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Heat Transfer Engineering

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Performance Analysis of a Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger

Under Different Fluid Charges
a b
Yat Huang Yau & Mohammad Ahmadzadehtalatapeh
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Marine Engineering, Chabahar Maritime University, Chabahar, Iran
Accepted author version posted online: 04 Mar 2014.Published online: 29 Apr 2014.

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To cite this article: Yat Huang Yau & Mohammad Ahmadzadehtalatapeh (2014) Performance Analysis of a Heat Pipe Heat
Exchanger Under Different Fluid Charges, Heat Transfer Engineering, 35:18, 1539-1548, DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2014.897581

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 Heat Transfer Engineering, 35:1539–1548, 2014
Copyright 
C Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0145-7632 print / 1521-0537 online
DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2014.897581

Performance Analysis of a Heat Pipe

Heat Exchanger Under Different Fluid
Charges

YAT HUANG YAU1 and MOHAMMAD AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 19:32 24 March 2015

Department of Marine Engineering, Chabahar Maritime University, Chabahar, Iran

An experimental study was conducted on the effects of the amount of working fluid on the performance of a two-row copper-
R134a heat pipe heat exchanger at the air side. The heat pipe heat exchanger operates in the horizontal configuration, and five
different fluid charges were studied to cover the underload and overload cases. Moreover, the calculated outlet temperature
of the evaporator side, obtained from the heat exchanger simulation, was compared with the experimental results. Based on
the present study, it was found that the optimum performance of the copper-R134a heat pipe heat exchanger can be achieved
at a fluid charge slightly exceeding the amount required to saturate the wick.

INTRODUCTION
Heat pipe heat exchangers (HPHXs) are heat transfer devices
that transfer heat through a phase change. Because of the effi-
cient heat transfer rate and conductivity of the HPHXs, these
have been used for cooling and heating purposes.
An HPHX consists of heat pipe tubes that are filled with a
proper working fluid. The working fluid absorbs the heat and
evaporates in the evaporator section and condenses in the con-
denser section. The condensed liquid is returned to the evapora-
tor with the aid of the capillary action in the horizontal configura-
tion of heat pipes and gravity in thermosyphon heat exchangers.
The performance of a HPHX mainly depends on factors such as
the container, the wick structure, and the working fluid.
For a certain type of working fluid, the fluid charge or the
amount of working fluid plays a key role in the performance of a
HPHX. For instance, Martinez et al. [1] used 3.04 g of ammonia
as the working fluid in their research (i.e., slightly exceeding
the amount required to saturate the wick). In a study by Kaya
and Goldak [2], a heat pipe with completely saturated wick was
used for the numerical study of heat and mass transfer in the
heat pipes.
Address correspondence to Associate Professor Yat H. Yau, Department
of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia. E-mail: yhyau@um.edu.my
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online
at www.tandfonline.com/uhte.
1539
The influence of the number of layers and the working fluid
loads (fluid charges) on the performance of a screen mesh
copper–water heat pipe was investigated by Kempers et al. [3].
Heat pipes with a total length of 177.8 mm, an outer diameter of
9.53 mm, and three layers of screen mesh were used for the test.
Five different fluid loads, namely, 50%, 80%, 100%, 120%, and
150% of the amount of water needed to saturate the wick struc-
ture, were chosen for this purpose. It was observed that with
increasing fluid load, the thermal resistance of the heat pipe also
increased. In addition, the heat pipe containing the fluid load
close to the amount needed to fully saturate the wick showed
small differences in the effective thermal resistance. Based on
the results, it was established that the maximum heat transfer
in the underload heat pipes was lower than that in the overload
heat pipes.
Payakaruk et al. [4] investigated the effects of dimensionless
parameters such as Bond, Froude, and Weber numbers on the
heat transfer rate of an inclined thermosyphon. A copper tube
filled with different working fluids under the filling ratios of
50%, 80%, and 100% was tested at the different inclinational
angles. Based on the experiments, it was found that the filling
ratio has no effect on the ratio of heat transfer characteristics at
any angle to that of the vertical position.
In a different research study by Wong and Kao [5], the effect
of fluid charge and wick size on the performance of a single
tube horizontal heat pipe was investigated. A transparent heat
pipe with two layers of copper mesh as the wick structure was
employed in the study. Three different fluid charges, including
 1540 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH

HPHX
(Condenser)

Air Inlet 1 2 Electric

Heater

Adiabatic
Section

4 3 Fan
Air
Outlet

Velocity Straightener
Traverse HPHX
Location (Evaporator) Heater
Sensor Line for
Heater Control Control Box
Box

PC
*:1,2,3 and 4 are
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Measuring points
Data
logger

Figure 1 Schematic diagram for the experimental setup (top view).

80%, 100%, and 120% of the amount of water needed to saturate Experimental Setup
the wick structure, were selected for the tests. The heat load to
the evaporator section was increased stepwise from 20 to 45 W. It To study the thermal performance of the HPHX, a test rig
was found that the combination of a fine bottom mesh layer and a consisting of an air duct of 0.42 × 0.35 m2, an HPHX, an electric
fluid charge approximately saturating the wick could lead to the heater, and a variable-speed fan was set up, as illustrated in
optimum thermal characteristics. It was also seen that with the Figure 1.
underload fluid charge and wick with the fine mesh bottom layer,
partial dry-out occurred in the evaporator section. The effect of
the filling ratio on the steady-state heat transfer performance of Table 1 Design specifications of the two-row HPHX
a vertical two-phase closed thermosyphon was studied by Jiao
et al. [6]. For this purpose, a theoretical model based on the flow Evaporator and condenser 420 mm width × 350 mm height
patterns was developed. The filling ratio, which was defined as dimensions
Adiabatic length (mm) 180
the volume ratio of filled liquid to the whole two-phase closed Number of rows Two
thermosyphon, is set at 4.5%, 6.37%, 10.1%, 11.8%, 13.5%, Tube material Copper
15.2%, 18.5%, and 20.2% in this study. The study showed that Outer tube diameter (mm) 13.4
the proper range of filling ratio, which can maintain a two-phase Inner tube diameter (mm) 12.7
closed thermosyphon steady and effective, is between the upper Longitudinal tube spacing (mm) 27.5
Transverse tube spacing (mm) 31.75
boundary of 10% and the lower boundary of 9%. Vacuum level The vacuuming process was achieved at
These mentioned research studies mostly used a single-tube a vacuum level as low as 10−3 mbar
heat pipe and water as the working fluid, and they have studied Working fluid R-134a: Liquid density (1.013 bar and
the effect of fluid charge on the heat pipe itself rather than at 25◦ C): 1206 kg m−3,
the air side. To this end, this research has been performed and Boiling point (1.013 bar): –26.6◦ C,
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar
the major objective was the experimental study of the effect of at boiling point): 215.9 kJ kg−1
different fluid charges on the performance of a typical two-row Wick structure:
HPHX at the air side. The HPHX was operating in the horizontal
Number of mesh 100 mesh per inch
configuration, and an ozone-friendly refrigerant, R-134a (HFC Number of layers 3
family), was used as the working fluid. Wire material Stainless steel 304 wire mesh
Wire diameter (mm) 0.11
Thickness (mm) 0.612
Wick porosity 0.67
EXPERIMENTAL DESCRIPTION
Fins:

The following subsections describe the experimental setup Material Aluminum corrugated
Type Wavy plate
as well as the experimental parameters examined in the present Thickness (mm) 0.15
research. The experimental setup will be described first and the Density 12 fin per inch
experimental parameters examined will be given next.
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 no. 18 2014
 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 19:32 24 March 2015
Evaporator Adiabatic Condenser
Section Section
35 cm
42 cm 18 cm
Front View
Figure 2 (a) Fabricated HPHX, (b) Schematic of the HPHX and the arrangements of tubes.
The whole test rig was insulated by using a 13-mm insulation
sheet to minimize heat exchange with the ambient environment.
The fresh air is preheated in the condenser section and then
passes through an electric heater to be heated to the desired
temperature. The warmed air then enters the evaporator section.
The two air streams flow through the HPHX in a counterflow
configuration.
The design specifications of the HPHX are listed in Table 1.
An HPHX consists of 22 copper tubes in two rows of 11 tubes,
designed and fabricated, as illustrated in Figure 2. The tubes
are in staggered configuration and three layers of stainless-steel
wire mesh were pressed against the internal tube wall as a wick
structure. The total length of each tube is 1020 mm, with 420 mm
in the evaporator and condenser sections, and 180 mm for the
adiabatic section. The desired air temperature of the evaporator
inlet was maintained by using a 5.5-kW electric heater with a
control box operating with an on/off position.
The dry-bulb temperature (DBT) of the various air states was
measured using resistance temperature detector (RTD) sensors,
and a data logging system was used to record and convert the
heat transfer engineering
1541
(a)
Heat Pipe
Section Tubes
27.5 mm
31.75
mm
Side View
(b)
output signal from the sensors to degrees Celsius. The recorded
data were analyzed by DASYLab software. All the RTD sensors
were calibrated in the temperature range of 10 to 50◦ C against
a laboratory Dry-Well calibrator with an accuracy of ± 0.1◦ C.
An extra duct with a straightener was added to the evaporator
outlet to determine the air velocity based on ANSI/ASHRAE
[7] requirements.
In order to establish the desired coil face velocities, the log-
Tchebycheff rule for rectangular ducts [7] was employed for the
velocity traverse study. For this purpose, the duct cross section
was divided into 25 grid points and the mean duct air velocity
was evaluated by measuring air velocity at the grid points. A
digital flowmeter with an accuracy of ±0.015 m s−1 was used
to measure the air velocity.
Experimental Parameters
Parameters considered in this research were fluid charge, coil
face velocity, and evaporator inlet air temperature.
vol. 35 no. 18 2014
 1542 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH

According to Figure 1, process 3–4, the heat transfer occurs fectiveness is the most relevant parameter to characterize the
from air to the refrigerant, which leads to a temperature reduc- HPHX performance [10]. The effectiveness in Eq. (1) is defined
tion in the passing air stream. Therefore, this section can be as the ratio of the actual heat transfer to the maximum possible
used as a precooling process in heating, ventilation, and air con- heat transfer in the heat exchanger,
ditioning (HVAC) systems. For this purpose, the HPHX could Q act
be installed in air-conditioning systems as a way to precool ε= (1)
Q max
the supply of air before it reaches the cooling coils. As a re-
sult, the energy demand of the air-conditioning system will be and
reduced. Normally, in these situations, the HPHX evaporator
Q act = ṁ e (h 3 − h 4 ) (2)
section will be in direct contact with the ambient air; therefore,
to study the effect of different fluid charges on the HPHX per- and
formance, a range of temperatures close to the temperatures in
Q max = ṁ min (h 3 − h 1 ) (3)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, were selected as the evaporator inlet
temperatures. The average daily temperature of Kuala Lumpur From Eqs. (1)–(3), the total effectiveness can be determined by
is at 23.1–33.5◦ C [8]. Coil face velocities representing those  
ṁ e h3 − h4
that could typically occur in practice were established in the εtot = (4)
ṁ min h 3 − h 1
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system. The condenser inlet air DBT was maintained at a nomi-

nal temperature of 24◦ C as the representative DBT of the climate
chamber for future research.
The porosity of the wick was estimated based on the porosity
model used for wire meshes [9]. To calculate the fluid charge,
the void volume in the wick and the wick porosity were consid-
ered. Five different fluid charges were selected for the present
research: 80%, 90%, 100%, 110%, and 120% of the fluid to
saturate the wick, to cover the underload and overload charges.
These correspond to 15.52 g, 17.40 g, 19.40 g, 21.34 g, and
23.28 g of R134a, respectively. The 100% charge is defined
as 100% charge = volume of the total wick × porosity of the
wick.
The working fluid was filled in the tubes after the evacuation
of the noncondensable gases using a vacuum pump.
Thus, in this research, tests were conducted as follows:
• Fluid charge values of 80%, 90%, 100%, 110%, and 120%.
• Face velocity values in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 m s−1 with a
0.2 increment.
• Evaporator inlet DBT values of 27, 29, 31, 33, and 35◦ C.
The DBT 24◦ C was not tested in this series of experiments
because of the room-temperature limitation. Therefore, there
was a total of 150 (5 × 6 × 5) experimental test runs. Data
were categorized based on the nominal values just listed and are
presented and discussed in the present paper.
All data recorded were at 1-s intervals, and for each mea-
sured variable, the mean value for 60 continuous data items was
calculated to guarantee proper averaging. During the data col-
lection period, the system was operating at steady-state equilib-
rium conditions, defined when every temperature reading varied
by less than 0.1◦ C in 1 s. The mean values were used for the
calculations.
THEORY RELEVANT TO THE PRESENT RESEARCH
In the present research, sensible effectiveness was employed
to determine the HPHX performance at the air side. The ef-
where h 4 is the evaporator outlet air specific enthalpy (state 4),
h 3 is the evaporator inlet air specific enthalpy (state 3), and h 1
is the condenser inlet air specific enthalpy (state 1) as illustrated
in Figure 1; ṁ e is the mass flow rate of the evaporator side
and ṁ min is the smaller of the mass flow rates in the evaporator
and condenser sides (i.e., the mass flow rate which is smaller).
However, in the present research, the mass flow rate is equal
in the evaporator and condenser side. Therefore, Eq. (4) can be
rewritten as
 
h3 − h4
εtot = (5)
h3 − h1
DBT can be used instead of specific enthalpy in Eq. (5) to
calculate the sensible effectiveness as given in Eq. (6). In the
HPHX under study, by assuming h ∼ = c P T for the air streams
at the measuring points, the sensible and total effectiveness
can be considered almost equal (εsen = εtot ). Therefore, in the
present study, the sensible effectiveness is used to determine the
HPHX performance at the air side, and is obtained based on the
temperature measurements:
 
T3 − T4
εsen = (6)
T3 − T1
To determine the sensible effectiveness, the following as-
sumptions are made:
1. The HPHX operates as a sensible heat transfer device.
2. The HPHX operates under the steady-state condition during
each test (i.e., the mass flow rate for both the sections is
steady and the temperature at all measuring points is steady).
3. The HPHX is fully insulated and no external energy is sup-
plied into or lost from it.
4. The energy transfer between the evaporator and condenser
sections of the HPHX is equal and opposite, and since the
mass flow rate is also equal in the two sections, and assuming
c P is constant then (T3 − T4 ) = (T2 − T1 ).
5. The airflow is steady and the air is well mixed (uniform) at
the measuring points.

heat transfer engineering vol. 35 no. 18 2014

 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH 1543

The uncertainty in calculating the energy balance ratio For the condenser side:
(EBR) and sensible effectiveness was estimated as about 0.7%  n
1− CCvc εc1
and 0.6%, respectively. The method used for the uncertainty 1−εe1
−1
evaluation is based on the calculation of the relative error εcn =  n (15)
squares, referred to in the readings for T1 , T2 , T3 , and T4 , 1− CCve εc1
1−εc1
− Cc
Cv
adding them and extracting the square root (root sum square
method).
For Ce /Cv = 0 and Cc /Cv = 0 the preceding equations will
SIMULATION OF THE HPHX be in the form of
εen = 1 − (1 − εe1 )n (16)
The method using the effectiveness number of transfer units
(NTU) was employed to predict the heat transfer performance and
of the HPHX in the present research [11]. For constant specific
heat and heat transfer properties throughout the heat exchanger, εcn = 1 − (1 − εc1 )n (17)
the effectiveness can be written as [12] Then the overall effectiveness (total effectiveness) of the
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 19:32 24 March 2015

1 − e−NTU(1−Cmin /Cmax ) HPHX is written as:

ε= (7)  
1 − (Cmin /Cmax )e−NTU(1−Cmin /Cmax ) 1 Cc /Ce −1
If Ce > Cc εtot = + (18)
In the evaporator and condenser sections of the HPHX, the εcn εen
hot and cold air streams are in cross flow with the vapor in- and
side the tubes. Because of the phase change in the heat pipe  −1
sections, the maximum heat capacity rate (Cv ) is several orders 1 Ce /Cc
If Cc > Ce εtot = + (19)
of magnitude larger than the minimum heat capacity. There- εen εcn
fore, Cmin /Cmax = Ce /Cv = Cc /Cv = 0. This yields the
where εtot is the overall or total effectiveness of the HPHX;
effectiveness-NTU equations for a single row HPHX as [13,
NTU = U A/Cmin is the number of transfer units, U is the overall
14] as the following.
heat exchanger heat transfer coefficient, A is the heat transfer
area, and C is the heat capacity rate.
For the evaporator side:
U can be written as [15]
εe1 = 1 − exp(−NTU)e (8)
1
U= (20)
For the condenser side: [Re.s,e + Rh. p + Re.s,c ]A
εc1 = 1 − exp(−NTU)c (9) where Re.s,e is the external surface thermal resistance of the
evaporator side, Re.s,c is the external surface thermal resistance
The NTU value for the evaporator and condenser sides are of the condenser side, and Rh. p is the thermal resistance of the
as follows, respectively: heat pipe structure.
The dominant thermal resistances in the heat pipe structure;
(U A)e that is, the wall thermal resistance and wick structure thermal
(NTU)e = (10)
Ce resistance were considered for the estimation of the thermal
resistance of the heat pipe structure [9, 16].
Ce = (ṁc p )e (11) The thermal resistance exists between the airflow and heat
pipe external surface. Since the surfaces of the tubes were fitted
(U A)c with fins to improve the heat transfer, the mean heat transfer
(NTU)c = (12)
Cc coefficient (α) can be estimated using the correlation for the
flow over the finned tube banks as
Cc = (ṁc p )c (13)
N u = α Dhydraulic /kair (21)
For an HPHX with n rows of heat pipe tubes, the
effectiveness-NTU equations are as follows [13, 14]: and the Nusselt number is given by (Hewitt [17])
 a 0.2  ζ 0.18  L −0.14
For the evaporation side: Nu = 0.19
f in
Re0.65 Pr0.33
 n b Dtube Dtube
1− CCve εe1
−1 (22)
1−εe1
εen =  n (14) where a is the tube distance in a row, b is the distance between
1− CCve εe1 the tubes in two successive rows, L f in is the fin length in the gas
− Ce
1−εe1 Cv flow direction, Dtube is the tube diameter, and ζ is the fin spacing.
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 no. 18 2014
 1544 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH

Table 2 Energy balance ratio (EBR) between evaporator and condenser 30

sections of HPHX, EBR = (T3 − T4 )/(T2 − T1 )

Sensible Effectiveness (%)

25
Evaporator inlet DBT (◦ C),
20
27 29 31 33 35
Fluid charge (%) EBR 15
DBT= 27 (°C)

Face velocity 1.5 m s−1 10

DBT= 29 (°C)
DBT= 31 (°C)
80 1.17 1.13 0.99 1.03 1.05
5 DBT= 33 (°C)
90 1.13 1.15 1.18 1.05 1.08
DBT= 35 (°C)
100 0.94 0.95 1.17 1.12 1.07
110 1.13 1.08 1.08 1.2 1.03 0
80 90 100 110 120
120 1.15 1.08 1.17 1.06 1.18
Face velocity 1.7 m s−1 Fluid Charge (%)
80 0.93 1.06 1.04 0.95 1.01 Figure 4 The influence of fluid charge on sensible effectiveness at face velocity
90 1 1.11 1.13 1.04 1.01 of 1.9 m s−1.
100 1.09 1.03 1.07 1.09 1.07
110 0.98 1.03 1.1 1.15 1.11
The Reynolds number is determined based on the hydraulic
120 0.89 1.13 1.09 1.02 1.19
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Face velocity 1.9 m s−1 diameter:

80 0.89 1 0.97 1.04 1.07
90 1 1.05 1.17 1.04 0.88
Re = ρV Dhydraulic /μ (23)
100 0.85 1.06 1.11 1.01 1.15
The heat transfer in the external surface is usually estimated
110 1.06 0.94 1.17 1.14 1.16
120 0.87 1.08 1.14 0.97 1.15 based on the fin efficiency [18]:
Face velocity 2.1 m s−1
80 1.2 0.88 1.16 1.04 0.86
η f in = tanh(m L f in )/(m L f in ) (24)
90 1.01 1.02 1.15 0.98 0.92
and
100 1.07 1 1.06 0.93 1.04  
110 1.11 1.11 1.15 1.21 1.12 2α f in (1 + δ f in /L f in )
120 0.87 1.02 1.08 1.14 1.12 m= (25)
k f in δ f in
Face velocity 2.3 m s−1
80 1.01 0.88 0.97 0.91 0.84 where α f in in Eq. (25) is the external surface heat transfer co-
90 1.04 1.04 1.15 0.96 0.86
100 0.98 0.97 1 0.86 1.18
efficient and given by Eq. (21).
110 0.97 1.08 1.19 1.18 1.1 Then the thermal resistance of the external surface can be
120 0.96 1.2 1.15 1.06 1.16 determined using Eq. (26):
Face velocity 2.5 m s−1
1
80 0.93 0.87 0.86 1.06 0.9 Re.s = (26)
90 0.91 1.06 1.14 0.89 0.87 η f in α f in A f in
100 1 0.9 0.89 0.85 1.01
110 1.05 0.99 1.15 1.1 1.11
The thermal resistance for N tubular heat pipe wall is given
120 0.83 1.14 0.96 1.11 1.17
by (Shah and Sekulic [15])
ln(Do /Di )wall
Rwall = (27)
2πL tube N kwall

30
30
Sen sib le effectiven ess (%)

25
Sensible Effectiveness(%)

25
20
20
15
15
DBT= 27 (°C) 10 F.C = 80%
F.C = 90%
10 DBT= 29 (°C)
F.C = 100%
DBT= 31 (°C) 5 F.C = 110%
5 DBT= 33 (°C) F.C = 120%
DBT= 35 (°C) 0
0 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
80 90 100 110 120
Fluid Charge (%) Evaporator Inlet DBT (°C)

Figure 3 The influence of fluid charge on sensible effectiveness at face velocity Figure 5 The influence of evaporator inlet DBT on sensible effectiveness at
of 1.7 m s−1. face velocity of 1.7 m s−1.

heat transfer engineering vol. 35 no. 18 2014

 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH 1545

Three layers of wire mesh screen were used as the wick 34

structure in the heat pipes. The thermal conductivity of multiple

Evaporator Outlet DBT (°C)

layers of screen mesh material with the working fluid is given 32

by Chang [19] as
  30
kf ψA
ke f f = ψ 2
A
(1 + A)2 ψ − πB(1 − k f /ks )/2 28


2[1 + A(1 − ψ)] 26
+ + [1 + A(1 − ψ)2 ] (28) Experimental
ψ − πB(1 − k f /ks )/4 Theoretical
24
with B = Dwir e /t, A = Dwir e /w, w is the opening width of 26 28 30 32 34 36
the mesh, Dwir e is the wire diameter, and t is the thickness of a Evaporator Inlet DBT (°C)

single layer of wire mesh. For the multiple layers, t = twick /nol.
In Eq. (28) ψ is the constant parameter dealing with the contact
condition of wires in the mesh. Then the thermal resistance of
the wick for N tubular heat pipes can be estimated by Shah and
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Figure 7 Experimental and theoretical comparison of evaporator outlet DBT
to evaporator inlet DBT at face velocity of 1.7 m s−1.
were transferred to the air passing through the condenser side).

Sekulic [15] as
ln(Do /Di )wick
Rwick =
2πL wick N ke f f
After calculation of the effectiveness from Eq. (18) or (19),
the outlet temperature of the evaporator was obtained from the
following equation [14]:
Te,outlet = Te,inlet − εtot (Te,inlet − Tc,inlet )
The comparisons between the experimental results and the-
oretical values were made for the heat pipes that were under the
100% fluid charge (i.e., the saturated wick).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The energy balance ratio (EBR) is defined as the energy
extracted from the air passing through the evaporator divided
by the energy transferred to the condenser side. The EBR values
for the tests are tabulated in Table 2. It can be seen from Table 2
that the EBR values for most of the tests examined are not
equal to 1 (note: EBR value should be equal to unity if all the
energy extracted from the air passing through the evaporator side
30
Sen sib le Effectiven ess (%)
There are three possible reasons for the EBR deviation from
unity: possible intervening heat transfer between evaporator and
(29) condenser sections, possible heat transfer to the ambient air
because of insufficient insulation, and not having a uniform
temperature profile at the measuring stations because of the
incomplete mixed air.
For checking any possible intervening heat transfer between
(30) the evaporator and condenser sides and any possible heat transfer
to the surrounding air, the intervening heat transfer test was
done with zero fluid charge for all the face velocities in the
temperature range of study. It was found that for all the tests,
the maximum temperature difference between the air streams in
the evaporator and condenser sections was 0.1◦ C. Therefore, the
heat transfer through conduction of tubes and heat transfer to the
surrounding air were negligible. It was obvious that incomplete
mixed air (not uniform) at the measuring points caused the
deviation of the EBR from unity.
The influence of fluid charge on the sensible effectiveness
is shown in Figures 3 and 4, which are the representatives of
results for the range of conditions tested. It was observed that
the sensible effectiveness was increased as the fluid charge in-
creased from 80% to 100% and then slightly decreased from
110% to 120%. These results imply that at the fluid charges
lower than the amount needed to saturate the wick (i.e., 100%),

34
25
Evaporator Outlet DBT (°C)

20 32

15 30

F.C = 80%
10
F.C = 90% 28
F.C = 100%
5 F.C = 110%
26
F.C = 120% Experimental
0 Theoretical
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 24
26 28 30 32 34 36
Evaporator Inlet DBT (°C) Evaporator Inlet DBT (°C)

Figure 6 The influence of evaporator inlet DBT on sensible effectiveness at Figure 8 Experimental and theoretical comparison of evaporator outlet DBT
face velocity of 1.9 m s−1. to evaporator inlet DBT at face velocity of 1.9 m s−1.

heat transfer engineering vol. 35 no. 18 2014

 1546 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH

34 35

30
32

Sensible Effectivenss (%)

Evaporator Outlet DBT (°C)

25
30
20
28
15

26 10
Experimental
Theoretical
5 min
24
26 28 30 32 34 36 max
0
Evaporator Inlet DBT (°C) 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Figure 9 Experimental and theoretical comparison of evaporator outlet DBT Fluid Charge (%)
to evaporator inlet DBT at face velocity of 2.1 m s−1. Figure 10 The influence of fluid charge on sensible effectiveness range
(min–max) at face velocity of 1.5 m s−1.
the heat transport between the evaporator and the condenser
through the working fluid is low. This might be due to the fact The influence of a higher DBT on the sensible effectiveness
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 19:32 24 March 2015

that although thermal resistance is low at fluid charges lower
than 100%, nevertheless, the amount of working fluid (i.e., re-
frigerant) being insufficient to saturate the wick caused low heat
transfer in the heat pipe. As the fluid charge increases, the per-
formance of the HPHX gets better because of enough liquid in
the heat pipes. When the fluid charge reaches to a level of over-
load (i.e., 120%), the sensible effectiveness slightly decreases.
This may be because of the fact that when the fluid charge is
significantly more than the amount needed to saturate the wick,
it causes the evaporator to flood and subsequently disturbs the
evaporation and condensation processes of the working fluid.
Figures 5 and 6 show the effect of the evaporator inlet DBT
on the HPHX sensible effectiveness. It is evident that for fluid
charges lower than the amount needed to saturate the wick,
the sensible effectiveness was reduced as the evaporator inlet
DBT increased. In other words, the heat transfer capability of
the HPHX was diminished corresponding with the increase of
the evaporator inlet DBT. This is because of the fact that by
increasing DBT, the heat flux to the container increases and
since thermal resistance in these amounts of fluid charges (80%
and 90%) is lower than the other fluid charges, the possibility of
the dry-out phenomenon in the evaporator can be expected. As
a result, the evaporator works with a shorter effective length and
its performance declines. At higher fluid charges, the effect of
the evaporator inlet DBT on the sensible effectiveness was not
significant and the sensible effectiveness was almost constant in
was not studied since the main objective of the present research
was to find out the optimum fluid charge in the temperature
range of 27–35◦ C for the purpose of future research.
Evaporator outlet temperatures were calculated from Eq. (30)
and compared with the experimental data, as shown in Fig-
ures 7–9 at three representative face velocities. The compari-
son of the experimental data and theoretical values indicates
that there is an acceptable agreement between the experimental
data and theoretical values with a maximum deviation of 3%.
Moreover, the uncertainty of recorded data for the evaporator
outlet temperature based on the RTD sensor accuracy indicates
uncertainty about 1% using the root sum square method. The
uncertainty of the experimentally measured evaporator outlet
temperatures is shown as the error bands in Figures 7–9.
The sensible effectiveness range, which was the main purpose
of the present experimental research, is tabulated in Table 3,
which shows the sensible effectiveness range (min–max) for the
face velocities in the temperature range of the study.
For convenience, the reference for sensible effectiveness
ranges (min–max) for two representative face velocities are pre-
sented in Figures 10 and 11. As can be seen from the figures, the
sensible effectiveness has the optimum amount at 110% fluid
charge. In other words, the optimum sensible effectiveness of
25
Sensible Effectiveness (%)

the temperature range of the study. 20

Table 3 Effectiveness range (min–max) 15

Coil face 10
velocity
(m s−1) F.C: 80% F.C: 90% F.C: 100% F.C: 110% F.C: 120%
5 min
1.5 10.37–21.21 17.05–25.99 26.09–28.07 26.04–28.8 23.16–26.6 max
1.7 8.26–18.23 16.19–22.59 24.81–26.78 24.77–27.44 22.52–26.9 0
1.9 7.7–16.55 14–21.59 21.98–25.27 22.23–26.22 20.42–23.91 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
2.1 6.71–16.67 11.05–20.26 22.81–24.84 22.23–25.13 20.86–23.97 Fluid Charge (%)
2.3 6.78–14.91 10.11–19.25 19.32–24.07 20.37–23.93 18.93–21.77
Figure 11 The influence of fluid charge on sensible effectiveness range
2.5 6.38–13.84 11.31–17.18 19.34–22.28 19.33–23.15 18.02–22.86
(min–max) at face velocity of 2.5 m s−1.

heat transfer engineering vol. 35 no. 18 2014

 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH 1547

HPHX takes place when the heat pipes are filled with the work- a tube distance in a row in Eq. (22), mm
ing fluid slightly exceeding the amount required to saturate the A heat transfer area, m2
wick. B dimensionless parameter defined by Dwir e /t in Eq.
(28)
b distance between the tubes in two successive rows in
CONCLUSIONS
Eq. (22), mm
cp specific heat of the ambient air, J kg−1 K−1
In the present research, the effect of fluid charge on the perfor-
C heat capacity, J s−1 K−1
mance of a typical two-row horizontal HPHX was investigated.
D diameter, m
The HPHX was tested under different fluid charges that rep-
DBT dry bulb temperature, ◦ C
resented both underload and overload cases, and different face
EBR energy balance ratio
velocities in the range of 27–35◦ C for the evaporator inlet DBT.
F.C fluid charge,%
Inlet air temperature for the condenser was kept constant at 24◦ C
HPHX heat pipe heat exchanger
during the tests. It was found that in the temperature range of
h specific enthalpy, k J kg −1
the study, for all the face velocities, the sensible effectiveness
k thermal conductivity, W m−1 K1
was lower for the fluid charges under the amount required to
L length, m
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 19:32 24 March 2015

saturate the wick, and this may be due to the insufficient work-
ṁ mass flow rate, kg s−1
ing fluid to saturate the wick and possibility of a dry-out in the
NTU number of heat transfer units
evaporator section. At the higher fluid charges, a slight decrease
Nu Nusselt number
in the sensible effectiveness was observed, and this might be
N number of the tubes
due to the heat pipe flooding and consequently disturbing the
n number of rows
evaporation and condensation processes of the refrigerant. The
nol number of layers
comparison between the experimental data and simulated val-
Pr Prandtl number
ues for the saturated situation showed good agreement for the
Q heat transfer rate, W
evaporator outlet temperature. Based on the experimental re-
R thermal resistance, k W−1
sults, it was conformed that the optimum effectiveness of the
Re Reynolds number
copper-R134a HPHX can be achieved at a fluid charge slightly
RTD resistance temperature detector
exceeding the amount needed to saturate the wick.
T temperature, ◦ C
t thickness, m
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS U heat transfer coefficient, W m−2 ◦ C−1
V coil face velocity, m s−1
Special thanks are extended to Ding Lai Chet and Adrian w opening width of the mesh, mm
Liaw Wen Jye for their help during a critical period of the
project. Also, thanks are given to Prof. K. T. Joseph, scientific Greek Symbols
editor at ULPA, University of Malaya, for proofreading the
article. ε effectiveness
η fin efficiency
FUNDING δ fin thickness, m
α heat transfer coefficient, W m−2 K−1
The authors acknowledge the financial assistance of the ρ density, kg m−3
University of Malaya (UM), which awarded the PPP grant μ viscosity, N s m−2
PV074/2012A and the UMRG grant RG042/09AET to the ζ fin spacing, m
first author for research work to be conducted at University ψ constant parameter dealing with the contact condition of
of Malaya. In addition, special thanks are extended to Chabahar wires in the mesh
Maritime University (CMU) for the financial assistance pro-
vided to the co-author for research to be jointly conducted. Subscripts
Thanks are also extended to CREAM-CIDB for providing par-
tial financial support to the first author for conducting research act actual
work at University of Malaya. c condenser
cn condenser number of rows
NOMENCLATURE c1 single row condenser
e.s external surface
A dimensionless parameter defined by Dwir e /w in Eq. ef f effective
(28) e evaporator
heat transfer engineering vol. 35 no. 18 2014
 1548 Y. H. YAU AND M. AHMADZADEHTALATAPEH
en evaporator number of rows
e1 single row evaporator
f fluid phase
h. p heat pipe
i inner
max maximum
min minimum
o outer
S solid phase
sen sensible
tot total
v vapor
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Yat Huang Yau obtained a B.Sc. in mechanical en-
gineering cum laude in 1994 from the Wichita State
University, Wichita, Kansas, and an M.Sc. in me-
chanical engineering in 1996 from the University of
Science Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. He obtained
his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering in 2005 from
the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New
Zealand. His major interest areas are air-conditioning
and refrigeration, M&E engineering, HVAC&R engi-
neering, thermal systems simulation using TRNSYS,
energy savings in buildings, IEQ engineering, green building design, FEA, and
CAD and CAM engineering.
Mohammad Ahmadzadehtalataeph received the
B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in mechanical engineer-
ing from Tabriz University and Ferdowsi of Mash-
had University, Iran, in 2000 and 2002, respectively.
He obtained his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering in
2011 from the University of Malaya, Malaysia. He
is currently an assistant professor at the Chabahar
Maritime University, Iran. His research interest ar-
eas are heat pipe heat exchangers, air-conditioning
systems, and energy saving in buildings using
TRNSYS.
vol. 35 no. 18 2014