Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation (AM) Transmission and Reception 31

2.5 AM Receivers

AM demodulation is the reverse process of AM modulation. A conventional double-

sideband AM receiver simply converts a received amplitude-modulated wave back to the
original source information by receiving, amplifying and demodulating the wave. The
receiver must also be capable of bandlimiting the total RF spectrum to a specific desired
band of frequencies. This selection process is called tuning the receiver

The simplified block diagram of a typical AM receiver is shown below:

Figure 2.16: Simplified block diagram of an AM receiver

• RF section (receiver front end) is used to detect, bandlimited and amplifying the
received RF signal
• The mixer/converter down-converts the received RF frequencies to intermediate
frequencies (IF)
o Intermediate frequencies are the frequencies that fall somewhere between
the RF and information frequencies
• The IF section is used for amplification and selectivity
• The AM detector demodulates the AM wave and converts it to the original
information signal
• Audio section is used to amplify the recovered signal

2.5.1 Receiver Parameters

2.5.1.1 Selectivity

Selectivity is a parameter that is used to measure the ability of the receiver to accept a
given band of frequencies and reject all others

Example: For the commercial AM broadcast band, each station’s transmitter is allocated
a 10 kHz bandwidth. For a receiver to select only those frequencies assigned a single
channel, the receiver must limit its bandwidth to 10 kHz.

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• One way to describe the selectivity of the receiver is to give the receiver
bandwidth at two levels of attenuation (e.g. -3 dB and -60 dB). The ratio of these
two bandwidths is called shape factor

B( −60 dB )
SF = (2.23)
B( −3dB )

• Ideally, both bandwidths would be equal and the shape factor would be 1.
However, it is impossible to achieve this value in a practical circuit. For example,
AM broadcast-band radio receiver has a shape factor of 2. More expensive and
sophisticated satellite, microwave and two-way radio receivers have shape factors
closer to 1
• A radio receiver must be capable of separating the desired channel’s signal
without allowing interference from an adjacent channel to spill over into the
desired channel’s passband

2.5.1.2 Bandwidth Improvement

Thermal noise is one form of noise occurs in the communication system. It is

proportional to bandwidth. As a signal propagates from the antenna through the RF
section, mixer/converter section and IF section, the bandwidth of the signal is reduced,
thus reducing the noise. The noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the bandwidth is
called bandwidth improvement (BI)

• Mathematical representation
B RF
BI = (2.24)
B IF
where BI = bandwidth improvement
B RF = RF bandwidth
BIF = IF bandwidth
• The corresponding reduction in noise due to reduction in bandwidth is called
noise figure improvement
NFimprovement = 10 log BI (2.25)

2.5.1.3 Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a receiver is the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the
input to the receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information signal

• The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the power of the signal at the output of the
audio section are used to determine the quality of the received signal and whether
it is usable
o For typical AM broadcast-band receivers, a 10 dB or more SNR with
approximately 0.5W of signal power at audio section is considered usable

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• The sensitivity of a receiver is stated in microvolts of the received signal. Typical

sensitivity for commercial broadcast-band AM receiver is 50μV
• The sensitivity of a receiver depends on:
1. Noise power present at the input to the receiver
2. Receiver noise figure
3. Sensitivity of the AM detector
4. Bandwidth improvement factor of the receiver
• The best way to improve the sensitivity is to reduce the noise level

2.5.1.4 Dynamic Range

The dynamic range of a receiver is defined as the difference in decibels between the
minimum input level necessary to recognize a signal and the input level that will
overdrive the receiver and produce distortion

• The minimum receive level is a function of the desired signal quality, front-end
noise and noise figure
• The level that will produce overload distortion is a function of the net gain of the
receiver (total gain of all the stages in the receiver)
• A dynamic range of 100 dB is considered about the highest possible
• A low dynamic range can cause severe intermodulation distortion

2.5.1.5 Fidelity

Fidelity is a measure of the ability of a communication system to produce an exact

replica of the original source information at the output of the receiver

Any variations in the demodulated signal that were not in the original information signal
are considered distortion. There are 3 forms of distortion: phase, amplitude and frequency

Phase distortion
• The predominant cause of phase distortion is filtering
• Frequencies at or near the break frequency of a filter undergo varying values of
phase shift. I.e. they are shifted / delayed.
• If all the frequencies are not delayed by the same amount of time, the frequency-
versus-phase relationship of the received signal is not consistent with the original
signal and the recovered signal is distorted

Amplitude distortion
• Occurs when the amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics of the output signal
of a receiver differ from those of the original signal
• It is the result of nonuniform gain in amplifiers and filters

Frequency distortion

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• Occurs when frequencies are present in a received signal that were not present in
the original source information
• It is a result of harmonic and intermodulation distortion and caused by nonlinear
amplification

After looking at several receiver parameters, let’s turn our attention to the types of
receiver. There are two basic types of radio receivers: coherent and noncoherent.

• With coherent receiver, the frequencies generated in the receiver and used for
demodulation are synchronized to oscillator frequencies generated in the
transmitter
• With noncoherent receivers, either no frequencies are generated in the receiver or
the frequencies used for demodulation are completely independent from the
transmitter’s carrier frequency

For AM DSBFC scheme, noncoherent receivers are typically used

2.5.2 Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver (TRF)

TRF receivers are probably the simplest designed radio receiver available today. Figure
2.17 shows the block diagram of the three-stage TRF receiver that includes an RF stage, a
detector stage and an audio stage.

Figure 2.17: TRF receiver block diagram

• Two or three RF amplifiers are required to filter and amplify the received signal
to a level sufficient to drive the detector stage
• The detector converts RF signals directly to information
• An audio stage amplifies the information signals to a usable level

TRF receivers are simple and have a relatively high sensitivity. However, they have 3
distinct disadvantages:

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1. The bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with center frequency when tuned over a
wide range of input frequencies
• As frequency increases, the bandwidth (f/Q) increases. Thus, the selectivity of
the input filter changes over any appreciable range of input frequencies
2. Instability due to large number of RF amplifiers all tuned to the same center
frequency
• High frequency, multi stage amplifiers are susceptible to breaking into
oscillation
3. The gains are not uniform over a very wide frequency range
• The nonuniform L/C ratios of the transformer-coupled tank circuits in the RF
amplifiers

2.5.3 Superheterodyne Receiver

The nonuniform selectivity of the TRF receiver led to the development of the
superheterodyne receiver. It is still used today for a wide variety of radio communication
services because its gain, selectivity and sensitivity characteristics are superior to those of
other receiver configurations.

Heterodyne means to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device or to transmit

one frequency to another using nonlinear mixing.

Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver:

Figure 2.18: Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver

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There are five sections to a superheterodyne receiver:

1. RF section
• Consists of a preselector and an amplifier
• Preselector is a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable center
frequency used to reject unwanted radio frequency (image frequency) and to
reduce the noise bandwidth
• RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant
factor in determining the noise figure for the receiver

2. Mixer/converter section
• Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a mixer
• Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and accuracy desired
• Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio frequencies to intermediate
frequencies (I.e. heterodyning process)
• The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information
contained in the envelope remains unchanged although the carrier and
sideband frequencies are translated from RF to IF

3. IF section
• Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters to achieve most of the
receiver gain and selectivity
• The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to
construct high-gain, stable amplifiers for low-frequency signals.
• IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF counterparts

4. Detector section
• To convert the IF signals back to the original source information
(demodulation)
• Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a PLL or balanced
demodulator

5. Audio amplifier section

• Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers

2.5.4 Receiver Operation

2.5.4.1 Frequency conversion

Frequency conversion in the mixer stage is identical to frequency conversion in the

modulator except that in the receiver, the frequencies are down-converted rather than up-
converted.
• In the mixer, the RF signals are combined with the local oscillator frequency.
• The local oscillator is designed such that its frequency of oscillation is always
above or below the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to the IF center

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frequency. Therefore, the difference of RF and oscillator frequency is always

equal to the IF frequency
• The adjustments for the center frequency of the preselector and the local
oscillator frequency are gang tuned (the two adjustments are tied together so
that single adjustment will change the center frequency of the preselector and
at the same time, change local oscillator)
• When local oscillator frequency is tuned above the RF, it is called high-side
injection. When local oscillator is tuned below the RF, it is called low-side
injection
• Mathematical expression of the local oscillator frequency:
High-side injection: f lo = f RF + f IF (2.26)
Low-side injection: f lo = f RF − f IF (2.27)

Illustration of the frequency conversion process for an AM broadcast-band

superheterodyne receiver using high-side injection:

Figure 2.19: Superheterodyne receiver RF-to-IF conversion

(Refer pp. 171 of the textbook for explanation)

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2.5.4.2 Image frequency

An image frequency is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that
will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency if
allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the local oscillator

It is equivalent to a second radio frequency that will produce an IF that will interfere with
the IF from the desired radio frequency.
• If the selected RF carrier and its image frequency enter a receiver at a same time,
they both mix with the local oscillator frequency and produce difference
frequencies that are equal to the IF.
• Consequently, 2 different stations are received and demodulated simultaneously

The following figure shows the relative frequency spectrum for the RF, IF, local
oscillator and image frequencies for a superheterodyne receiver using high-side ejection:

Figure 2.20: Image frequency

• For a radio frequency to produce a cross product equal to IF, it must be displaced
from local oscillator frequency by a value equal to the IF
• With high-side ejection, the selected RF is below the local oscillator by amount
equal to the IF.
• Therefore, the image frequency is the radio frequency that is located in the IF
frequency above the local oscillator as shown above. I.e.

f im = f lo + f IF = f RF + 2 f IF (2.28)

• The higher the IF, the farther away the image frequency is from the desired radio
frequency. Therefore, for better image frequency rejection, a high IF is preferred.
• However, the higher the IF, the more difficult is to build stable amplifiers with
high gain. I.e. there is a trade-off when selecting the IF for a radio receiver
(image-frequency rejection vs. IF gain and stability)

2.5.4.3 Image-frequency rejection ratio

The image-frequency rejection ratio (IFRR) is a numerical measure of the ability of a

preselector to reject the image frequency

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• Mathematical representation of IFRR:

IFRR = (1 + Q 2 ρ 2 (2.29)
where ρ = ( f im / f RF ) − ( f RF / f im )
Q = quality factor of a preselector

• Once an image frequency has down-converted to IF, it cannot be removed. Thus,

to reject the image frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer stage. I.e. the
bandwidth of the preselector must be sufficiently narrow to prevent image
frequency from entering the receiver

2.5.5 Double-conversion Receivers

As stated before, for good image-frequency rejection, a relatively high IF is desired.

However, for high-gain selective amplifiers that are stable, a low IF is necessary. The
solution for this problem is to use two intermediate frequencies. I.e. by using double-
conversion AM receiver:

Figure 2.21: Double-conversion AM receiver

The first IF is a relatively high frequency for good image rejection

The second IF is a relatively low frequency for good selectivity and easy amplification

2.6 AM Detector

Its function is to demodulate the AM signal and recover the source information. The AM
detector is sometimes called the second detector.

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Figure 2.22 shows a schematic diagram for a simple noncoherent AM demodulator:

Figure 2.22: Peak detector

The output contains the original input frequencies, their harmonics and their cross-
products. Let consider 300 kHz carrier being modulated by a 2 kHz sine wave.
• Modulated wave consists of lower side frequency, carrier and upper side
frequency of 298 kHz, 300 kHz and 302 kHz respectively
• The output of the detector:
Vout = input frequencies + harmonics + sum and differences
• Since the RC network is a low pass filter, only the difference frequencies are
passed on to the audio section

Vout = 300 – 298 = 2 kHz, = 302 – 300 = 2 kHz, = 302 – 298 = 4 kHz

I.e. the difference between carrier and either the upper or lower side frequency is
the predominant output signal. Consequently, for practical purpose, the original
modulating wave (2 kHz) is the only component that is contained in the output of
the detector

The operation of the detector is illustrated and described below:

Figure 2.23: AM input, diode current and output voltage waveforms

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• At t0, diode is reversed biased (id = 0), the capacitor is completely discharged (Vc
= 0)
• At t1, as Vin exceeds barrier potential of D1 (0.3 V), the diode turns on and diode
current begin to flow, charging the capacitance. The capacitor voltage basically
follows the Vin until Vin reaches its peak value.
• At t2, as Vin begins to decrease, the diode turns off. The capacitor voltage begins to
discharge through resistor but the RC time constant is made sufficiently long so
that the capacitor cannot discharge as rapidly as Vin is decreasing
• This continues until Vin rises up towards the next peak. At the point when Vin
exceeds the capacitor voltage, the diode turns on and the capacitor begins to
charge again
• Note that from the above figure, the output waveform resembles the shape of the
input envelope

Practical issue is the choice of RC time constant used

• If it is too small, capacitor voltage will drop significantly between peaks which
caused the final output to reduce to zero. This is called rectifier distortion
• If it is too large, the slope of the output waveform cannot follow the trailing slope
of the envelope. This is known as diagonal clipping
• Expression giving the upper limit on the RC time constant:
1 − m2
RC = 〈 (2.30)
2πmf m

Figure 2.24: (a) Input envelope; (b) rectifier distortion; (c) diagonal clipping

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2.7 Net Receiver Gain

Net receiver gain is simply the ratio of the demodulator signal level at the output of the
receiver to the RF signal level at the input to the receiver

In essence, net receiver gain is the dB sum of all gains to the receiver minus the dB sum
of all losses. Figure 2.25 shows the gains and losses found in a typical radio receiver:

Figure 2.25: Receiver gains and losses

GdB = gains dB − losses dB

where gains = RF amplifier gain + IF amplifier gain + audio amplifier gain

losses = preselector loss + mixer loss + detector loss

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