Teori Organisasi

Teori Organisasi Lanjutan

Lanjutan

Sesi 1 PENGANTAR
TEORI ORGANISASI

Dr. A. Wahyudi Atmoko 1

Apa itu TEORI?
Theory is an explanation, that is, it an attempt to explain
a segment of experience in the world (Hatch, 1997: 9)

| Theory, then, is a framework for seeing

y Every person approaches the world of experience from
their own unique set of frameworks or paradigms
| Theory simultaneously enlightens and obscures
y our vision is dominated by our own frameworks, which
makes comprehension of alternative frameworks difficult

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A. Wahyudi Atmoko 3
Differences between Perspectives & Theories

| A perspective is an approach to practice that involves basic value

assumptions about best practices. Perspectives give us only very general
information about the outcomes specific actions will produce.
| A theory contains assumptions about cause and effect relationships that
have been established as valid through empirical testing. Theories help
us link specific actions or interventions with specific outcomes.

Bandingkan!
Paradigma ialah acuan keyakinan dasar peneliti dalam melakukan penelitian
yang melatari dari cara pandang melihat masalah, mencari penjelasan teoritis,
mendisain penelitian hingga memberikan jawaban atas masalah yang diteliti.

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Apa itu Organisasi?

| “Organizations are social entities that are goal-

oriented; are designed as deliberately structured and
coordinated activity systems, and are linked to the
external environment” (Daft, 2004).

| “Suatu kesatuan sosial dari sekelompok individu

(orang), yang saling berinteraksi menurut suatu pola
yang terstruktur dengan cara tertentu shingga
setiapanggota organisasi mempunyai tugas dan
fungsinya masing-masing, dan sebagai suatu kesatuan
mempunyai tujuan tertentu, dan juga mempunyai
batas-batas yang jelas, sehingga organisasi dapat
dipisahkan secara tegas dari lingkungannya”(Davis dalam
Martani & Lubis, 2009: 5).
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Contoh:
Asumsi Dasar dalam Pendekatan Sistem

| Organizational systems change constantly through interaction

and exchange with their environments.
| Effective organizational systems are highly open – but
boundaries between the organizational system and its external
environment are well defined.
| Organizational systems may be orderly and predictable but may
also be disorderly and unpredictable.
| Order may rest on coercion and domination as well as consensus
and cooperation.
| Places equal emphasis on conflict and change as order and
stability.

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Teori-teori lain akan fokus misalnya pada:

| Organization structure.
| Organization culture and groups of people interacting
in organizations.
| How organizations adapt to external demands.

| How power is achieved and used in organizations.

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 Goals and
Strategy
Environment Power,
Change

Culture Technology
Structure

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Main idea
of classical organizational theory

| There is “one best way” to perform a task

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 Classical organizational theory espouses two
perspectives:

| Scientific management – focusing on the management of

work and workers
| Administrative management - addressing issues
concerning how overall organization should be structured

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Major contributors to the Classical
Organizational Theory:
Scientific Management:
y Frederick Taylor

Administrative Management:
y Henri Fayol
y Luther Halsey Gulick
y Max Weber

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 Frederick Taylor

| Taylor is born in Pennsylvania on March 20, 1856

| After studying in Europe, he plans to go to Harvard, but
does not pass the entrance exams
| Instead Taylor works as a pattern maker at a pump
manufacturing company in Philadelphia
| Later, he studies mechanical engineering at Stevens,
finishing in just three years.

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 Ingenuity and Accomplishments

| Creates systems to gain maximum efficiency from workers

and machines in the factory.
| Focuses on time and motion studies to learn how to complete
a task in the least amount of time.
| Becomes consulting engineer for many other companies
| Publishes—The Principles of Scientific Management

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Key Points of
Scientific Management
1. Scientific Job Analysis – observation, data gathering, and
careful measurement determine “the one best way” to perform
each job
2. Selection of Personnel – scientifically select and then train,
teach, and develop workers
3. Management Cooperation – managers should cooperate with
workers to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the
principles of the science that developed the plan
4. Functional Supervising – managers assume planning,
organizing, and decision-making activities, and workers
perform jobs

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Henri Fayol

| Engineer and French industrialist

| In France works as a managing director in coal-mining
organization
| Recognizes to the management principles rather than personal
traits
| While others shared this belief, Fayol was the first to identify
management as a continuous process of evaluation.

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 Fayol’s 5 Management Functions

Fundamental roles performed by all managers:

9 Planning
9 Organizing
9 Commanding
9 Coordinating
9 Controlling

Additionally Fayol recognizes fourteen principles that should guide the

management of organizations.

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 Fayol’s 14 Principles:

1. Division of Work —improves efficiency through a reduction of waste,

increased output, and simplification of job training
2. Authority and Responsibility—authority: the right to give orders and
the power to extract obedience – responsibility: the obligation to carry
out assigned duties
3. Discipline—respect for the rules that govern the organization

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4. Unity of Command—an employee should receive orders from one superior
only
5. Unity of Direction—grouping of similar activities that are directed to a
single goal under one manager
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest—interests
of individuals and groups should not take precedence over the interests of
the organization as a whole.
7. Remuneration of Personnel—payment should be fair and satisfactory for
employees and the organization
8. Centralization—managers retain final responsibility – subordinates
maintain enough responsibility to accomplish their tasks

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9. Scalar Chain (Line of Authority)—the chain of command from the
ultimate authority to the lowest
10. Order—people and supplies should be in the right place at the right
time
11. Equity—managers should treat employees fairly and equally
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel—managerial practices that encourage
long-term commitment from employees create a stable workforce and
therefore a successful organization
13. Initiative—employees should be encouraged to develop and carry out
improvement plans
14. Esprit de Corps—managers should foster and maintain teamwork, team
spirit, and a sense of unity among employees

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 Luther Halsey Gulick
(1892-1992)

| Planning - developing an outline of the things that must be accomplished and

the methods for accomplishing them
| Organizing - establishes the formal structure of authority through which work
subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated to implement the plan
| Staffing - selecting, training, and developing the staff and maintaining
favorable working conditions
| Directing - the continuous task of making decisions, communicating and
implementing decisions, and evaluating subordinates properly
5. Coordinating - all activities and efforts needed to bind together the organization in
order to achieve a common goal
6. Reporting - verifies progress through records, research, and inspection; ensures
that things happen according to plan; takes any corrective action when necessary;
and keeps those to whom the chief executive is responsible informed
7. Budgeting - all activities that accompany budgeting, including fiscal planning,
accounting, and control

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 Max Weber
(1864-1920)

| German sociologist
| Weber first describes the concept of bureaucracy – an ideal
form of organizational structure
| He defines bureaucratic administration as the exercise of
control on the basis of knowledge
| Weber states, “Power is principally exemplified within
organizations by the process of control”

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Weber uses and defines the terms authority and power
as:
| Power: any relationship within which one person
could impose his will, regardless of any resistance from
the other.

| Authority: existed when there was a belief in the

legitimacy of that power.

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Weber classifies organizations according to the
legitimacy of their power and uses three basic
classifications:

Charismatic Authority: based on the sacred or outstanding

characteristic of the individual.

Traditional Authority: essentially a respect for customs.

Rational Legal Authority: based on a code or set of rules.

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Weber recognizes that rational legal authority is
used in the most efficient form of organization
because:

| A legal code can be established which can claim obedience from

members of the organization

| The law is a system of abstract rules which are applied to

particular cases; and administration looks after the interests of
the organization within the limits of that law.

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| The manager or the authority additionally follows the
impersonal order

| Membership is key to law obedience

| Obedience is derived not from the person

administering the law, but rather to the impersonal
order that installed the person’s authority

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 Weber outlined his ideal bureaucracy
as defined by the following parameters:

| A continuous system of authorized jobs maintained by regulations

| Specialization: encompasses a defined “sphere of competence,”

based on its divisions of labor

| A stated chain of command of offices: a consistent organization of

supervision based on distinctive levels of authority

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| Rules: an all encompassing system of directives which
govern behavior: rules may require training to
comprehend and manage

| Impersonality: no partiality, either for or against,

clients, workers, or administrators

| Free selection of appointed officials: equal opportunity

based on education and professional qualification

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| Full-time paid officials: only or major employment; paid on the
basis of position

| Career officials: promotion based on seniority and merit;

designated by supervisors
| Private/Public split: separates business and private life

| The finances and interests of the two should be kept firmly apart:
the resources of the organization are quite distinct from those of
the members as private individuals.

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Scientific Management

Key concepts
Used scientific methods to determine the “one best way’
Emphasized study of tasks, selection and training of workers, and cooperation
between workers and management

Contributions
Improved factory productivity and efficiency
Introduced scientific analysis to the workplace
Piecerate system equated worker rewards and performance

Limitations
Simplistic motivational assumptions
Workers viewed as parts of a machine
Potential for exploitation of labor
Excluded senior management tasks

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Administrative Management

Key concepts
Fayol’s five functions and 14 principles of management
Executives formulate the organization’s purpose, secure employees, and
maintain communications
Managers must respond to changing developments

Contributions
Viewed management as a profession that can be trained and developed
Emphasized the broad policy aspects of top-level managers
Offered universal managerial prescriptions

Limitations
Universal prescriptions need qualifications for environmental,
technological, and personnel factors

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Bureaucracy
| Bureaucratic structures can eliminate the variability that results when
managers in the same organization have different skills, experiences, and
goals
| Allows large organizations to perform the many routine activities
necessary for their survival
| People should be treated in unbiased manner
| Personalities
y Max Weber

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Bureaucracy (cont.)

Key concepts
Structured network of relationships among specialized positions
Rules and regulations standardize behavior
Jobs staffed by trained specialists who follow rules
Hierarchy defines the relationship among jobs

Contributions
Promotes efficient performance of routine operations
Eliminates subjective judgment by employees and management
Emphasizes position rather than the person

Limitations
Limited organizational flexibility and slowed decision making
Ignores the importance of people and interpersonal relationships
Rules may become ends in themselves

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Organizational Behavior

| Studies management activities that promote employee effectiveness

y investigates the complex nature of individual, group, and
organizational processes
y Theory X
| managers assume that workers are lazy, irresponsible, and
require constant supervision
y Theory Y
| managers assume employees want to work and control
themselves
| Personalities
y Douglas McGregor

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Organizational Behavior (cont.)

Key concepts
Promotes employee effectiveness through understanding of individual, group,
and organizational processes
Stresses relationships among employees, managers, and work performed
Assumes employees want to work and can control themselves

Contributions
Increased participation, greater autonomy, individual challenge and initiative,
and enriched jobs may increase participation
Recognized the importance of developing human resources

Limitations
Some approaches ignored situational factors, such as the environment and
technology

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Systems Theory

Key concepts
Organization is viewed as a managed system
Management must interact with the environment
Organizational goals must address effectiveness and efficiency
Organizations contain a series of subsystems
There are many avenues to the same outcome
Synergies enable the whole to be more than the sum of the parts

Contributions
Recognized the importance of the relationship between the organization and
the environment

Limitations
Does not provide specific guidance on the functions of managers

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Contingency Perspective

Key concepts
Situational contingencies influence the strategies, structures, and processes
that result in high performance
There is more than one way to reach a goal
Managers may adapt their organizations to the situation

Contributions
Identified major contingencies
Argued against universal principles of management

Limitations
Not all important contingencies have been identified
Theory may not be applicable to all managerial issues

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Lingkungan

Organisasi

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A. Wahyudi Atmoko 37
Sumber-sumber Inspirasi Teori Organisasi

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Perbedaan-perbedaan dalam Berbagai Perspektif Teori Organisasi

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(Sumber: Hatch, 1997: 49)
Metafora Teori Organisasi

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Karakteristik Perspektif Klasik

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Karakteristik Perspektif Neo-Klasik

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Karakteristik Perspektif Modern

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 Perspektif Makro & Mikro dalam Teori Organisasi
Pikirkan!!!

1. Apakah organisasi secara fungsional rasional, secara teknis sistem

membatasi, atau mereka secara sosial bebas, secara subyektif
kebebasannya melekat dalam tindakan individu?
2. Apakah perubahan2 bentuk organisasi dijelaskan oleh adaptasi internal
atau oleh seleksi lingkungan?
3. Apakah kehidupan organisasi ditentukan oleh batasan lingkungan yang
ada, atau apakah secara aktif dibangun melalui pilihan2 stratejik?
4. Apakah lingkungan dipandang sebagai satu kumpulan organisasi2 yang
diatur oleh kekuatan2 ekonomi, atau sebagai satu kolektivitas organisasi
yang terintegrasi diatur oleh kekuatan2 politik dan sosial internal?
5. Apakah perilaku organisasi secara mendasar ditentukan oleh tindakan
individu atau kolektif?
6. Apakah organisasi direkayasa melalui instrumen teknis yang netral
untuk mencapai tujuan, atau merupakan manifestasi yang telah 44
terinstitusionalisasi dari kekuasaan & vested interest tertentu?
 Perspektif dalam Teori Organisasi
Macro
Level

NATURAL SELECTION VIEW COLLECTIVE-ACTION VIEW

SYSTEMS-STRUCTURAL VIEW STRATEGIC CHOICE VIEW

Micro
Level
Deterministic Orientation Voluntaristic Orientation

(Astley & Andrew, 1983: 247)

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 NATURAL SELECTION VIEW
Schools: Population Ecology, Industrial Economics,
Economi History
Structure: Environmental competition & carrying
capacity predefined niches. Industrial structure
is economically & technically determined.
Change: A natural evolution of environment-al
variation, selection & retention. The economic
context circumscribes the direc-tion & extent of
oranizational growth.
Behavior: Random, natural,or economic,
environmental selection.
Manager Role: Inactive
SYSTEMS-STRUCTURAL VIEW
Schools: Systems Theory, Structural
Functionalism, Contingency Theory
Structure: Roles & positions hierarchically arrang-
ed efficiently achive the function of the system.
Change: Devide & integrate roles to adapt subsys-
tems to changes in environment, technology,
size, and resource need.
Behavior: Determined, constrained, and adaptive.
Manager Role: Reactive
COLLECTIVE-ACTION VIEW
Schools: Human Ecology, Political Economy,
Pluralism
Structure: Communities or networks of semiauto-
nomous partisan groups that interact to modi-
fy or construct their collective environment,
rules, options. Organization is collective-
action controlling, liberating, and expanding
individual action.
Change: Collective bargaining, conflict, negotia-
tion, and compromises through partisan
mutual adjustment.
Behavior: Reasonable, collectively constructed,
and politically negotiated orders.
Manager Role: Interactive
STRATEGIC CHOICE VIEW
Schools: Action Theory, Contemporary Decision
Theory, Strategic Management
Structure: People and their relationships organ-
ized & socialized to serve the choice &
purposess of people in power.
Change: Environment & structure are enacted &
embody the meaning of action of people in
power.
Behavior: Constructed, autonomous, and enacted.
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Manager Role: Proactive
 Public & Private Organizations are Different: a Comparison
A. Private organizations
1. Organizational rationality is bounded, and
progress is often by trial and error.
2. Worker motivation is complex, extending
beyond economic incentives into social and
personal needs.
3. Organizations have a non-formal
organizational culture key to determining
the actual tasks and the sense of mission.
4. Organizations have the characteristics of
living, evolving systems.
5. There is a great variety of types of
organization, responding to different and
changing needs and environments.
6. The external “authorizing environment” – i.e.
the external influences on what the
organization does and how it does it – is
important and complex.
B. Public organizations
Similar, but uncertainty may be less.
Similar: the people are no different.
Similar.
Much less so: they are born, allowed to change
and allowed to die much less easily.
There is a smaller variety. A ministerial
hierarchy with large, wholly public sub-
organizations is the dominant form.
Centralized control of resources and regulation
of personnel and procedures mean
considerably less managerial autonomy
from the external environment.
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 Struktur Perkuliahan

• Perhatikan Silabus & Tugas2 Yang Diberikan.

• Kerjakan Tugas Tepat Waktu.

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