Firebox Operation and Control PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
FIREBOX OPERATION and CONTROL
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-105.03 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Inroduction to Process Heaters
Firebox Operation and Control
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 3
FUELS AND BURNERS.................................................................................................. 3
Fuel Options ......................................................................................................... 3
Burners ................................................................................................................. 3
Burner Components................................................................................... 4
Air Register ................................................................................................ 5
Plenum Chamber ....................................................................................... 5
Fuel System............................................................................................... 5
Refractory Burner Tile................................................................................ 5
Pilot Burner ................................................................................................ 6
Gas Burners............................................................................................... 7
Raw Gas Burners ...................................................................................... 7
Pre-Mix Burners ......................................................................................... 8
Oil Burners............................................................................................................ 9
Combination Gas and Oil Burners ...................................................................... 10
Natural Draft Burners.......................................................................................... 11
EMISSIONS CONTROL................................................................................................ 14
Noise .................................................................................................................. 14
Sulfur .................................................................................................................. 14
Incomplete Combustion...................................................................................... 14
NOX Emissions ................................................................................................... 15
FUEL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 19
Fuel Gas Systems .............................................................................................. 19
Components ............................................................................................ 20
Controls ................................................................................................... 23
Fuel Oil Systems ................................................................................................ 25
Controls ................................................................................................... 28
Effects on Process Heater Firebox Design .............................................. 28
MAJOR CONCERNS AND GUIDELINES FOR FIREBOX OPERATION...................... 29
Major Concerns .................................................................................................. 29
Flame Characteristics and Patterns ......................................................... 29
Over-Firing............................................................................................... 29
Air-To-Fuel Ratio / Draft........................................................................... 30
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Burner Distribution ................................................................................... 30

Typical Draft Profile.................................................................................. 31
Optimum Operation For Excess Air .................................................................... 32
Operating Guidelines For Natural Draft Furnaces .............................................. 32
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 33
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 34
List of Figures
Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners............................................................. 4

Figure 2. Pilot Burner ..................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3. Typical Fuel Oil Burner.................................................................................... 9
Figure 4. John Zink Burner Capacities ......................................................................... 13
Figure 5. Typical LowNOx Burner ................................................................................ 16
Figure 6. Low NOx Burner with Flue Gas Recirculation ............................................... 17
Figure 7. Flue Gas Recirculation Details ...................................................................... 18
Figure 8. Furnace Gas Burner System......................................................................... 21
Figure 9. Furnace Pilot Gas System............................................................................. 22
Figure 10. Orifice Flow ................................................................................................. 23
Figure 11. Typical Fuel Oil System............................................................................... 25
Figure 12. RT Liquid Fuel System ................................................................................ 26
Figure 13. Furnace Fuel Oil Burner System ................................................................. 27
Figure 14. Furnace Natural Draft Profile....................................................................... 31
List of Tables
Table 1. Maximum Burner Design Capacity vs. Normal Design Capacity ..................... 11
Table 2. Burner Design Excess Air Rates .................................................................... 12
Table 3. Operating Guidelines for Natural Draft Furnaces ........................................... 32
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

INFORMATION
FUELS AND BURNERS
Burners can be designed to burn a number of different fuels.
The burner design will be a function of the type of fuel, the heat
release desired, and the draft available at the burner.
Fuel Options
The fuel options include gas and oil. Gas can include natural
gas and/or a refinery or gas plant fuel gas. The refinery or gas
plant fuel gas includes natural gas and make gas from the
processes, and usually has a higher heating value than dry
natural gas. Oil can be No. 6 fuel oil, bunker fuel oil, resids, or
crude oil. It is almost always more economical to burn fuel oil
and resids than to burn crude oil.
Burners
Burners are mechanical devices for mixing fuel and air for
combustion. The main functions of burners are:
• To provide and mix the proper quantities of fuel and air.
• To provide a stable flame.
Burners and their combustion control systems must produce
satisfactory combustion over the range of expected operating
conditions (fuel compositions and firing rates). Burners are
expected to be reliable and to meet these requirements with
reasonable initial cost and maintenance expense.
Failure of burners to perform any of these functions adequately
can lead to inefficient combustion and/or poor flame patterns.
This can lead to localized overheating and damage to furnace or
boiler components, resulting in increased maintenance costs.
This damage can also cause a premature shutdown due to
failure (or impending failure) of critical components such as
tubes, tube supports, or the refractory lining.
Burners are available in two general types: natural-draft and
forced-draft. Either type can be used for burning gas or liquid
fuels alone, or both fuels in combination.
• Natural-draft burners are used in all Saudi Aramco process
heaters.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

• Forced-draft burners may also be used in process heaters

(furnaces). At this time, none of Saudi Aramco's process
heaters use forced-draft burners.
Burner Components
Burners consist of the following main components illustrated in

Figure 1. Figure 1 shows typical natural-draft burners.
With permission from the John Zink Co.
Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners

Air Register
Air enters the burner through the air register. Airflow can be
controlled by adjusting the size of the openings in the register.
For natural-draft burners, the most common type of air register
consists of fixed and moveable concentric cylinders, each with
slots.
Plenum Chamber
The plenum chamber is sometimes called a windbox. All the air

for the burners enters through the plenum chamber. The plenum
chamber may contain control vanes as well as the air registers
for the burners. The plenum chamber can serve several
purposes. They are as follows:
• Reduces noise emissions from the burners.
• Reduces wind effects on natural-draft burners.
• Permits combustion air supply from a single source, such as
a fan.
• Enables total airflow to the furnace to be controlled at one
point.
Fuel System
This consists of manifolds and piping to deliver the fuel to the

burner tips. The fuel passes through one or more openings in
the tips, which act as restriction orifices. The fuel is injected into,
and mixes with, the airstream. Various types of burner tips are
used, depending upon the type of fuel and the flame pattern
desired.
Refractory Burner
Tile
This is located at the burner exit. The tile helps stabilize

combustion and shape the flame. The burner tile is usually
shaped so that one section has a minimum cross-sectional flow
area. This is called the throat and acts as a venturi in the
airstream.

The opening in most burner tiles is circular. Together with the air
register and fuel tip designs produces a circular-shaped flame.
In some cases, the tile and other components are designed to
produce a non-circular flame shape. A rectangular-shaped tile
opening can be used to produce a flat flame, which is needed in
some furnace arrangements.
Pilot Burner
This small burner is used for ignition of the main burner flame.
In some burners, it also acts as a stabilizer for the main flame.
Pilots in process heater burners usually operate continuously.
Individual pilots should be removable for maintenance while the
process heater remains in operation. A typical pilot burner is
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Pilot Burner

Gas Burners
Natural-draft burners rely on the draft (negative pressure) in the

furnace’s radiant box to induce the air required for combustion.
The efficiency of fuel/air mixing is strongly affected by the kinetic
energy available in the air (i.e., the velocity of the air as it
passes through the burner mixing zone). Since the draft
available is usually only about 0.3-0.5 in. water at the burner,
the energy for mixing is relatively low. Consequently, natural-
draft burners are limited to a maximum capacity of about 15 M
Btu/hr. Flame lengths can be excessive in large natural-draft
burners.
Many types of natural-draft burners have much lower capacities,
resulting in some large furnaces having many burners. For
example, the Ras Tanura Crude Unit 15 F-100 A&B
Atmospheric furnaces each have 56 burners with a maximum
firing capacity of 6.25 MBtu/hr each.
There are two principal types of gas-fired burners: raw gas and
pre-mix.
Raw Gas Burners
Raw gas burners (Figure 1a) are used for most applications. In
these burners, the fuel gas passes through orifices in the gas tip
and is injected directly into the combustion zone where it mixes
with air. A stabilizer cone is located just below the gas to
improve combustion stability. Raw gas burners have a high
turndown ratio (about 5 to 1). They are suitable for mounting in
plenum chambers and can be used with preheated combustion
air.
Raw gas burners of this type (John Zink VYD) are used in Ras
Tanura Rheniformer furnace 493-F-301/2/3/4.

Pre-Mix Burners
Pre-mix burners (Figure 1b) are sometimes used in special

applications. In these burners, the kinetic energy made available
by the expansion of the fuel gas through the fuel gas orifice
inspirates about half of the combustion air (called primary air)
into the venturi mixer. This mixture exits through a large burner
tip, where it is mixed with the balance of the combustion air
(secondary air). This secondary airflow enters the burner
through the outer, secondary air register. Primary airflow
through pre-mix burners varies with fuel flow, giving these
burners a degree of excess air control. Pre-mix burners require
less furnace draft than raw gas burners.
Pre-mix burners can produce a wide range of flame shapes.
Use of a "spider" shaped tip, as shown in Figure 1b, produces a
short flame, which may be suited to a furnace with a short
radiant box. Other burner tips are used to produce other flame
shapes (such as a long, thin flame).
One major disadvantage of pre-mix burners is their susceptibility
to flashback. Normally the flame front is stationary at or
immediately above the burner tip, where the fuel/air mixture
slows down after emerging from the holes in the tip. At reduced
firing rates and with a high flame velocity, the flame can "flash
back" through the tip and burn inside the mixer, just downstream
of the fuel gas orifice. Flashback will damage the mixer and
burner tip if left unchecked.
Pre-mix burners are generally noisier than raw gas burners, and
a muffler is almost always required for the primary air inlet. Pre-
mix burners also have less flexibility than raw gas burners for
fuel composition changes.

Oil Burners
Steam is always added to assist in the atomization of liquid
fuels. The steam and oil are mixed in specially designed fuel
atomizers, where the kinetic energy of the steam jets breaks up
the fuel into small droplets. The resulting mixture of steam and
finely dispersed oil is then released into the air stream through a
number of orifices in the burner tip. An efficient atomizer may
use as little as 0.1 pound of steam per pound of fuel but a
typical design requirement is 0.3 pound of steam per pound of
fuel. A typical atomizer is shown in Figure 3.
Tip
Steam
Orifices
Fuel Oil
Orifice
Steam Oil Steam

Figure 3. Typical Fuel Oil Burner

For good atomization and combustion of liquid fuels, the steam

must be perfectly dry. If there is moisture in the steam, this
moisture will flash when it mixes with the oil, causing erratic oil
flow. The atomizing steam should be superheated about 50ºF.
Mechanical atomization can be used when steam is not
available. The kinetic energy in the oil itself is used for
atomization by releasing the oil through the tip under very high
pressure. Mechanical atomization is usually used only in large
burners or with very clean fuels, since the very small orifices
required in smaller burners can become plugged by small dirt or
coke particles in the fuel.
Combination Gas and Oil Burners

A typical combination gas and oil burner is shown in Figure 1c.
This burner can be used to fire liquid, gas, or a combination of
liquid and gas fuels, depending upon the fuel systems supplied
with the burner.
Liquid fuel is fired through a centrally located oil gun. The oil and
atomizing steam are fed through separate pipes in the feed tube
to the atomizer and burner tip. The fuel/steam mixture is
injected through orifices in the burner tip into the primary
airstream, where combustion begins. The primary airflow is
limited to a small percentage of total airflow, so that the fuel will
not be cooled before combustion begins. The spray angle of the
burner tip is designed so that the fuel/steam spray just fills, but
does not hit the primary refractory tile. This tile helps stabilize
the initial combustion of the oil spray. The balance of
combustion air enters the burner through the secondary air
register.
Fuel gas is fired through a series of gas tips that are located in
the secondary airflow path, around the center oil gun. This type
of burner is often used in gas-fired furnaces when provisions are
made for future oil firing.

Natural Draft Burners

Burner capacities are based mainly on their airflow capabilities.
Airflow through a natural-draft burner is determined by the
available draft at the burner and by the size of the burner’s air
register and burner tiles. The required airflow determines the
required number and size of burners. The required airflow is
calculated at 120% of maximum heat release and design excess
air.
Fuel flow capacity is mainly a function of the size of the
openings in the burner tips and the available fuel pressure.
The design maximum firing capacity of furnace burners includes
some extra capacity above the normal firing rate. This permits
burners to be occasionally taken out of service for maintenance
without reducing the total furnace-firing rate. However, burners
should not be excessively oversized. An oversized burner has
reduced ability to operate efficiently at normal design and
turndown conditions. Most of the airside pressure drop in an
oversized burner is taken by the air register to control airflow.
Very little pressure drop is taken by the low-velocity airflow
through the burner throat, resulting in poor mixing of air and
fuel.
Error! Reference source not found. gives recommended
maximum burner design capacities as a function of normal
design capacity (furnace design firing divided by the number of
burners), based on API Standard 560, Par. 10.1.3:
Number of Burners Percent of Normal

Heat Release
Up to 5 burners 125
6 or 7 burners 120
8 or more burners 115
Table 1. Maximum Burner Design Capacity vs. Normal Design Capacity

32-SAMSS-029 recommends design for 120% of design heat

release.
Burner design excess air rates are a function of the fuel fired,
per API Standard 560, Par. 2.2.2, and for heaters per 32-
SAMSS-029.
Percent Excess Air
Primary Fuel API Std 560 SAMSS
Gas 20 10 Forced Draft

15 Natural Draft
Oil (combination) 25 15 Forced Draft
20 Natural Draft
Table 2. Burner Design Excess Air Rates
Capacity curves for typical natural-draft burners are shown in

Figure 4. These curves are for representative burners
manufactured by the John Zink Company. Many of Saudi
Aramco's burners are manufactured by the John Zink Company.
Similar curves are available from other manufacturers. In these
curves, burner capacity at a given excess air rate is shown as a
function of the air pressure drop through the burner (draft). The
design maximum capacity of a natural-draft burner should be as
close as practical to the manufacturer's rated capacity, without
exceeding it.

With permission from the John Zink Co.
Figure 4. John Zink Burner Capacities

EMISSIONS CONTROL
There is a worldwide trend toward more stringent and
comprehensive control of the emissions from combustion
equipment. Emissions of concern are noise, nitrogen and sulfur
oxides, and unburned hydrocarbons and other particulates.
32-SAMSS-029 for heaters states that the design engineer shall
specify limits for the sound pressure and sound power levels at
the designated locations on Form 7305. The manufacturer will
complete the form and submit it with the proposal.
This SAMMS also states that heaters shall be designed to
operate with local environmental regulations. The Heater
Manufacturer shall calculate and guarantee emission rates of
NOX and sulfur oxides at design conditions. Flue gas emissions
of NOX, CO, particulates, hydrocarbons, etc. will not exceed
specified levels.
Noise
This is caused by the fuel and airstreams entering the burner,
and by the combustion process. Noise emissions are generally
reduced by installing mufflers on the air inlets. Limiting the
maximum fuel gas pressure also helps to reduce noise
emissions.
Sulfur
Emissions are directly related to the sulfur content of the fuel.
On large, power plant size boilers, flue gas cleanup processes
can be used to reduce sulfur emissions. In other boilers and
furnaces, sulfur emissions are mainly reduced by using low
sulfur fuels.
Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion can produce CO and particulate
emissions. They can be minimized by providing good
combustion conditions (good atomization of liquid fuels, proper
combustion air flow, proper combustion control, etc.). The ash
content of the fuel, if any, will add directly to these particulate
emissions.

NOX Emissions
NOx formation is a function of the combustion temperature and
the excess air level. Liquid fuels may contain a small amount of
nitrogen, which can be converted to NOx in the combustion
process.
NOx emissions can be reduced by modifications to the
combustion process. Two types of low NOx burners are
illustrated in Figure 5. These burners generally stage the
combustion of the fuel to reduce the combustion temperatures
and oxygen concentration in the combustion zone. Peak
temperatures are reduced because some of the heat from the
first stage of combustion is radiated to the radiant section tubes
before the second stage begins. Since the combustion is
staged, the total flame envelope is usually larger than that of
conventional burners. This must be considered when specifying
the burners.
• Staged air burners. Combustion begins in a fuel-rich zone.
This is followed by injection of the balance of the combustion
air and completion of combustion in a burnout zone.
• Staged fuel burners. A portion of the fuel is burned at high
excess air levels, lowering the combustion temperature and
NOx production. After some radiation to the surroundings, a
second stage of combustion follows where the balance of
the fuel is injected into the flue gas from the first stage as
shown in Figure 5. Staged combustion is more efficient and
allows operation at lower percent excess air.

"Combustors: Applications and Design Considerations", by W. Bartok, R.K. Lyon, A.D. McIntyre, L.A.
Ruth & R.E. Sommerlad, Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 84, No. 3, pp. 54-71 (1988). Reproduced
by permission of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers © 1988 AlChE.
Figure 5. Typical LowNOx Burner

Figure 6 is a forced draft LowNOx gas burner in the staged air,

staged fuel and flue gas recirculation. Flue gas recirculation
dilutes the combustion mixture and reduces the combustion
temperature.
Figure 6. Low NOx Burner with Flue Gas Recirculation

Figure 7 shows how flue gas is mixed with fuel gas in the burner
on Figure 8.
Figure 7. Flue Gas Recirculation Details

FUEL SYSTEMS
The purpose of fuel systems is to deliver fuel to the burners at
conditions required for proper burner operation. The system
also contains components of the emergency shutdown system
and the firing control system.
Fuel Gas Systems

Gas fuels vary from clean, dry, relatively constant molecular
weight streams to dirty, wet mixtures of process waste gases
that can fluctuate greatly in molecular weight and composition.
In the first case, the fuel should burn easily and cause few
problems. However, in the latter case, serious safety and
maintenance problems can occur unless the gas is thoroughly
cleaned and dried. Both solids and condensed liquids can plug
the fuel ports in the burner tip. This can restrict the burner
capacity and cause poor combustion due to maldistribution of
the fuel in the burner. Condensate passing through the fuel
ports can also interrupt steady combustion and cause a flame
failure.
To protect against wet or dirty gas, knockout drums should be
provided in all fuel gas systems. These should be located as
close to the furnace as possible, but no closer than 50 feet for
safety considerations. Piping downstream of the knockout drum
may have to be heated and insulated if condensation of the gas
is a problem.
Filters should be provided in the fuel line downstream of the
knockout drum, to remove scale or dirt entrained in the gas
stream not removed in the knockout drum. Care should be
taken to ensure that the fuel gas lines downstream of the filter
are clean and are not corroded.
When sour gas fuels containing more than 0.5% H2S are
burned, additional fouling (corrosion and scaling) problems may
be encountered in the fuel gas piping and burner tips. If fouling
becomes a serious problem, corrosion-resistant (stainless steel)
piping may be necessary downstream of the gas filter.

Components
Fuel gas systems include both the fuel to the main burners and
the fuel to the pilot gas burners. Figure 8 shows the minimum
fuel gas system as specified by SAES-J-602 and includes a
knock-out drum (KO pot) to remove solids and liquids from the
fuel gas, a pressure reducing station, a flow meter, automatic
double block and bleed shut-offs, an emergency isolation valve
and a firing control valve with a minimum pressure bypass.
Many fuel gas systems have an additional KO pot after the
emergency isolation valve, and steam trace and insulate the fuel
gas line from the KO pot to the burners to prevent liquids from
condensing in the fuel gas lines. The emergency isolation valves
provide a tight shutoff and will not reopen without being reset.

A - Manual Block Valve F - Pressure Regulator

B - BMS Operated Block Valve H - Manual Vent Valve
C - BMS Operated Vent Valve FT - Flow Transmitter
D - Flow Control Valve PI - Pressure Indicator (Gauge)
E - Minimum Flow Regulator PS - Pressure Switch
Figure 8. Furnace Gas Burner System

Figure 9 shows the minimum pilot gas system specified by

SAES-J-602 for a furnace startup and includes a filter, double
block and bleeds shutoffs, a pressure reducing station, and an
emergency shutoff valve. The pilot gas system does not have a
firing control valve since it is always at full flow when operating.
A - Manual Block Valve F - Filter

B - BMS Operated Block Valve G - Strainer
C - BMS Operated Vent Valve H - Manual Vent Valve
D - Pressure Control Valve PI - Pressure Indicator (Gauge)
E - Bypass Valve PS - Pressure Switch
PC - Pressure Controller
Figure 9. Furnace Pilot Gas System

Controls
The required maximum fuel gas pressure to a burner is largely

determined by the required range of burner firing rates. Gas
burners typically have a Turndown Capability (ratio of maximum
to minimum firing rates) of about 5 to 1, provided that the
maximum fuel gas pressure at the burner is 30 psig or greater.
Fuel gas flow through a burner tip is equivalent to flow through
an orifice. The flow rate (and the corresponding firing rate) is
proportional to the square root of the fuel gas pressure. This
relationship, illustrated in Figure 10, is valid up to about 15 psig,
and is very close to about 30 psig. Thus, for a 5:1 burner
turndown capability, the ratio of maximum to minimum fuel gas
pressure will be 25:1.
Source: R.O. Reed, Furnace Operations.
Figure 10. Orifice Flow

The range of fuel gas pressures (and firing rate) is limited by the
following constraints:
• Maximum fuel gas pressure for satisfactory burner
operations is about 40 psig. Higher pressures can cause
excessive noise. Also, very high gas velocities passing
through the burner tip can cause the flame to lift off the tip,
which is an unstable firing condition.
• Minimum fuel gas pressure is about 1-2 psig. Lower
pressures are difficult to control with standard
instrumentation.
In cases where the fuel gas can vary considerably in molecular
weight, burner turndown may be limited. Low molecular weight
fuel gases (low density and low heating value) will require the
highest gas pressure to achieve the maximum firing rate.
Conversely, high molecular weight fuel gases (high density and
high heating valve) will require the lowest gas pressure at
minimum firing rate. This range of gas pressures may be
beyond the burner turndown capability, and compromises may
be required. The usual solution is to size the burner orifices for
the maximum firing rate with the lowest molecular weight fuel. At
low firing rates, it may be necessary to turn some burners off to
keep gas pressures above the minimum.
For very low-pressure gases (maximum available pressure at
the burner of about 3 psig), special burners can be used. These
use a steam eductor to pull the gas through the burner. This
type burner is often used to combust waste gas streams, such
as crude vacuum column noncondensibles.

Fuel Oil Systems

Fuel oil systems are designed to supply liquid fuels at the
conditions required for proper combustion by the burners.
Liquid fuels must be free of solids that may plug small atomizer
holes in the burners. Liquid fuels must be atomized (broken up)
into micron-sized droplets before they can be mixed with air and
burned efficiently. The fuel oil system must be designed to
control the pressure and viscosity of the oil to the range for
which the oil burner was designed. Oil viscosity is controlled to
about 26 centistokes (cSt) by controlling the temperature.
Steam is always added to assist in the atomization of liquid
fuels.
Figure 11 shows a typical fuel oil system, which includes an
inline oil heater, and a recirculation system to make sure the oil
does not cool if the oil flow is shut off at the burners. The
temperature control may be either in the day tank or at the inline
heater shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Typical Fuel Oil System

Figure 12 shows the Ras Tanura liquid fuel system. The

chemical additive reduces fouling due to soot and ash.
Figure 12. RT Liquid Fuel System

Figure 13 shows a typical furnace fuel oil burner system. The oil
system includes a strainer (filter), a flow meter, an emergency
isolation valve, and a firing control valve with a minimum
pressure bypass. The steam supply has a strainer (filter), and a
differential pressure control valve to provide steam at the
pressure required for proper atomization.
A - Manual Block Valve G - Strainer

B - BMS Operated Block Valve H - Manual Bleed Valve
C - Steam/Oil Pressure Regulator BMS - Burner Management System
D - Flow Control Valve CCS - Combustion Control System
E - Minimum Flow Regulator PDS - Differential Pressure Switch
TS - Temperature Switch
Figure 13. Furnace Fuel Oil Burner System

Controls
Maximum liquid fuel pressure at the burner is typically 60-100

psig, depending on the particular burner design. The pressure of
the atomizing steam at the burner is usually 20 - 30 psi above
the fuel pressure.
Effects on Process
Heater Firebox
Design
Gas fuels are capable of rapid mixing with combustion air,

resulting in rapid combustion and short flame sizes.
Larger combustion volumes (Firebox) and clearances must be
provided when liquid fuels are fired. Liquid fuels are introduced
into the combustion zone as fine droplets that must first be
vaporized before combustion takes place. Droplets of heavy
liquid fuels burn from the outside before vaporization is
completed. As a result, the length of time required for complete
combustion is much greater than for gas fuels. Consequently,
flame sizes for liquid fuels are larger and longer.
When both gas and liquid fuels are fired, the furnace design is
based on the liquid fuels. If a furnace is designed for gas firing
only, its capacity with liquid fuel firing may be limited.
SAMSS uses API Standard 560 for heaters. API 560 (Par.
2.2.2) specifies that the firebox must be about 33% larger when
firing oil. The heat release is limited to 12,000 Btu/ft3 for oil firing
versus that of 16,000 Btu/ft3 for gas firing. API 560 (Par. 10.1.2)
also requires increased clearances between burners and tubes
or refractory.

MAJOR CONCERNS AND GUIDELINES FOR FIREBOX OPERATION

Major concerns are those that can result in injury or damage to
equipment. The purpose of guidelines is to avoid major
concerns.
Major Concerns
Some major concerns are discussed below.
Flame Characteristics
and Patterns
Flame characteristics are primarily determined by the burner

design and the fuel-to-air ratio.
The burner design determines how well the fuel and air are
mixed. The better the mixing the quicker the combustion
reaction can occur and the shorter the flames will be. The
burner design also determines the shape and stability of the
flame during various operating conditions.
The flame pattern can be adjusted by adjusting the primary and
secondary air registers.
Over-Firing
Over-firing the burner (overdesign fuel rate) will result in longer

flames and unstable flames. Flames can tend to lift off the
burner with the possibility of flame failure. Under-firing a burner
can also result in flame instability and the possibility of flame
failure. Burners should be operated within the design limits of
the 5:1 turndown specified for Saudi Aramco burners.

Air-To-Fuel Ratio /
Draft
The air-to-fuel ratio is critical to proper burner operation. Too

low an air-to-fuel ratio will result in long flames and can result in
an unstable flame. Too high an air-to-fuel ratio will result in short
flames but can result in an unstable flame. Too high an air-to-
fuel ratio is an uneconomic operation.
The fuel-to-air ratio in a natural draft furnace is controlled by the
furnace draft and burner air registers. The furnace draft also
provides some kinetic energy for mixing in a natural draft
furnace. Inadequate draft will result in a low air-to-fuel ratio, long
flames, and an unstable flame. Too high a draft will result in a
high air-to-fuel ratio, short flames, and could result in an
unstable flame. Too high a draft is an uneconomic operation
and will result in increased air leakage into the heater.
Burner Distribution
All burners should normally be operating in a firebox. At low

loads, it may be necessary to shut off some burners in order to
have stable flames. For reduced load operation, the number of
burners operating in a firebox should be set such that the load
for each burner is approximately equal and about midway in the
turndown ratio for the burners. The operating burners should
provide an even flame distribution over the firebox. Uneven
loading of burners and/or uneven distribution of burners can
result in overheating the tubes.

Typical Draft Profile
Figure 14 shows a typical draft profile for a natural draft furnace.

The firebox has a positive draft (negative pressure). The lowest
draft is at the top of the firebox.
With permission from the Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Source: Engineering Data
Book.
Figure 14. Furnace Natural Draft Profile

Optimum Operation for Excess Air

The optimum operation for excess air is dependent on the fuel
and the burner design. Fuel oils require a higher optimum
excess air for proper operation. Each burner design will have a
different optimum excess air. Forced draft burners have a lower
optimum excess air than natural draft burners. Staged burners
such as low NOX burners have a lower optimum excess air than
normal burners. The optimum excess air for any firebox can be
determined by reducing the air ratio until the CO content of the
flue gas starts to rise. Then increase the air ratio until the flue
gas CO returns to normal. Since the optimum is an air ratio, the
firebox will have to be rebalanced when the fuel rate changes
significantly as in a load change. Uneven burner loading can
lead to tube overheating.
Operating Guidelines for Natural Draft Furnaces

Proper control of draft and excess air require control of both
burner air registers and the stack damper. The guidelines below
show which one should be used in extreme situations.
Low Draft High Draft
Low Excess Air (O2) Open Damper Open Burner Air
High Excess Air (O2) Close Burner Air Close Damper
Table 3. Operating Guidelines for Natural Draft Furnaces

GLOSSARY
flashback Combustion in a pre-mix burner taking place inside

the venturi-mixer, upstream of the normal
combustion zone.
knockout drum A drum used to separate any liquid in the fuel gas
stream from the fuel gas vapor.
pre-mix burner A burner in which the fuel gas and some of the air
are mixed ahead of the burner combustion zone.
raw gas burner A burner in which the fuel gas and air are mixed in
the combustion zone of the burner.
sour gas fuel Fuel gas containing more than about ½% H2S.
Turndown capability The ratio of maximum to minimum burner firing

capability.

REFERENCES
Saudi Aramco Standards

SAES-F-001 Process Fired Heaters
SAES-J-603 Process Heater Burner Safety System
32-SAMSS-029 Fired Heaters
Other Standards
API Standard 560 Fired Heaters for General Refinery Services
Other Publications
ASHRAE Guide and Data Book
Berman, H.L., “Fired Heaters,” Chemical Engineering Magazine, June-September, 1978
issues.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

FIREBOX OPERATION and CONTROL

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

Firebox Operation and Control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Firebox Operation and Control

Burner Distribution ................................................................................... 30

Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners............................................................. 4

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Firebox Operation and Control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Firebox Operation and Control

• Forced-draft burners may also be used in process heaters

Burners consist of the following main components illustrated in

With permission from the John Zink Co.

Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Firebox Operation and Control

The plenum chamber is sometimes called a windbox. All the air

This consists of manifolds and piping to deliver the fuel to the

This is located at the burner exit. The tile helps stabilize

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Firebox Operation and Control

Figure 2. Pilot Burner

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Firebox Operation and Control

Natural-draft burners rely on the draft (negative pressure) in the

Raw Gas Burners

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Firebox Operation and Control

Pre-mix burners (Figure 1b) are sometimes used in special

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Firebox Operation and Control

Steam Oil Steam

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Firebox Operation and Control

For good atomization and combustion of liquid fuels, the steam

Combination Gas and Oil Burners

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Firebox Operation and Control

Natural Draft Burners

Number of Burners Percent of Normal

Table 1. Maximum Burner Design Capacity vs. Normal Design Capacity

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Firebox Operation and Control

32-SAMSS-029 recommends design for 120% of design heat

Percent Excess Air

Primary Fuel API Std 560 SAMSS

Gas 20 10 Forced Draft

Table 2. Burner Design Excess Air Rates

Capacity curves for typical natural-draft burners are shown in

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Firebox Operation and Control

With permission from the John Zink Co.

Figure 4. John Zink Burner Capacities

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Firebox Operation and Control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Firebox Operation and Control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Firebox Operation and Control

Figure 5. Typical LowNOx Burner