Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Frequecy Response of Filter - Important PDF
Frequecy Response of Filter - Important PDF
PASSIVE FILTERS
Frequency-selective or filter circuits pass to the output only those input signals that are in a
desired range of frequencies (called pass band). The amplitude of signals outside this range
of frequencies (called stop band) is reduced (ideally reduced to zero). Typically in these
circuits, the input and output currents are kept to a small value and as such, the current
transfer function is not an important parameter. The main parameter is the voltage transfer
function in the frequency domain, Hv (jω) = Vo /Vi . As Hv (jω) is complex number, it has
both a magnitude and a phase, filters in general introduce a phase difference between input
and output signals.
To minimize the number of subscripts, hereafter, we will drop subscript v of Hv . Furthermore,
we concentrate on the the ”open-loop” transfer functions, Hvo , and denote this simply by
H(jω). The impact of loading is sperately discussed.
In practical filters, pass and stop bands are not clearly | H(j ω) |
defined, |H(jω)| varies continuously from its maximum Κ
toward zero. The cut-off frequency is, therefore, defined
√ 0.7Κ
as the frequency at which |H(jω)| is reduced to 1/ 2 =
0.7 of its maximum value. This corresponds to signal
power being reduced by 1/2 as P ∝ V 2 .
ωc ω
L
Low-pass RL filters
+ +
A series RL circuit as shown acts as a low-pass filter. For
Vi R Vo
no load resistance (“open-loop” transfer function), Vo can
be found from the voltage divider formula: - -
R Vo R 1
Vo = Vi → H(jω) = = =
R + jωL Vi R + jωL 1 + j(ωL/R)
We note
1
|H(jω)| = q
1 + (ωL/R)2
|H(jω)|max = 1
1 1
|H(jω)|ω=ωc = √ |H(jω)|max = √
2 2
2
1 1 ωc L ωc L
q =√ −→ 1+ =2 → =1
1 + (ωc L/R)2 2 R R
Therefore,
R 1
ωc = and H(jω) =
L 1 + jω/ωc
Vi
Zi = = jωL + R
Ii
The value of the input impedance depends on the frequency ω. For good voltage coupling,
we need to ensure that the input impedance of this filter is much larger than the output
impedance of the previous stage. Since we do not know the frequency of the input signal,
we need to ensure that good voltage coupling criteria is satisfied for all frequencies (or all
possible values of Zi ). As such, the minimum value of Zi is an important number. Zi is
minimum when the impedance of the inductor is zero (ω → 0).
Zi |min = R
L
Output Impedance: The output impdenace can be
found by “killing” the source and finding the equivalent
impdenace between output terminals: R
Zo
Zo = jωL k R
Zo |max = R
Po Vo
Number of Bels = log10 or Number of Bels = 2 log10
Pi Vi
Vo Vo Vo
Number of decibels = 20 log10 or = 20 log10
Vi Vi
dB Vi
Bode plots are plots of |H(jω)|dB (magnitude) and 6 H(jω) (phase) versus frequency in a
semi-log format (i.e., ω axis is a log axis). Bode plots of first-order low-pass RL filters are
shown below (W denotes ωc ).
|H(jω)|dB
6 H(jω)
which is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade in the Bode plot. It means that if ω
is increased by a factor of 10 (a decade), |H(jω)|dB changes by -20 dB.
At low frequencies, ω/ωc 1, |H(jω)| ≈ 1 which is also a straight line in the Bode plot.
The intersection of these two “asymptotic” values is at 1 = 1/(ω/ωc) or ω = ωc . Because of
this, the cut-off frequency is also called the “corner” frequency.
The behavior of the phase of H(jω) can be found by examining 6 H(jω) = − tan−1 (ω/ωc). At
low frequencies, ω/ωc 1, 6 H(jω) ≈ 0 and at high frequencies, ω/ωc 1, 6 H(jω) ≈ −90◦ .
At cut-off frequency, 6 H(jω) ≈ −45◦ .
K
H(jω) =
1 + jω/ωc
The maximum value of |H(jω)| = |K| is called the filter gain. Note that the exponent of ω
in the denominator is +1 so that |H(jω)| decreases with frequency (thus,a low-pass filter):
|K|
|H(jω)| = q
1 + (ω/ωc)2
|K| ω
6 H(jω) = − tan−1
K ωc
For RL filter, K = 1, and ωc = R/L. Note that K can be negative, and in that case, the
“minus” sign adds 180◦ phase shift to the transfer function as is denoted by |K|/K factor
above.
R
Low-pass RC filters + +
A series RC circuit as shown also acts as a low-pass filter. C
V Vo
For no load resistance (“open-loop” transfer function), Vo i
1/(jωC) 1
Vo = Vi = Vi
R + 1/(jωC) 1 + j(ωRC)
1
H(jω) =
1 + jωRC
We see that the voltage transfer function of this circuit is similar to transfer function of a
general first-order low-pass filter. So, this is a low-pass filter with K = 1 and ωc = 1/RC.
(Note: we identified the circuit and found the cut-off frequency without doing any math!).
1
Zi = R + and Zi |min = R
jωC
1
Zo = R k and Zo |max = R
jωC
R
Terminated RL and RC low-pass filters
+ +
Now let us examin the effect of a load on the perfor-
mance of our RL and RC filters. For this example, C Vo RL
V
i
a resistive load is considered but the analysis can be
easily extended to an impedance load. For example, - -
Vo 1/(jωC) k RL R0 /R
H(jω) = = = with R 0 = R k RL
Vi R + [1/(jωC) k RL ] 1 + j(ωR0 C)
This is similar to the transfer function for unterminated RC filter but with resistance R
being replaced by R0 . Therefore,
1 1 R0 /R
ωc = 0
= and H(jω) =
RC (R k RL )C 1 + jω/ωc
We see that the impact of the load is to reduce the filter gain (K = R 0 /R < 1) and to shift
the cut-off frequency to a higher frequency as R0 = R k RL < R.
1
Input Impedance: Zi = R + k RL Zi |min = R
jωC
1
Output Impedance: Zo = R k Zo |max = R
jωC
We could have arrived at the same results using the the relationship between open-loop,
Ho (jω), and terminated, H(jω), transfer functions of a two-port network:
ZL RL 1
H(jω) = Ho (jω) = ×
ZL + Z o 1 1 + jωRC
RL + R k
jωC
In general, the voltage transfer function of a first-order high-pass filter is in the form:
K
H(jω) =
1 − jωc /ω
|K| |K| ωc
|H(jω)| = q 6 H(jω) = + tan−1
1 + (ωc /ω)2 K ω
Bode Plots of first-order high-pass filters (K = 1) are shown below. The asymptotic behavior
of this class of filters is:
At low frequencies, ω/ωc 1, |H(jω)| ∝ ω (a +20dB/decade line) and 6 H(jω) = 90◦
At high frequencies, ω/ωc 1, |H(jω)| ∝ 1 (a line with a slope of 0) and 6 H(jω) = 0◦
|H(jω)|
6 H(jω)
- -
Vo R 1
H(jω) = = =
Vi R + 1/(jωC) 1 − j(1/ωRC)
Therefore, this is a first-order high-pass filter with K = 1 and ωC = 1/RC. Input and output
impdenaces of this filter can be found similar to the procedure used for low-pass filters:
1
Input Impedance: Zi = R + and Zi |min = R
jωC
1
Output Impedance: Zo = R k and Zo |max = R
jωC
High-pass RL filters R
- -
R 1
ωc = H(jω) =
L 1 − jωc /ω
Exercise: Compute the voltage transfer function and input and output impdenaces of
terminated RC and RL filters.
A band pass filter allows signals with a range of frequencies (pass band) to pass through and
attenuates signals with frequencies outside this range.
| H(j ω) |
ωl : Lower cut-off frequency;
ωu : Upper cut-off frequency;
√ Pass
ω0 ≡ ω l ωu : Center frequency;
Band
B ≡ ω u − ωl : Band width;
ω0 ωl ωu ω
Q≡ : Quality factor.
B
As with practical low- and high-pass filters, upper and lower cut-off frequencies of practical
band pass filter are defined as the frequencies at which the magnitude of the voltage transfer
√
function is reduced by 1/ 2 (or -3 dB) from its maximum value.
Second-order band-pass filters:
Second-order band pass filters include two storage elements (two capacitors, two inductors,
or one of each). The transfer function for a second-order band-pass filter can be written as
K
H(jω) = ω ω0
1 + jQ −
ω0 ω
|K| |K| ω ω0
|H(jω)| = s 6 H(jω) = − tan−1 Q −
2
ω ω0 2
K ω0 ω
1+Q −
ω0 ω
The maximum value of |H(jω)| = |K| is called the filter gain. The lower and upper cut-off
√
frequencies can be calculated by noting that |H(jω)|max = K, setting |H(jωc )| = K/ 2 and
solving for ωc . This procedure will give two roots: ωl and ωu .
1 K K
|H(jωc)| = √ |H(jω)|max = √ = s
2 2 ωc ω0 2
1 + Q2 −
ω0 ωc
ωc ω0 2 ωc ω0
2
Q − =1 → Q − = ±1
ω0 ωc ω0 ωc
ωc ω0
ωc2 − ω02 ± =0
Q
Bode plots of a second-order filter is shown below. Note that as Q increases, the bandwidth
of the filter become smaller and the |H(jω)| becomes more picked around ω0 .
|H(jω)|db
6 H(jω)
Asymptotic behavior:
At low frequencies, ω/ω0 1, |H(jω)| ∝ ω (a +20dB/decade line), and 6 H(jω) → 90◦
At high frequencies, ω/ω0 1, |H(jω)| ∝ 1/ω (a -20dB/decade line), and 6 H(jω) → −90◦
At ω = ω0 , H(jω) = K (purely real) |H(jω)| = K (maximum filter gain), and 6 H(jω) = 0◦ .
There are two ways to solve second-order filter circuits. 1) One can try to write H(jω) in
the general form of a second-order filters and find Q and ω0 . Then, use the formulas above
to find the lower and upper cut-off frequencies. 2) Alternatively, one can directly find the
√
upper and lower cut-off frequencies and use ω0 ≡ ωl ωu to find the center frequency and
B ≡ ωu − ωl to find the bandwidth, and Q ≡= ω0 /B to find the quality factor. The two
examples below show the two methods. Note that one can always find ω0 and k rapidaly as
H(jω0 ) is purely real and |H(jω0 )| = k
Vo R
H(jω) = = - -
Vi R + jωL + 1/(jωC)
R
H(jω) =
1
R + j ωL −
ωC
K
H(jω) = ω
ω0
1 + jQ −
ω0 ω
Note that the denominator of the general form is in the form 1 + j . . . Therefore, we divide
top and bottom of transfer function of series RLC bandpass filters by R:
1
H(jω) =
ωL 1
1+j −
R ωRC
Comparing the above with the general form of the transfer function, we find K = 1. To find
Q and ω0 , we note that the imaginary part of the denominator has two terms, one positive
and one negative (or one that scales as ω and the other that scales as 1/ω) similar to the
general form of transfer function of 2nd-order band-pass filters (which includes Qω/ω0 and
−Qω0 /ω). Equating these similar terms we get:
Qω ωL Q L
= → =
ω0 R ω0 R
Qω0 1 1
= → Qω0 =
ω ωRC RC
R
H(jω) =
1
R + j ωL −
ωC
We note that the transfer function is real if coefficient of j in the denominator is exactly
zero (note that this happens for ω = ω0 ), i.e.,
1 1
ω0 L − =0 −→ ω0 = √
ω0 C LC
Also
R
K = H(jω = jω0 ) = =1
R
K 1
|H(jωc)| = √ = √
2 2
2
ωc L 1
1+ − =2
R ωc RC
1 1
Zi = jωL + + R = j ωL − +R
jωC ωC
Zi |min = R occurs at ω = ω0
!
1
Zo = jωL + kR → Zo |max = R
jωC
Band-pass filters can be constructed by putting a high-pass and a low-pass filter back to
back as shown below. The high-pass filter sets the lower cut-off frequency and the low-pass
filter sets the upper cut-off frequency of such a band-pass filter.
| H (j ω) | | H (j ω) | | H (j ω) | X | H (j ω) |
2 1 1 2
ω c2 ω ω c1 ω ω l = ωc2 ω u = ωc1 ω
R2 C1
An example of such a band-pass filter is
two RC low-pass and high-pass filters put + + +
In order to have good voltage coupling in the above circuit, the input impedance of the
high-pass filter (actually Zi |min = R1 ) should be much larger than the output impedance of
the low-pass filter (actually Zo |max = R2 ), or we should have R1 R2 . In that case we can
use un-terminated transfer functions:
1 1
H(jω) = H1 (jω) × H2 (jω) = ×
1 + jω/ωc2 1 − jωc1 /ω
ωc1 = 1/(R1 C1 ) ωc2 = 1/(R2 C2 )
1 1
H(jω) = =
(1 + jω/ωc2)(1 − jωc1 /ω) (1 + ωc1 /ωc2 ) + j(ω/ωc2 − ωc1 /ω)
Again, we can find the filter parameters by either of two methods above. Transforming the
transfer function to a form similar to the general form (left for students) gives:
q
1 ωc1 /ωc2 √
K= Q= ω0 = ωc1 ωc2
1 + ωc1 /ωc2 1 + ωc1 /ωc2
while our asymptotic description of previous page indicated that when ωc2 = ωc1 , band-width
becomes vanishingly small and Q should become very large.
Because these filters work only when ωc2 ωc1 , they are called “wide-band” filters. For
these wide-band filters (ωc1 ωc2 ), we find from above:
q √
K=1 Q= ωc1 /ωc2 ω0 = ωc2 ωc1
1
H(jω) =
1 + j(ω/ωc2 − ωc1 /ω)
We then substitute for Q and ω0 in the expressions for cut-off frequencies (page 31) to get:
s
1 ω0 ω0 q
ωu = ω 0 1+ + = 1 + 4Q + 1
2
4Q2 2Q 2Q
s
1 ω0 ω0 q
ωl = ω 0 1 + + = 1 + 4Q 2 −1
4Q2 2Q 2Q
Example: Design a band-pass filter with cut-off frequencies of 160 Hz and 8 kHz. The load
for this circuit is 1 MΩ.
As this is wide-band, band-pass filter (ωu /ωl = fu /fl = 50 1), we use two low- and
high-pass RC filter stages similar to circuit above. The prototype of the circuit is shown
below:
R2 C1
+ + +
The high-pass filter sets the lower cut-off
C2 V1 R1 Vo
frequency, and the 1 MΩ load sets the out- V
i
1
ωc (High-pass) = ωl = = 2π × 160 → R1 C1 = 1 × 10−3 kΩ
R1 C1
One should choose R1 as close as possible to 100 kΩ (to make the C1 small) and R1 C1 =
1×10−3 using commercial values of resistors and capacitors. A good set here are R1 = 100 kΩ
and C1 = 10 nF.
The low-pass filter sets the upper cut-off frequency. The load for this component is the input
resistance of the high-pass filter, Zi |min = R1 = 100 kΩ. Thus:
Zo |max = R2 100kΩ → R2 ≤ 10 kΩ
1
ωc (Low-pass) = ωu = = 2π × 8 × 103 → R2 C2 = 2 × 10−5
R2 C2
Problem 1. Design a RLC bandpass filter with a lower cut-off frequency of 1 kHz and a
bandwidth of 3 kHz. What is the center frequency and Q of this filter?
Problem 2. We have an amplifier that amplifies a 1 kHz signal from a detector. The load
for this amplifier can be modeled as a 50 kΩ resistor. The amplifier output has a large
amount of 60 Hz noise. We need to reduce the amplitude of noise by a factor of 10. Design
a first-order passive filter which can be placed between the amplifier and the load and does
the job. Would this filter affect the 1 kHz signal that we are interested in? If so, by how
much?
Problem 3. The tuner for an FM radio requires a band-pass filter with a central frequency
of 100 MHz (frequency of a FM station) and a bandwidth of 2 MHz. a) Design such a filter.
b) What are its cut-off frequencies?
Problem 4. A telephone line carries both voice band (0-4 kHz) and data band (25 kHz to
1 MHz). Design a filter that lets the voice band through and rejects the data band. The
filter must meet the following specifications: a) For the voice band, the change in transfer
function should be at most 1 dB; and b) The transfer function should be as small as possible
at 25 kHz, the low end of the data band.
Problem 1. Design a RLC bandpass filter with a lower cut-off frequency of 1 kHz and a
bandwidth of 3 kHz. What is the center frequency and Q of this filter?
L C
The circuit prototype is: + +
For a 2nd order band-pass filter:
Vi R Vo
B(Hz) = fu − fl fu = 1 + 3 = 4 kHz -
-
4
B(rad/s) = 2πB(Hz) = 1.88 × 10
ωu = 2πfu = 2.51 × 104 ωl = 2πfl = 6.28 × 103
√
ω0 = ωu ωl = 1.26 × 104
ω0 1.26 × 104
B(rad/s) = → Q= = 0.67
Q 1.88 × 104
1 1
ω0 = √ → LC = 2
LC ω0
1 1
C= = = 0.63 µF
Lω02 10 × 10−3 × (1.26 × 104 )2
ω0 R ω0
Q= → = = B(rad/s)
R/L L Q
R = LB = 10 × 10−3 × 1.88 × 104 = 188 Ω
Therefore, using commercial values, the design values are L = 10 mH, R = 180 Ω, and
C = 0.68 µF.
C
Vo 1
H(jω) = = + +
Vi 1 − jωc /ω
Inverting Vi
1 Vo
ωc = Amp. R R
L
RC
Zi |min = R - -
Zo |max = R
As the output impedance of the inverting amplifier circuit is “zero”, we do not need to worry
about the input impedance of our filter. The output impedance of the filter is restricted by
Zo |max = R 50 kΩ → R ≤ 5 kΩ
This filter should reduce the amplitude of 60 Hz (ω60 = 2π × 60 = 120π rad/s) signal by a
factor of 10, i.e.,
Vo 1
|H(jω = jω60 )| = =q = 0.1
Vi
60 Hz 1 + (ωc /ω60 )2
1
1 + (ωc /ω60 )2 = 100 → = ωc ≈ 10ω60 = 3751 rad/s → RC = 2.67 × 10−4
RC
Reasonable choices are R = 3.9 kΩ (to keep it below 5 kΩ) and C = 68 nF (fc ≈ 600 Hz).
The impact on 1 kHz signal (ω1000 = 2000π rad/s) can be found from:
1 1
|H(jω = jω1000 )| = q =q = 0.86
1 + (ωc /ω1000 )2 1 + (3751/6283)2
L C
Because this is not a wide-band filter, the
simplest filter will be an RLC filter as is + +
Using a L = 1 µH inductor:
1 1
= 4π 2 1016 → = 4π 2 1016 × 10− 6 → C = 2.5 × 10−12 F
LC C
Choose: C = 2.2 pF
L L 10−6
= 2, 500 → R2 = = = 182 → R = 13.5 Ω
R2 C 2, 500C 2, 500 × 2.2 × 10−12
B = fu − fl = 2 MHz
q
f0 = fu fL = 100 MHz
Solution of the above two equations in two unknowns will give fl ≈ 99 MHz and fu ≈
101 MHz.
Second, the transfer function should be as small as possible at 25 kHz. This requires that
we choose the cut-off frequency as small as possible. Therefore, the transfer function of our
filter should be curve labeled “1” as it has the smallest possible value at 25 kHz:
1
|H(jf = 4 kHz)| = q = 0.891
1 + (f /fc )2
f
f /fc = 0.509 → fc = = 7.85 kHz
0.509
1
fc = = 7.85 × 103 → RC = 2.0 × 10−5
2πRC
Choosing C = 1 nF, we have R = 2.0 × 104 . The commercial values then are C = 1 nF and
R = 20 kΩ.