Rin  r  2  73,13 
I 0 I 0* 2 I0
2
Pd 0
Rin  Rr  2  Rr  - For a dipole (unfolded)
I0
2
8 .r0
  6,6 x10 6 meters
49
• Impedance along the dipol
50
6. Polarization
•The antenna is responsible for the direction and orientation of the vector E (electric field intensity)
since the wave is generated in the near field region. If the vector is acting in the horizontal plane, the wave
is horizontally polarized, and if it is in the vertical plane, polarization is vertical.
- Nowadays are used more specific polarization usually involves

turning the electric field so that two orthogonal components Etheta
and Efi, rotate the tip of E vector. It can describe a circle or an
ellipse. Between the two components there is a phase shift which
usually distinguish: if phase shift between Eteta and Efi is minus 90
degrees, the two components have equal modules and E vector tip
describes a circle, we are dealing with a circular polarization. If the
two components meet a phase shift of 180 degrees, we are dealing
with a linear polarization. Ultimately, if the phase shift has any other
value, different from the two previous cases, we have an elliptical
polarization.
51
Polarization: elliptical, circular and linear
52
7. Equivalent area (aperture) and the gain
The power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a wave impinges on it. The
ratio of the available power at the terminals of a receiving antenna to the power flux
density of a plane wave incident on the.
PR   R AeR
PR is the electric power converted by the antenna at its terminals
R is the power density from its proximity
53
DT and DR are the antenna directivities of transmitter and receiver respectively and AeT
and AeR are equivalet areas of them.
PT DT
 R   0 DT 
4R 2
4 Aem
D
2
PT 4 4
G  D rad  D   rad Aem   Ae
PRF  2
 2
- Aem phisical area of aperture

- dB measures the gain but without a reference is useless
- dBi relative to isotropic antenna

- dBd relative to half wave dipole antenna (0 dBd=2.15 dBi)
- dBq relative to quarter wave monopole antenna (0 dBq=0.85 dBi)
54
8. SWAP – Size weight and power
Is related to the antenna optimization to the environment and application

Is very much dependent by:
- Application constriction
- Environmental constriction
- Standard and regulation constrictions
SWAP is taken into consideration especially for

designing low cost devices
- HFSS uses Optimetrix for SWAP problems

- five design scenarios
55
Microstrip antenna technologies
1. Patch antenna
USAGE
It is one of the most common enspecialy at microwave frequencies where wireless
equipments work (mobile phones, WiFi networks, laptops and so on).
Patch microstrip antenna- a. Vertical section, b. Top view
56
•Designing the patch
There are two methods that stands for the microstrip size calculation: lines model and
cavity model. The most used is the first which sees the antenna as an open transmition
line.
Line transmission model – a. Section through the dielectric, b. With two

admitances at both sides
57
120 h
Z0  - Characteristic impedance
W  eff
1 2
r 1  r 1 12h  - Effective dielectric permitivity
 eff   1  
2 2  W 
W2
G pentru W  0 - Load conductance
9002
W2
G pentru W  0
12002
 0 L  eff - Load susceptance

B
Z0
58
  eff  0,3  W h   0,264
L  0,412h  - corections
  eff  0,258  W h   0,8
 
g 0
L  2L   - Line must be lengthen with something
2 2  eff
c - Resonance
fr 
2  eff L  L 
1 / 2
c   r 1 - Line width
W   
2 fr  2 
59
Exemple – Design a microstrip patch antenna at 1.6 GHz on a FR4 PCB with
electric permitivity εr = 4.4 having the thickness h = 1.524 mm. The fed line of the
antenna has 50 ohms characteristic impedance. After the antenna dimention
match the antenna to the 50 ohm characteristic impedance of the fed line.
c
0   18,69 cm
fr
0   r  1  1 / 2
W     5,7 cm
2  2 
1 2
r 1  r 1 12h 
 eff   1    4,2
2 2  W 
  eff  0,3  W h   0,264

L  0,412h   0,7 mm
  eff  0,258  W h   0,8
 
60
0
L  2L  4,43 cm
2  eff
4502
Rin   486 ohmi
2
W
Matching method with a quarter wave line
61
• Feeding methods
Input impedance has a real value only at the resonance, this value depends by the conductance
value from its sides. Mostly the main problem emerges due to the mismatch between the feeding line
and the input impedance of the antenna. In this case a matching impedance must be consider using
stubs on microstrip PCB. Another technique is to resize the width W of the antenna to match the 50
ohms characteristic impedance of the feeding line.
The antenna admittance is of the form:
W2
Yin  2G 
4502
4502
Z in  Rin   50 Ω.
2
W
62
In order to obtain an input impedance of 50 ohms : W  0,95.... 1,20
Or taking into account the microstrip thickness :
W     
h g ln  g / h  1
A microtrip patch antenna usually has a reduced aperture even though its radiation efficiency is very high
(tends to the unity). When W increases the antenna gain will increase, as well. When we can not modify the W
parameter the inset feeding method is an option to keep the impedance matching. The inset feeding technique
exploit the variation of the impedance along the antenna (along z axes) variation that follows a co-sinusoidal
law :
 z 
Rin _ inset  Rin cos2   Where z is the inset coordinate along the antenna length
 L  referring to one of its end
63
This program interface shows this variation of
the impedance along the length of the antenna
with z.
- inset feed in Ansoft designer)
 Rin _ inset 
L 1  
z  cos
  Rin 
 
64
• Asymmetric feed line
method
If d is the smallest distance from the edge then the
input admittance could be equated as follows:
1
   eff  G 2  B 2   eff 
Yin  2G cos2  2 d  sin 2  4 d 
    Y02   
  0   0 
Where G and B are conductance and susceptance (measured in Siemens)

respectively from its ends
Y = G+jB
2  eff
B L
g Z0
65
•Ansoft interface – Ansoft Designer is the own
by the Ansys Coorporation
66
Types of antenna feeding techniques a. coaxial fed b. EM fed
67
Electric field along the patch
b. Inset fed with coaxial line
Electric field bends to the antenna sides making it to looks longer from electric point of view. Voltage wave is
maximum at the ends and the current into the middle. Radiation tends to its maximum in the middle where the
current is maximum too.
68
•slot coupled antennas
A slot can be used every time the line couldn’t be attached phisically to the patch.
Geometry of the slot can match the input impedance
• VSWR controll
69
S11 vs frequency
70
From figure we can approximate antenna bandwidth at 18 MHz. The size of the slot can modify the WSVR
value.
S11 vs frequency (zooming)
71
S11 on Smith chart
•The closer to the origin the better
72
3D directivity using wire-frame method Slot cupled
73
•Half patch antenna – PIFA (Planar Inverted F Antenna
- In the middle the input impedance is zero.
- Symmetry
- Cut the right side and use a short circuit into the middle to force a null
- We can shorten the antenna to the half (quarter wavelength)
74
- Half patch antenna in HFSS
75
•Left or right handed polarization
- Feeding methods for RHP or LHP
- Quadrature hybrid coupler
76
•SAR – Specific absorption rate
- Is a measure of the amount of energy which is absorbed by a

human tissue (body) when it is exposes to a radio wave.
- Units [W/Kg].
- Calculation
𝜎 𝑟 𝐸 𝑟 2
SAR= 𝑑𝑟
𝜌 𝑟
-𝜌 𝑟 tissue density
- 𝐸 𝑟 2 electric field (RMS)
-σ 𝑟 electrical conductivity
Ex. For a SAR=2W/Kg there is a temperature increase with 1 grad

Celsius after 30 minutes of exposure.
77
- After 6 minutes of exposure
- Our concerns are mobile phones
- How can we proceed on with the experiments

under HFSS?
78
Estimate SAR with HFSS following the FCC – Federal
Communications Commission restrictions
79
Measurements and simulations comparisons of
SAR with HFSS
80
SAR – RMS
Normalized depth under the skin
81
Arrays
- EM antenna array
-A group of identic radiators through

which different magnitude and/or
phase currents flows
-Smart antennas
-When one can controlled by

software the magnitudes and the
phase of the current
82
-The very firs applications of
the EM arrays was in WWII
-Mammut hoarding radar
Modern applications
- avionics
83
- Equipment is at the cutting edge
of technological advanced
- In order to control the magnitude and phase for each radiator
the cutting edge of engineering is involving like DSP processing,
and software advanced algorithms. A sophisticated software
defined radio platform is the key.
84
Our technology
The SDR boards from

Sundance and Texas
instruments based on the most
advanced still cheep DSP’s.
85
•A smart antenna is comprised by more arrays of identical radiators (small
antennas) which are connected by means of coaxial or microstrip lines. In the far
field region the resulting field emerges under the effect of the superposition effect
of each radiator.
•With the help of these lines the direction of the radiation is under the control of
the signal delay and gain (complex weights) along each path.
Conclusions
• The array could be linear (ULA-
Uniform linear array) most simple,
rectangular or circular (geometry)
• To be “smart”, there must be
some processing involved before
signal summation
86
•Antenna feeding network for ULA
87
• ULA-Uniform linear array
- There is a phase differences between elements

- Along the front wave the waves are in phase so the
direction of the propagation have to make an angle
theta that depend by the delay on each path.
88
• Retele de antene de tip array linear
•The radiators (array elements) are identical

and omnidirectional
- Path differences between rays
2𝜋𝑑 cos 𝜃0
𝛿 = 𝛽𝑑 cos 𝜃0 = - Equivalent phase difference
𝜆
between two consecutive
elements
89
• ULA – Superposition effect of the fields
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝛽 𝑟1 − 𝛿1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝛽 𝑟2 − 𝛿2
= 𝐸1 + 𝐸2
4𝜋 𝑟1 4𝜋 𝑟2
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝛽 𝑟𝑁 − 𝛿𝑁
+ … + 𝐸𝑁
4𝜋 𝑟𝑁
E is the magnitude of the electric field
𝑁
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗𝛽 𝑟
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑓 𝜃, 𝜓 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝑖 − 1 𝛽𝑑 cos 𝜃0 + 𝛿
4𝜋 𝑟
𝑖=1
Assumptions:
𝛿1 = 𝛿2 = ⋯ = 𝛿𝑁 = 𝛿 Equal phase differences

𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = ⋯ = 𝑟𝑁 = 𝑟 Only for the denominator
90
• Array factors & pattern for N elements
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗𝛽 𝑟
𝐸𝐹 = 𝑓 𝜃, 𝜓 element pattern or element factor
4𝜋 𝑟
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝑖 − 1 𝛽𝑑 cos 𝜃0 + 𝛿 pattern multiplication or array factor

𝑖=1
𝑁−1
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑘=0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗𝑘𝜑 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 +…+𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑁
91
• ULA - Phase array
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝐹 ∗ 𝐴𝐹
- EF is related to the element

geometry which means that is
constant
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 +…+𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑁

𝜑𝑖 = 𝑖 − 1 𝛽𝑑 cos 𝜃0 + 𝛿
𝜋
𝜑 = 𝛽𝑑 cos 𝜃0 = 𝛽𝑑 cos − 𝜃
2
IF: 𝛿 = −𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 Then: 𝜑𝑖 = 0

Input/output
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝐹 ∗ 𝑁
When phase difference is −𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 then the main lobe is beam
steered (is controlled) through 𝑛
92
•Linear array with two elements
-The most fundamental and simplest array

Assumptions:
- 𝑟 ≫𝑑
- 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟 are parallel
- the phase reference is in the middle
𝛿
- The left phase is − 2
𝛿
- The right phase is 2
- 𝛿 = 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 phase difference
d
𝑟1 ≈ 𝑟 + sin 𝜃 Distance
2 vectors
d
𝑟2 ≈ 𝑟 − sin 𝜃 magnitude
2
93
• Phase array
𝛿 𝛿
−𝑗 𝑗
-the phasor current in element 1 is 𝐼1 = 𝐼0 𝑒 2 and for the second is 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 𝑒 2
𝐼1 𝐼2
94
•Example – two elements array
d - is antenna spacing
The wave front is coming under theta angle from the right
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2
𝛽𝑑 𝜋 𝛽𝑑 𝜋
−𝑗 cos −𝜃 𝑗 cos −𝜃
𝐴𝐹0 = 𝑒 2 2 +𝑒 2 2
Wave front
𝑛
𝛽𝑑 𝛿 𝛽𝑑 𝛿
−𝑗 2 sin 𝜃−2 𝑗 2 sin 𝜃−2
𝑟2 AF = 𝑒 + 𝑒
𝑎2 𝜃 𝑎1
𝜃 𝜃0
𝐴𝐹0 𝛽𝑑 𝛿
d
𝛿 𝛿 sin 𝜃 − = 0
−
2 2 2 2
0 𝑟1
−𝑑 2 𝑑 2
AF 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝛿
Trough receiver
95
•N elements uniform linear array
- All elements are identical and equally spaced and excitations

are equally weight
- Assuming the far field condition: 𝑟 𝑖 ≫ 𝑑
- Reference is taken at the left element
96
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 +…+𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑁 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝛿
𝐴𝐹 = 1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗2 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿 + ⋯ + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝑁 − 1 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿
𝑈𝜃 = 𝐸𝐹 ∗ 𝐴𝐹 = AF ∗ sin2 𝜃 Antenna pattern for a dipoles array
𝑁 𝑁
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝑖 − 1 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝑖 − 1 𝛼
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
It is aVandermode vector of the form( 1 𝑧 𝑧 2 … 𝑧 𝑁−1 )
Is a matrix of the form:
𝑇
𝑎 θ = 1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿 … . . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝑁 − 1 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿
97
𝑎 θ - the array steering vector

- array propagation vector
- array response vector
- array manifold vector
- array vector
𝑁 𝑁
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝑖 − 1 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿 = 𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝑖−1 𝛼
- Geometric sequence
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝛿 = exp(jα) - Common ratio
98
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝛼 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝛼 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝛼
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗𝑁𝛼 − 1 2 2 2
𝐴𝐹 = =
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗𝛼 − 1 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 2 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 2
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
Knowing that: 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 = cos + 𝑗 sin
2 2 2
𝑁
𝑁−1 sin 𝛼 - The term encircled with red is
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑗 𝛼 2
𝛼 1, whenever the reference is in
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 the middle of the array
99
𝛼
sin 𝑁 2
𝐴𝐹 = 𝛼 - The maximum value is N
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝛼 𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≈ When alpha is small
2 2
𝛼
𝐴𝐹 sin 𝑁 - Normalized array factor
𝐴𝐹𝑛 = = 2
𝑁 𝛼 - Maximum is 1
𝑁2
100
- Operation modes
BROADSIDE -The most common mode of operation for a linear

array is in the broadside mode in which 𝛿 = 0 (all elements are in
phase)
- the maximum radiation is broadside to the array geometry
𝑑 𝑑
-AF for four elements array 𝜆
= 1 (left) and 𝜆
= 0,75 (right) 101
- Operation modes
BROADSIDE -The most common mode of operation for a linear

array is in the broadside mode in which 𝛿 = 0 (all elements are in
phase)
- the maximum radiation is broadside to the array geometry
𝑑 𝑑
-AF for four elements array 𝜆
= 0.5 (left) and 𝜆
= 0.25 (right) 102
END-FIRE mode - The name end-fire indicates that this
array’s maximum radiation is along the axis containing
the array elements. Thus, maximum radiation is “out the
end” of the array.
103
- Four elements array in the same condition as previous
ones
It should be noted that the mainlobe width for the ordinary end-fire
case is much greater than the mainlobe width for the broadside case.
𝛿 = −𝛽𝑑 Phase condition for end-fire array
104
Corectia Hansen-Woodyard
An increased directivity end-fire array has been developed by Hansen-

Woodyard
𝜋
𝛿 = −𝛽𝑑 −
𝑁
105
Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array with four
elements
𝜋 - Condition that tilt the main lobe to
𝛿 = 𝛽𝑑 −
𝑁 the right
106
• MATLAB example
N=4%number of elements
dpla=0.25%d/lambda
betad=2*pi*dpla;
fi=betad;%the phase for end-fire mode
figrd=(180*fi)/pi
i=1;
for teta = 0.0001:pi/180:2*pi
alf=betad*sin(teta)+fi;
X(i)=abs((2*sin((N*alf)/2))/(N*alf));
i =i+1;
end
teta = 0.0001:pi/180:2*pi;
polar(teta,X)%plot the AF pattern
107
- N elements BEAMSTEERED linear array
- the scanning angle is under controlled by means of the phase
108
Beamsteering example
Remark: The higher angle the worst directivity (or gain)
109
N-Elements uniform linear array directivity
Directivity - is a measure of the antennas

ability to selectively direct energy in certain
directions
when EF = 1
110
Plotting the directivity in MATLAB
Remark: The directivity is doubled for the END-FIRE mode

111
Homework
N=8%elements
CL = ['b' 'r' 'g' 'm'];%plot color
for j = 0:3
scangrd=j*30%scanning angle
dpla=.75%d/lambda
unghiscanrad=(pi*scangrd)/180;
i=1;
X=0:pi/180:pi;
F=@(x)((sin(((N/2)*pi*dpla*(cos(x)-cos(unghiscanrad))))/
((N/2)*pi*dpla*(cos(x)-cos(unghiscanrad))))^2)*2*pi*sin(x);%directivity formula
Q=quad(F,0,pi);
for teta = 0:pi/180:2*pi
dif = cos(teta)-cos(unghiscanrad);
root = pi*dpla*dif;
if root ~= 0
X(i)= (1/N)*(sin(N*root)/root);
X(i)=(4*pi*(X(i)^2))/Q;
else X(i)=4*pi/Q;
end
i =i+1;
end
teta = 0:pi/180:2*pi;
h(j+1)=polar(teta,X,CL(j+1));
set(h(j+1),'LineWidth',0.75*(4-j))
if j<3
hold on
else hold off
end
end
legend(h,{'end-fire 90grd','beamsteered 60grd',
'beamsteered 30grd','broadside 0grd'})
112
Beamforming using sidelobes suppresing
• The idea is to weight the RF current magnitude for each element

in order to suppress sidelobes
- For an even number of elements
113
2𝑀−1 1 1 2𝑀−1
−j 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 −j 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 j 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 j 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝐴𝐹𝑝𝑎𝑟 = 𝑤𝑀 𝑒 2 + ⋯+ 𝑤1 𝑒 2 + 𝑤1 𝑒 2 + ⋯ + 𝑤𝑀 𝑒 2
𝑤𝑛 - real weights greater than zero 𝑛 = 1, 𝑀
2𝜋
𝛽= - phase constant
𝜆
𝑁 = 2𝑀 − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
- The main idea is to avoid 𝑒 −𝑗0 term by taking the reference point in
the middle of the array
114
- Taking into account two by two left and right symmetric
terms we have:
1
−𝑗2𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
1
𝑗 2𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 1
𝑤1 𝑒 + 𝑤1 𝑒 = 𝑤1 2 cos 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
2
𝑀 2𝑛 − 1
𝐴𝐹𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 2 𝑤𝑛 cos 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑛=1 2
- After normalization:
𝑀 2𝑛 − 1
𝑛=1 𝑤𝑛 cos 2 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝐴𝐹𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑀
𝑛=1 𝑤𝑛
115
- For an odd number of elements 𝑁 = 2𝑀 + 1
𝐴𝐹𝑜𝑑𝑑
= 𝑤𝑀+1 𝑒 −j𝑀𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑤2 𝑒 −j𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 + + ⋯ + 𝑤𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝑀𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑀+1
=2 𝑤𝑛 cos 𝑛 − 1 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝑛=1
116
- After normalization
𝑀+1
𝑛=1 𝑤𝑛 cos 𝑛 − 1 𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃
𝐴𝐹𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑀+1
𝑛=1 𝑤𝑛
117
Side lobes suppressing technique
Weights must meet some criteria!
𝐴𝐹𝑛 = 𝑤 𝑇 𝑎 𝜃 𝑤 𝑇 𝑤𝑀 𝑤𝑀−1 … 𝑤1 … 𝑤𝑀−1 𝑤𝑀
First criterion is to minimize the sidelobes
Second is to place nulls at certain angles
118
PASCAL triangle
𝑛
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 + +𝐶𝑛1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + 𝐶𝑛2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛
119
Example - Using side lobe suppressing technique find the weights that cancel out
the side lobes for an array with N=8.
120
•This program can be used each time one
uses sidelobes canceling criterion no matter
what function stands for the weights
generation.
121
122
• Antenna as a sensor – AoA and channel
parameter estimation
•Is about finding the angles under each front comes to the
array.
• The more elements the better estimation from resolution point

of view
•The result is in a matrix AoA of 1xD, where D is the total number of

arriving wave fronts. Matrix AoA containing the angle for each wave
front.
123
•Auto-correlation matrix
𝑤 𝑇 = 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 … 𝑤𝑀
𝑦 𝑘 = 𝑤 𝑇 𝑥𝑘
𝑠1 𝑘
𝑠2 𝑘
𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑎 𝜃1 𝑎 𝜃2 …𝑎 𝜃𝐷 ⋮ +𝑛 𝑘
k – sample index
𝑠𝐷 𝑘
= 𝐴𝑠 𝑘 +𝑛 𝑘
𝑎𝑇 𝜃1 = 1 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗2𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
… 𝑒𝑗 𝑀−1 𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
124
•Example for three wave-fronts
1 1 1 𝑠1
𝑦 𝑘 = 𝑤 𝑇 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃3 𝑠2
𝑒 𝑗2𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗2𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗2𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃3 𝑠3
- When the phase reference is at the side of the array
𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃3 𝑠1

𝑦 𝑘 = 𝑤 𝑇 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 1 1 1 𝑠2
𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃3 𝑠3
- When the phase reference is in the middle of the array
125
𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸 𝑥 𝑥 𝐻 = 𝐸 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑛 𝑠 𝐻 𝐴𝐻 + 𝑛𝐻 - Auto-corellation matrix
𝑥𝐻 - Hermitian of 𝑥 (transpose conjugate of 𝑥)
𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑠 𝐻 𝐴𝐻 + 𝐸 𝑛𝑛𝐻 = 𝐴𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐻 + 𝑅𝑛𝑛
𝑅𝑥𝑥 [MxM] = [MxD] [DxD] [DxM] + [MxM]
𝐴 Array matrix
𝑅𝑠𝑠 Auto – correlation of the source
𝑅𝑛𝑛 Noise correlation matrix
Remark – It is imposible to calculate the auto-correlation matrix if we

126
consider the noise
Based on the received signal
𝐾
1
𝑅𝑥𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝐻𝑘
𝐾
𝑘=1
It works only when K (number of samples) is sufficiently higher
Is not enough !
The wave fronts must be decorelated to each other
127
Angle of arrival estimation (AoA)
• If the AoA is known at the receiver the array can cope with the frequency
selective fading using beamforming and beamsteering.
• If the AoA is determined the receiver can cancel some of the fronts placing a
NULL in its directions.
• A RADAR can determine the direction of the targets without rotating the
antenna.
The price!
The computational effort is very high
The complexity of the receiver increases
The use of signal processing techniques is a must
128
•Sensing the radio channel characteristic
- Impulse response of the radio channel
- Responses are known

in literature as:
-Fingers (rarely)
-Taps (very often)
-Returns (rarely)
129
Power delay profile
- In an urban environment
130
RMS – Delay Spread
- Mean Excess Delay
- RMS – Delay Spread
PT – multipath power gain
131
Angular profile
- Mean Arrival Angle
- RMS Angular Spread
PAP – Power Angular Profile

Table – LTE profile
Angle of arrival 132

•AoA – Bartlett estimation
- It is among the most simple to be implemented
𝑃𝑏 𝜃 = 𝑎𝐻𝜃 𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑎 𝜃
𝑃𝑏 𝜃 The probability to find the wave front in that

direction under theta angle
133
134
135
136
137
• Capone method
•This method is well known as Minimum Variance Distortionless
Response. Is about finding with the maximum probability (near one) one
of the wave front, considering all others as interferers.
- Is based on SIR maximization method
138
𝑤 𝑇 = 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 … 𝑤𝑀
−1
𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑎 𝜃
𝑤= 𝐻 - Calculate the weights for
𝑎 𝜃 𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑎 𝜃 direction theta to maximize the
power for that direction and
minimize the power for others
It leads to the following term:

1
𝑃𝐶 𝜃 =
𝑎𝐻𝜃 𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑎 𝜃
139
140
Finding the weights
141
• Linear prediction method
The main purpose of this method is to minimized the error between one
element and a specific one that is the reference for all others.
The reference element is identified using a Cartesian basis vector that

uses number one to mark the reference and zero for all others.
𝑢4𝑇 = 0 0 0 1 0 0 … . . 0
The estimation error is minimized if the reference is near the middle

of the array and the probability to find the incoming front in theta
direction is:
𝑇 𝑅 −1 𝑢
𝑢𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑚
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑚 𝜃 = 2
𝑇 −1
𝑢𝑚 𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑎 𝜃
142
143
• Burg method
This method is known as the maximum entropy model
1
𝑃𝐵𝑀𝑒𝑗 =
𝑎𝐻𝜃 𝑐𝑗 𝑐𝑗𝐻 𝑎 𝜃
where 𝑐𝑗 is the j’th column of the

−1 .
autocorrelation matrix inverse 𝑅𝑥𝑥
InvRx=inv(Rxx);
cj=InvRx(:,m)%genereaza coloana j
144
145
146
147
148
149
• Pisarenko method (harmonic decomposition)
- Is about the minimization of the mean square error taking into account
that the noise is decorelated with the direction from which the wave
fronts coming from. According to Pisarenko the estimation probability of
the incoming wave front under theta is:
1
𝑃𝑃𝐻𝐷 𝜃 =
𝑎𝐻 𝜃 𝑒1 2
where 𝑒1 is the eigenvector associated with the lowest eigenvalue 𝜆1 .
150
151
152
153
154
155
•Observatie
156
MUSIC – (MULTIPLE SIGNAL CLASIFICATION)
- It works with light correlation of the source fronts
- Euclidian distance!!!

Crisan
- The Euclidian distance is zero
when array vector corresponds to
the angle theta of the wave-front.
- Is the submatrix of the eigen vectors

that correspond to the smallest
eigenvalues.
- The idea extends the Pisarenko eigen-
vector to a eigensubmatrix of vectors

Crisan
Correlated source – How to simulate a correlated source?

Crisan
Crisan
- Is not ideal!
- Now the correlation
increases some terms

Crisan
Crisan
Crisan
Crisan
AoA=[-2.5 2.5] with source correlation AoA=[-5 5] with source correlation
and K=1325 and K=50

Crisan
ROOT-MUSIC
Remark!
That the array vector for ULA configuration is a polynomial of degree M-1
- Diagonal elements
- The propriety of the elements

Crisan
Indeterminate is z and the roots are the poles
that has the magnitude one and are located near
the unity trigonometric circle.
Multiplication
with
- 2(M-1) roots
- Our solutions must be complex with the magnitude near unity!
- These are the poles located near the trigonometric unity circle
- Are the elements of AoA we are

looking for

Crisan
Example – Root-MUSIC
- M=4, element spacing = 0.5 wavelength, noise variance 0.1 with source
correlation. AoA=[-4 4].

Crisan
Crisan
-Estimated - Roots of the
AoA polynomial

Crisan
ESPRIT-Estimation of signal parameters via rotational
invariance technique
- Doublets concept
- Invariant concept

Crisan
Is it true? Verify!
It’s true!
- The mathematical problem is how can we find the invariant without

A1 and A2.

Crisan
-E1,E2 are eigenvectors from R11 and
R22 decomposition respectively of the
highest eigenvalues.
- Must be the SVD decomposition of matrix C

Crisan
- Must have the dimension 2Dx2D
- ESPRIT – EXAMPLE
- M=4, element spacing= 0.5 wavelength, noise variance 0.1 with
source correlation. AoA=[-2.5 2.5]. Training set uses K=1325
samples.
Remark!
In order to compare ESPRIT with MUSIC in the same conditions we
have to take M = doublet dimension.
Why?
Crisan
Crisan
Ec –dimension 2Dx2D

Crisan
Crisan
Comparison between MUSIC and ESPRIT
- ESPRIT
- Remarks
- ESPRIT -> both front are trapped
AoA=[-2.5 2.5] with source correlation with an error of about 0.2 degree
and K=1350 - MUSIC -> has only one SVD
matrix decomposition
- MUSIC - The accuracy is almost the same

Crisan
3 Adaptive (smart) antennas
• Adaptive antennas uses beamforming and beamsteering in order to adaptively

improve SNR or SIR parameters.
• Smart beamforming and beamsteering can be accomplished in two different

ways: in RF domain or IF domain. The former is using the RF
lines/amplifiers/atenuators (coaxial/microstrip) to alter the signal phase and signal
magnitude and the later is using the DSP.
•In IF domain the computational effort is important but leads to the best results.
179
3.1. RF domain array processing
• The adaptation methods in RF domain are very effective and cheap for
beamforming. For example the most simple and straight RF domain processing
is the side lobes suppressing method (with real weights).
• Further only the RF domain processing methods with complex weights will be
studied.
3.1.1. RF beamforming with Butler labirinth
•Butler discover a method to beamform the radiation of an array using four

hybrid quadrature couplers. No active circuits are required so the
processing is very cheap. Is now the most used RF processing for radio
cells.
180
181
The array factor will be:
3 1 1 3
−𝑗 𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 −𝑗 𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 𝑗 𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 𝑗 𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃
𝐴𝐹𝑘 = 𝑤𝑘1 𝑒 2 + 𝑤𝑘2 𝑒 2 + 𝑤𝑘3 𝑒 2 + 𝑤𝑘4 𝑒 2
The weights are from the previous table:
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
−𝑗 4 −𝑗 4 −𝑗 2
𝑤𝑘1 = 𝑒 ; 𝑤𝑘2 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜋 ; 𝑤𝑘1 = 𝑒 ; 𝑤𝑘1 = 𝑒
182
183
There are many possibilities to achieved beamforming by change the
position of the -45 degree delay line or its value.
184
Crisan
- Hybrid quadrature coupler can be simulated in HFSS, ADS or
SysVue in order to counteract the effect of losses in dielectric and
balance the paths against the imbalance effect of the mutual coupling
between the lines.
186
187
188
189
•Smart beamforming
•There are to types of smart beamforming

ABF – Analog beamforming (in time domain)
DBF – Digital beamforming (in frequency domain)
Both of them are demanding a pre-processing step in which case the auto-
correlation matrix must be captured.
For both the post-processing step could be done online or offline
The main difference is related to the fact that the former proceeds in time domain
and the latter in frequency domain.
The math is similar for both
190
191
- ABF uses transmition lines
- DBF uses DSP’s
The most common beamforming technique is spatial selection

between the beams that are following different paths and arriving
from different directions
192
- First step starts with the calculation of the AoA using a
technique presented in previous chapter
- The second step is resolving a linear equations systems
𝐴𝑜𝐴 = [𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3 … . 𝜃𝐷 ]
- Let assume that the antenna looks through 𝜃1 direction

- This means AF(𝜃1 ) =1 and for the any other 𝜃2 𝜃3 … . 𝜃𝐷
directions AF=0
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑤1 𝑥1(𝑡) + 𝑤1 𝑥2(𝑡) + ⋯ + 𝑤𝑀 𝑥𝑀(𝑡)
193
𝑤1 + 𝑤2 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
+ ⋯ + 𝑤𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
=1
𝑤1 + 𝑤2 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
+ ⋯ + 𝑤𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
=0
…
𝑤1 + 𝑤2 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐷
+ ⋯ + 𝑤𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐷
=0
𝑥1 + 𝑎1 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎M−1 𝑥M = 1
𝑥1 + 𝑏1 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑏M−1 𝑥M = 0 Zero Forcing algorithm (in LTE
…
𝑥1 + 𝑐1 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐M−1 𝑥M = 0 standard)
𝑤𝐻 𝐴 = 𝑢1 𝑇 -matricial form ; 𝑢1 𝑇 Cartesian basis vector
𝑤𝐻 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑇 𝐴−1 - The solution we are looking for
de t( 𝐴) ≠ 0 - The expected condition

194
•Remark
•If 𝐴−1 does not exist we must increase M or modify the array
spacing
𝑤𝐻 = 𝑢𝑖𝑇 𝐴𝐻 𝐴𝐴𝐻 + 𝜎𝑛2 𝐼𝑀 −1 - A better approximation of

weights in the present of noise
195
196
197
198
199
200
• MMSE (Minimum mean-square error) beamforming
•The main idea here is to minimize the MMSE error as much as possible
201
- 𝑑(𝑘) is the reference sample and must be decorelated with the
interference signal and correlated with selected signal 𝑠𝑖
202
- The optimal weights can be found as:
𝑤𝑀𝑀𝑆𝐸 = 𝑆𝑠(𝑘) 𝑅𝑥𝑥 −1 𝑎

𝜃𝑠
where:
- 𝑆𝑠(𝑘) is the normalized energy of selected
wave front,
- 𝑅𝑥𝑥 , correlation matrix at the receiver
(MxM)
- 𝑎(𝜃𝑠 ) array vector along direction under 𝜃𝑠
angle
203
204
205
206
• SIR maximization
- The main idea is the maximization of SIR (Signal to interference

ratio)
- It is useful when the selected front is heavily disrupted by the
interference signal (under radio traffic jam)
- We can make distinction between correlation matrix

for useful front and correlation matrix of the
interference fronts
𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑥𝑠 𝑥𝑠𝐻
207
𝑦 𝑘 = 𝑤𝐻 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑤𝐻 𝑥𝑠 𝑘 + 𝑥𝑖 𝑘 +𝑛 𝑘 = 𝑤𝐻 𝑥𝑠 𝑘 +𝑢 𝑘
- 𝑘 current sample,
- 𝑢 𝑘 all interference signals with noise
- 𝑛 𝑘 noise for k sample
- 𝑤𝐻 complex weights
𝑅𝑢𝑢 = 𝐸 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖𝐻 + 𝑅𝑛𝑛 = 𝑅𝑖𝑖 + 𝑅𝑛𝑛
𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑥𝑠 𝑥𝑠𝐻
−1
𝑅𝑢𝑢 𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑆𝐼𝑅 - Where 𝑤𝑆𝐼𝑅 is the eigenvector of
𝑤𝑜𝑝𝑡 = −1 𝑅 that corresponds
the matrix 𝑅𝑢𝑢
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑠
to the maximum eigenvalue 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
Array antenna over MIMO channels
- Complex gains of the MIMO channel (channel matrix)

- Motivation of MIMO (probably the best way to increase the received power)
215
MIMO – Beam forming using complex weight coefficients
216
Receiver-Combining Methods
Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) and Selection Combining (SC)
ℎ1
ℎ2
ℎ3 𝑦 4
𝐸𝑠 2
𝛾= ℎ𝑖
ℎ4 𝑁
𝑖=1
ℎ1 𝑥1 ℎ1 𝑦1 𝑥1 ℎ1
ℎ 𝑥1 ℎ2 𝑦 𝑥1 ℎ2
𝑦 = 𝐻 𝑡 𝑥1 = 2 𝑥1 = = 𝑦2 𝑦=𝐻 ∗ 𝑦 = ℎ1∗ ℎ2∗ ℎ3∗ ℎ4∗
ℎ3 𝑥1 ℎ3 3 𝑥1 ℎ3
ℎ4 𝑥1 ℎ4 𝑦4
𝑥1 ℎ4
217
Autocorrelation matrix – LTE channel model
218
LTE – structure in time domain
219
220
LTE – Resource grid in frequency domain
221
Array antenna – channel matrix estimation
222
Channel estimation 2x2 MIMO
n – sample index
223
224
Transmit antenna diversity 2x2 mod 2 LTE - Alamouti
225
Transmit antenna diversity 2x2, 4x4 mod 2 LTE
226
Alamouti - decoder
but
- Pairs of
consecutive
sequences
- When channel is
assumed to be static
during n and n+1
227
Rank-Deficiency Problem
- X transmitted signal
- H channel matrix
- Y received signal
- n the noise
𝐻 ≠ 0 ; is a must
Antennas&RFID sensors – 228

Nicolae Crisan
The Solution for the Rank-Deficiency problem
- X transmitted signal
- H channel matrix
- V precoding matrix
- Y received signal
- n the noise
Precoding matrices for two transmit

antennas in LTE spatial multiplexing

Nicolae Crisan
Zero-Forcing LTE receiver (ZF-receiver/MxN MIMO)
𝑌(𝑛) = 𝐻𝑋(𝑛) + 𝑛 With the solution 𝑋(𝑛) =𝐻 −1 (𝑌(𝑛) - 𝑛)
Minimum Means Square Error LTE receiver (MMSE-receiver)
𝐺𝑀𝑀𝑆𝐸 = 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻𝐻 𝐻 + 𝜎𝑛2 𝐼𝑀 −1
𝑤𝐻 = 𝑢𝑖𝑇 𝐴𝐻 𝐴𝐴𝐻 + 𝜎𝑛2 𝐼𝑀 −1
𝑌(𝑛) [Nx1] – received signal 𝐻 [MxN] - channel matrix
𝑋(𝑛) [Mx1] – transmitted signal 𝐺𝑀𝑀𝑆𝐸 [NxM] – optimum coefficients matrix
With the solution 𝑋(𝑛) =𝐺𝑀𝑀𝑆𝐸 (𝑌(𝑛) - 𝑛)

Nicolae Crisan
Example: What is the condition necessary to have 𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 where 𝐻 is the channel
matrix of the channel complex gains and 𝐻 𝐻 its transpose conjugate.
ℎ11
ℎ11 ℎ12 ℎ13 ℎ14
ℎ ℎ22 ℎ23 ℎ24
𝐻 = 21
ℎ31 ℎ32 ℎ33 ℎ34 ℎ22
ℎ41 ℎ42 ℎ43 ℎ44
ℎ33
ℎ44

Nicolae Crisan
ℎ11 ℎ22 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃2 ℎ33 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜃3 ℎ44 𝑒 −𝑗3𝜃3
ℎ11 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 ℎ22 ℎ33 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃3 ℎ44 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜃3
𝐻=
ℎ11 𝑒 𝑗2𝜃1 ℎ22 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 ℎ33 ℎ44 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃3
ℎ11 𝑒 𝑗3𝜃1 ℎ22 𝑒 𝑗2𝜃2 ℎ33 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜃3 ℎ44
1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃2 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜃3 𝑒 −𝑗3𝜃3 ℎ11 0 0 0

𝑒 𝑗𝜃1
1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃3 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜃3 0 ℎ22 0 0
𝐴 = 𝑗2𝜃 𝐻𝑠 =
𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃3 0 0 ℎ33 0
𝑒 𝑗3𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗2𝜃2 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜃3 1 0 0 0 ℎ44
𝐻 = 𝐴𝐻𝑠

Nicolae Crisan
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 =𝐴𝐻𝑠𝐻𝑠 𝐻 𝐴𝐻 = 𝐴𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐻 = 𝑅𝑥𝑥
ℎ11 2 0
ℎ11 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0
0 ℎ22 0 0 0 ℎ22
𝐻𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 2
0 0 ℎ33 0 0 0 ℎ33 0
0 0 0 ℎ44 2
0 0 0 ℎ44
Set the conditions required:
𝐴𝑜𝐴 = [ 𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3 𝜃4 ] maximum four decorelated fronts

Nicolae Crisan
Conclusions
• Modern antenna is actively involved in a complex
MIMO communications system
• Could mitigate efficiently radio channel fading
• Introduces an extra dimension that allows the wave
front selection and SNR or SIR improvements at the
receiver stage
• Antenna arrays have a great potential as sensors for
radio channel sensing, estimation or sounding
• 4G – (LTE and WiMAX) brings new antenna
techniques like beamforming and spatial multiplexing
Antennas&RFID sensors –
Nicolae Crisan 234

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TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA

FACULTY OF ELECTRONICS,TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION

Antenna & RFID Sensors

Assoc. Prof. Nicolae CRISAN, PhD

- Radio Society of Great

Antene pentru microunde - Nicolae 5

Antene pentru microunde - Nicolae 10

- Career opportunities : The easiest way is to …

- to accept challenges like

• PHI & THETA relationships

- It is used for antenna pattern plotting in

- The dipole antenna

• There is a mutual coupling

• When the coupling decreses

• E & H fields can generate

Erms is the root mean square of E field

- A critical device present in each wireless system

- 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0 possible only at resonance

𝑅𝐿[𝑑𝐵] = −10𝑙𝑔 Γ = −10𝑙𝑔𝑆11 > 0

S11 is named in HFSS!

Antenna matching through the load - Tektronics

- Its shape depends by the

Polar and cartezian plot

  6,6 x10 6 meters

- Nowadays are used more specific polarization usually involves

PR is the electric power converted by the antenna at its terminals

R is the power density from its proximity

- Aem phisical area of aperture

- dBi relative to isotropic antenna

Is related to the antenna optimization to the environment and application

SWAP is taken into consideration especially for

- HFSS uses Optimetrix for SWAP problems

Patch microstrip antenna- a. Vertical section, b. Top view

Line transmission model – a. Section through the dielectric, b. With two

 0 L  eff - Load susceptance

  eff  0,3  W h   0,264

Matching method with a quarter wave line

Or taking into account the microstrip thickness :

- inset feed in Ansoft designer)

Where G and B are conductance and susceptance (measured in Siemens)

b. Inset fed with coaxial line

Geometry of the slot can match the input impedance

S11 vs frequency (zooming)

•The closer to the origin the better

- Feeding methods for RHP or LHP

- Quadrature hybrid coupler

- Is a measure of the amount of energy which is absorbed by a

Ex. For a SAR=2W/Kg there is a temperature increase with 1 grad

- Our concerns are mobile phones

- How can we proceed on with the experiments

Normalized depth under the skin

-A group of identic radiators through

-When one can controlled by

-Mammut hoarding radar

The SDR boards from

- There is a phase differences between elements

•The radiators (array elements) are identical

- Path differences between rays

𝛿1 = 𝛿2 = ⋯ = 𝛿𝑁 = 𝛿 Equal phase differences

𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑗 𝑖 − 1 𝛽𝑑 cos 𝜃0 + 𝛿 pattern multiplication or array factor

- EF is related to the element

𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 +…+𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑁

IF: 𝛿 = −𝛽𝑑 sin 𝜃 Then: 𝜑𝑖 = 0

-The most fundamental and simplest array