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DEPARTMENT
DEPARTMENT OF
Introduction to the
Sweetening of Natural Gas
with Emphasis on Sulfur
Recovery
(Sulfur Recovery: 80 tons per day)
OFCHEMICAL
CHEMICALENGINEERING
Project Advisor:
Prof. Dr. Shahid Naveed
ENGINEERING
Project Co advisor:
Madam Masooma Sundus
Project Team
Name Registration No.
Imran Shabbir 2005-Chem-79
Omer Farooqi 2005-Chem-97
Jahanzaib Ali Bugti 2005-Chem-95
Ali Shan Malik 2005-Chem-41
Osman Shahid 2005-Chem-65
Project Team:
Imran Shabbir
Osman Shahid
Approved by:
____________________ ___________________
External Examiner
____________________ ___________________
In the name of
Allah
The most Merciful and
Compassionate, The most Gracious
and Beneficent Whose help and
guidance we always solicit at every step,
in each moment of our lives
DEDICATION
A special thank you goes to Engr. Sir Mohsin Kazmi, Engr. Sir
Faheem and Engr. Sir Qazi Zaka ur Rehman for being so kind and
helping to us. Indeed without their guidance it was not an easy job to
complete this project.
AUTHORS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract І
Preface ІІ
Chapter 1 (2-20)
INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL GAS PROCESSING
1.1 Exploration of Natural Gas
1.3 Sweetening
1.3.1 Reasons of Removing H2S and CO2
1.6.2 Description
Chapter 2 (21-30)
MAJOR EQUIPMENTS USED IN CLAUS PROCESS & THEIR
IMPROVEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Introduction
Chapter 4 (46-57)
ENERGY BALANCE OF THE SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT (SRU)
4.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 (58-93)
EQUIPMENTS DESIGN
5.1 Design of Reaction Furnace (F-100)
Chapter 6 (94-97)
PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL
6.1 Introduction
6.2 General Discussion on the Instrumentation of the Sulfur Recovery Unit (SRU)
6.2.1 Feed Flow Measurement and Control
6.2.6 Heaters
Chapter 7 (98-101)
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF THE PROCESS STREAM HEATERS
7.1 Introduction
Chapter 8 (102-104)
HAZOP STUDY OF THE SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT (SRU)
8.1 Introduction
Chapter 9 (105-112)
COST ESTIMATION OF THE SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT (SRU)
9.1 Introduction
References
ABSTRACT
This project has to design Sulfur Recovery Unit (SRU). There are many
processes for the recovery of sulfur from natural gas but we selected the Claus
process, because the design of the process is economically most favorable. The
economics of the plant also make balance with the efficiency and is most suited
to Pakistan’s wells of oil and gas.
The process selected for this purpose is the Claus process and the unit is
designed to produce 80 tons of elemental sulfur per day.
I
PREFACE
The aim behind this project is to design the sulfur recovery unit (from
natural gas). The capacity of the proposed plant is 80 tons per day.
Generally, the natural gas obtained from the reservoirs, contains many
impurities including hydrogen disulfide (H2S), the presence of which makes the
gas toxic. To make the use of this gas environmentally acceptable, the gas is
passed through a number of purifying stages. One of these stages is that of
sulfur recovery unit (SRU).
There are many different processes used for the recovery of sulfur from
natural gas. We selected the Claus process, as it is the most economical process
especially for the large amounts to process like we had to. This process mainly
comprises two reactions; first, one by third of the hydrogen disulfide present in
the feed is converted into sulfur dioxide by burning in the furnace and second,
the remaining hydrogen disulfide reacts with the produced sulfur dioxide to
give elemental sulfur. First reaction occurs in a furnace while the second
reaction takes place in a series of reactors. Sulfur produced in the reactors is
then condensed in the condenser. The pipelines throughout are insulated so that
sulfur may not freeze inside the pipes.
II
Problem Statement
This project report had been assigned to us as the partial fulfillment for the
requirement of the B.Sc Chemical Engineering degree. The problem statement is:
“INTRODUCTION TO THE SWEETENING OF NATURAL GAS WITH EMPHASIS ON SULFUR
RECOVERY”. The proposed plant capacity is selected to be 80 tons per day which matches
with the prevailing extended market needs and to meet the industrial demands. The
inspiring facility for this project is the Oil and Gas Development Corporation Limited
(OGDCL), Dakhni. This facility has a current production of 65 tons per day of elemental
rhombic sulfur but is interested in extension of the production plants to produce 80 tons per
day which is the very problem assigned to us in this project.
The natural gas obtained from wells contains toxic hydrogen sulfide gas which must
be removed in order to make the use of natural gas safe and friendly. Sweetening is done to
remove hydrogen sulfide gas and then the famous Claus process is employed to recover
elemental rhombic sulfur from the hydrogen sulfide gas stream which is a valuable market
product having its use, in the production of many daily life useful products, as a raw
material.
The project team is guided and motivated by respected Dr. Shahid Naveed as the
project advisor. All of the material and data being presented in this report is taken from
authentic literature and timely references have been provided to guide the reader and at
the same time prevent ourselves of getting divert from the main essence of report writing.
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
T
he practice of locating natural gas and petroleum deposits has been transformed
dramatically in the last 15 years with the advent of extremely advanced,
ingenious technology. In the early days of the industry, the only way of locating
underground petroleum and natural gas deposits was to search for surface
evidence of these underground formations. Those searching for natural gas
deposits were forced to scour the earth, looking for seepages of oil or gas emitted from
underground before they had any clue that there were deposits underneath. However,
because such a low proportion of petroleum and natural gas deposits actually seep to the
surface, this made for a very inefficient and difficult exploration process. As the demand for
fossil fuel energy has increased dramatically over the past years, so has the necessity for
more accurate methods of locating these deposits.
Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and
thuds from the pure natural gas, to produce what is known as ‘pipeline quality’ dry natural
gas. Major transportation pipelines usually impose restrictions on the make-up of the
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
natural gas that is allowed into the pipeline. That means that before the natural gas can be
transported it must be purified. While the ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes must be
removed from natural gas, this does not mean that they are all ‘waste products’.
The actual practice of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality levels can be
quite complex but usually involves four main processes to remove the various impurities:
Water Removal
3
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
1.3 Sweetening
Amine gas treating, also known as gas sweetening and acid gas removal, refers to a
group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various alkanolamines (commonly
referred to simply as amines) to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
from gases. It is a common unit process used in refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas
processing plants and other industries. Processes within oil refineries or natural gas
processing plants that remove hydrogen sulfide and/or mercaptans are commonly referred
to as sweetening processes because they result in products which no longer have the sour,
foul odors of mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide.
Vented to atmosphere.
Flared in waste gas flares or modern smokeless flares.
Incinerated for sulfur removal.
Utilized for the production of elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid.
If the recovered H2S gas stream is not to be utilized as a feedstock for commercial
applications, the gas is usually passed to a tail gas incinerator in which the H2S is oxidized to
SO2 and is then passed to the atmosphere out a stack.
Amine has a natural affinity for both CO2 and H2S allowing this to be a very efficient
and effective removal process. There are many different amines used in gas treating:
4
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
However, the most commonly used amines in industrial plants are the
alkanolamines MEA, DEA, and MDEA. Amines are also used in many oil refineries to remove
sour gases from liquid hydrocarbons such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
Other methods, such as carbonate process, solid bed absorbent and physical
absorption, are employed in the other sweetening plants.
N = nitrogen
H = hydrogen
S = sulfur
5
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
In the late 1 800s the Frasch process - a mining technique that recovers from 75% to
92% of a salt dome’s recoverable sulfur - became operational. Stockpiles today account for
more than 50% of the. US, Canada, Japan, France, Poland, and Mexico are major sulfur
suppliers.
Secondary sources of sulfur today are the sulfur dioxide (SO2) obtained from
industrial mineral, wastes, and flue gasses, and the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) found in “sour”
natural gas, petroleum refinery products, and coke-oven gasses. Once considered
unwelcome byproducts of industrial processes, these sources of sulfur have the advantage
of being nearly inexhaustible.
It was stated that 80% to 85% sulfur production in the year 2000 was recovered
sulfur produced from hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Chemical Formula: S8
6
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
Sulfur is an odorless, tasteless, light yellow solid. It is a reactive element that given
favorable circumstances combines with all other elements except gases, gold, and platinum.
Sulfur appears in a number of different allotropic modifications: rhombic, monoclinic,
polymeric, and others. The rhombic structure is the most commonly found sulfur form. Each
allotropic form differs in solubility, specific gravity, crystalline, crystalline arrangement, and
other physical constants. These various allotropes also can exist together in equilibrium in
definite proportions, depending on temperature and pressure.
Milled Sulfurs
These products are produced using Raymond roller mills to grind to specific particle
ranges. Additives such as dispersants, flow aids, and dust suppressants may be added to
enhance product performance.
Formed Sulfurs
These products are produced by molding, drum flaking, or rotoforining, and then
sized to meet specific needs. Additives may be used for degradability.
7
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
Emulsified Sulfur
Precipitated Sulfur
Sulfur has been used as a rubber chemical since Charles Goodyear discovered its
vulcanizing properties in the mid 1800’s. Pencil erasers, rubber bumpers on automobiles,
and latex gloves all use the same type of product, but in different quantities and heat
variations.
Rubber maker’s sulfur products vary widely in formulation and use. Conditioning
agents are added to improve flow ability, handling, and dispersion characteristics of finely
ground sulfur. Oil is often added as a dust suppressant, reducing the risk of a sulfur dust
explosion.
The following sulfur options are called grades, and offer a wide choice of purity,
fineness, and conditioning agents for rubber processing
8
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
Conditioning Agents
Oil Treatment
Industrial Sulfur
Industrial sulfurs are 99.5% minimum purity, processed into various physical shapes
to provide a full range of particle sizes. This market includes pulp and paper, metals
reclaiming, mining, steel, oil refining, and a multitude of other uses. Sulfur is also used in
the public utilities sector as a scale inhibitor. Industrial sulfur is available as crude lumps,
flakes, ground sulfur, formed pastilles, or formed briquettes. Flake sulfur can be screened to
a variety of specifications.
Commercial Grades
Prill
Granular / Pastille
Emulsified
Flake
Agricultural Sulfur
These products are formulated for use as nutrients, soil amendments, and
pesticides. Their main uses are as fungicides, insecticides, and miticides. Another common
use is as a soil additive to correct alkalinity or sulfur deficiency.
Wettable Sulfurs
Flowable Sulfur
9
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
Dispersion or flowable type products are generally used on vine crops such as
grapes, tomatoes, and peanuts. Formulated as water based dispersion weighing six pounds
per gallon and is primarily used as a fungicide. This product can also be used as a soil
amendment if immediate pH correction is required. These products are registered by the
EPA.
Dusting Sulfur
Degradable Sulfur
12000
Sulfur Production
10000
Production (MTPD)
Production
8000
(MTPD)
6000 Crude
4000 Production
(MTPD)
2000 Natural Gas
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Fig 1.3: Average production of crude oil and natural gas for sulfur extraction.
10
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
It is a medium scale process which selectively oxidizes H2S to Sulfur and Water.
1
H2S + O2 S + H2O
2
No equilibrium limitations are there because of good catalyst selectivity. This
process recovers 90% of H2S as sulfur in a single step. It uses a patented catalyst and has a
very low capital and operating costs. It can be directly operated on Natural Gas, Syngas and
Hydrogen. It has got a smaller footprint than Liquid Redox or Claus Process.
11
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
Air
Liquid
knockout
Sulfur
Condenser
Sulfur
This is the least expensive, well proven but only economical at large scales. It was
developed by Carl Friedrich Claus in 1883. The process was later significantly modified by a
German company; I. G. Farbenindustrie A. G. The Claus technology can be divided into two
process steps, thermal and catalytic.
Thermal Step. In the thermal step, hydrogen sulfide-laden gas reacts in a substoichiometric
combustion at temperatures above 850 °C such that elemental sulfur precipitates in the
downstream process gas cooler. The H2S content and the concentration of other
combustible components (hydrocarbons or ammonia) determine the location where the
feed gas is burned. Claus gases (acid gas) with no further combustible contents apart from
H2S are burned in lances surrounding a central muffle by the following chemical reaction:
3
H2S + O2 SO2 + H2O (∆H = -4147.20 kJ/kgmol)
2
Gases containing ammonia, such as the gas from the refinery's sour water stripper
(SWS), or hydrocarbons are converted in the burner muffle. Sufficient air is injected into the
muffle for the complete combustion of all hydrocarbons and ammonia. The air to the acid
gas ratio is controlled such that in total 1/3 of all hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is converted to SO2.
This ensures a stoichiometric reaction for the Claus reaction (see next section below).
Usually, 60 to 70% of the total amount of elemental sulfur produced in the process is
obtained in the thermal process step. The main portion of the hot gas from the combustion
12
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
chamber flows through the tube of the process gas cooler and is cooled down such that the
sulfur formed in the reaction step condenses. The heat given off by the process gas and the
condensation heat evolved are utilized to produce medium or low-pressure steam. The
condensed sulfur is removed at the gas outlet section of the process gas cooler.
A small portion of the process gas can be routed through a bypass inside of the
process gas cooler, as depicted in the here above mentioned figure. This hot bypass stream
is added to the cold process gas through a three-way valve to adjust the inlet temperature
required for the first reactor.
Catalytic Step. The Claus reaction continues in the catalytic step with activated aluminum
(III) or titanium (IV) oxide, and serves to boost the sulfur yield. The hydrogen sulfide (H 2S)
reacts with the SO2 formed during combustion in the reaction furnace, and results in
gaseous, elemental sulfur. This is called the Claus reaction:
3
2H2S + SO2 S8 + 2H2O (∆H = -1165.60 kJ/kgmol)
8
The catalytic recovery of sulfur consists of three sub steps: heating, catalytic
reaction and cooling plus condensation. These three steps are normally repeated a
maximum of three times. Where an incineration or tail-gas treatment unit (TGTU) is added
downstream of the Claus plant, only two catalytic stages are usually installed.
The first process step in the catalytic stage is the gas heating process. It is necessary
to prevent sulfur condensation in the catalyst bed, which can lead to catalyst fouling. The
required bed operating temperature in the individual catalytic stages is achieved by heating
the process gas in a reheater until the desired operating bed temperature is reached.
Hot-gas bypass: this involves mixing the two process gas streams from the process
gas cooler (cold gas) and the bypass (hot gas) from the first pass of the waste-heat
boiler.
Indirect steam reheaters: the gas can also be heated with high-pressure steam in a
heat exchanger.
Gas/gas exchangers: whereby the cooled gas from the process gas cooler is
indirectly heated from the hot gas coming out of an upstream catalytic reactor in a
gas-to-gas exchanger.
Direct-fired heaters: fired reheaters utilizing acid gas or fuel gas, which is burned
substoichiometrically to avoid oxygen breakthrough which can damage Claus
catalyst.
13
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
helps to hydrolyze COS and CS2, which is formed in the furnace and would not otherwise be
converted in the modified Claus process.
In the sulfur condenser, the process gas coming from the catalytic reactor is cooled
to between 150 and 130 °C. The condensation heat is used to generate steam at the shell
side of the condenser.
Before storage, liquid sulfur streams from the process gas cooler, the sulfur
condensers and from the final sulfur separator are routed to the degassing unit, where the
gases (primarily H2S) dissolved in the sulfur is removed.
The tail gas from the Claus process still containing combustible components and
sulfur compounds (H2S, H2 and CO) is either burned in an incineration unit or further
desulfurized in a downstream tail gas treatment unit.
The Recycle Selectox Process developed by Parsons and Unocal, treats lean acid gas
containing 5 to 30 mole percent H2S. The selector catalyst directly catalyzes the oxidation of
H2S to SO2, eliminating the reaction furnace of Claus Process. It also catalyzes the Claus
reaction of production of elemental sulfur. The exothermic Claus reaction results in a
temperature increase of 30o C in first reactor stage and about 15 o C across the second
stage.
The Recycle Selectox stage usually consists of one Selectox stage, followed by two
Claus stages. A recycler blower dilutes the incoming acid gas with Selectox condenser.
Typical H2S conversion to sulfur is more than 80%. Total sulfur recovery with two
subsequent Claus stages ranges from 94 to 96 percent. If the lean gas contains less than 5
14
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
percent H2S, the once-through Selectox process can be used. Except for the recycle loop,
equipment arrangement is same.
In a Claus unit, complete conversion of H2S and SO2 to elemental sulfur is not
possible due to limitations of thermodynamic chemical equilibrium of the Claus process.
Selective oxidation of H2S to sulfur can be thermodynamically complete as indicated by the
following reaction:
1 1
H2S + O2 Sn + H2O
2 n
Parson's hi-activity process utilizes a series of proprietary catalysts for direct
oxidation of H2S to elemental sulfur. The Hi-activity catalysts, which are prepared with
different mixtures of Iron-based metal oxides without the use of a carrier, posses low
specific surfaces and wild pores , the process scheme is very similar to a conventional
modified Claus unit, except that the last catalytic stage is replaced with h-activity catalyst.
The Super Claus process consists of a thermal stage followed by three of four
catalytic reaction stages. The first two or three reactors are filled with standard Claus
catalyst while the last reactor is filled with the selective oxidation catalyst. In the thermal
stage the acid gas is burnt with a sub-stoichiometric amount of controlled combustion air
such that the tail gas leaving the second reactor contains 0.80 to1.50% by volume of H 2S.
15
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
The catalyst in the last reactor (selective oxidation reactor) oxidizes the H 2S to sulfur
1
(H2S + O2 S + H2O) at a very high efficiency. Because the catalyst neither oxidizes
2
H2S to SO2 and H2O, nor reverses the reaction of sulfur and water to H2S and SO2, a total
sulfur recovery rate in the range of 99% can be obtained, depending on Claus Feed Gas
composition.
A CBA sulfur plant consists of a conventional Claus section and a CBA section. The
thermal and catalytic conversion in the conventional Claus portion of the sulfur plant
usually recovers 90-95% of the inlet sulfur. Adding more conventional Claus catalytic stages
beyond this point would not add much sulfur recovery because the Claus reaction is an
equilibrium reaction and becomes limited by the concentrations of water and sulfur vapor
in the gases flowing through the plant. The CBA portion of the sulfur plant overcomes this
limitation through the use of “sub-dew point” conversion stages. Although catalytic
conversion of H2S and SO2 is higher at lower reactor temperatures, conventional Claus
reactors must be operated at temperatures sufficiently high to keep the sulfur produced
from condensing. Sulfur catalyst will adsorb liquid sulfur in its pores, which blocks the active
sites where the Claus reaction occurs. If the Claus reactor temperature is too low, the sulfur
concentration in the vapor will exceed its dew point concentration, causing liquid sulfur to
form and adsorb on the catalyst. Over time, this liquid sulfur will block all of the active sites
in the catalyst and render the catalyst bed almost completely inactive.
16
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
which is then condensed and removed in a down-stream sulfur condenser. This process is
analogous to the processing steps used when dehydrating gas streams with molecular
sieves. There are normally two or more CBA reactors in series so that at least one can be
operating sub-dew point while the other is being regenerated. Not only does a CBA reactor
benefit from a more favorable Claus reaction constant at its lower operating temperature, it
also has the advantage of shifting the Claus reaction equilibrium. The Claus reaction is a
vapor-phase reaction, so condensing the sulfur product removes it from the vapor, forcing
the equilibrium in the Claus reaction further to the right, toward higher conversion. These
two factors allow much higher sulfur conversion than in a conventional Claus reactor,
resulting in overall sulfur recovery efficiencies in excess of 98-99.5% for CBA plants.
The cyclic nature of the CBA process requires process gas switching valves that must
perform in very demanding sulfur vapor services. This has caused significant operation and
maintenance problems in CBA plants designed by other engineering companies and
contractors.
17
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
1.6.1 History
The process was invented by Carl Friedrich Claus, a chemist working in England. A
British patent was issued to him in 1883. The process was later significantly modified by a
German company called I. G. Farbenindustrie A. G.
1.6.2 Description
The multi-step Claus process recovers sulfur from the gaseous hydrogen sulfide found
in raw natural gas and from the by-product gases containing hydrogen sulfide derived from
refining crude oil and other industrial processes. The by-product gases mainly originate
from physical and chemical gas treatment units (Selexol, Rectisol, Purisol and amine
scrubbers) in refineries, natural gas processing plants and gasification or synthesis gas
plants. These by-product gases may also contain hydrogen cyanide, hydrocarbons, sulfur
dioxide or ammonia.
Gases with an H2S content of over 25% are suitable for the recovery of sulfur in
straight-through Claus plants while alternate configurations such as a split-flow set up or
feed and air preheating can be used to process leaner feeds.
2H2S + O2 S2 + 2H2O
In fact, the vast majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide
in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from refineries and other hydrocarbon processing plants.
Sulfur is used for manufacturing sulfuric acid, medicine, cosmetics, fertilizers and rubber
products.
Inevitably a small amount of H2S remains in the tail gas. This residual quantity,
together with other trace sulfur compounds, is usually dealt with in a tail gas unit. The latter
can give overall sulfur recoveries of about 99.8%, which is very impressive indeed.
Gases containing ammonia, such as the gas from the refinery's sour water stripper
(SWS), or hydrocarbons are converted in the burner muffle. Sufficient air is injected into
the muffle for the complete combustion of all hydrocarbons and ammonia. Air to the acid
18
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
gas is controlled such that in total 1/3 of all hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is converted to SO2. This
ensures a stoichiometric reaction for the Claus reaction.
19
Introduction to Natural Gas Processing Chapter 1
Over the years many improvements have been made to the Claus process. Recent
developments include:
SUPERCLAUS (TM). A special catalyst in the last reactor oxidizes the H2S selectively to sulfur,
avoiding formation of SO2. Significantly higher conversions are obtained at modest cost.
Oxygen Claus. The combustion air is mixed with pure oxygen. This reduces the amount of
nitrogen passing through the unit, making it possible to increase throughput.
Better Catalysts. Higher activities have been achieved with catalysts that provide higher
surface areas and macro porosity.
CS2 destruction. Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a side product made in the furnace. Laboratory
work has shown that special catalysts operating in the furnace can destroy the CS2 before it
gets into the catalytic section. A commercially available catalyst like this might be developed
for use in a Claus plant.
Catalyst Temperature Policy. The conversion of H2S goes faster at higher temperatures, but a
more favorable equilibrium is obtained at lower temperatures. It isn't obvious whether
higher or lower temperatures are needed in the third converter. Kinetic modeling may supply
the answer, thereby improving conversion or reducing catalyst replacement cost.
There are two different fuel gases. One is natural gas types and is supplied to all three-fuel
users. The other fuel gas is vaporized LPG which is supplied only to PA-1 to provide an alternate fuel
for this equipment.
20
Chapter 2
MAJOR EQUIPMENTS USED IN CLAUS PROCESS
2.1 Introduction
T
he major equipment items used in the project are discussed in this chapter,
generally in the order of process flow through the SRU. The concept presented
is intended to improve the SRU reliability and are not intended to be complete
design guidelines. A general comment that applies to all equipment items is to
provide pressure point/sample point connections between all major equipment
items. These will prove invaluable in troubleshooting the SRU.
The thermal reactor is the heart of the SRU even though it is frequently selected or
designed without considering its level of importance. We consider the main burner to be
the most important piece of equipment in the SRU. The burner must perform the function
of burning one third of the feed hydrogen disulfide (H2S) to sulfur dioxide (SO2) to satisfy
the stoichiometric requirements of the modified Claus process, while also destroying
impurities in the acid gas feed and consuming all of the oxygen in the combustion air. The
burner must be capable of performing efficiently at normal operating feed rates and low
turn down rates. The burner must also be capable of substoichiometric burning of natural
gas during start up and shut down operations.
The use of a very efficient mixing, high intensity burner is preferred. Inefficient
burners are frequently employed in SRU’s around in many industries. Frequently, these
burners are not able to achieve adequate destruction of impurities, complete oxygen
consumption and tend to produce some amounts of sulfur trioxide (SO3). These
shortcomings can result in equipment corrosion, catalyst deactivation, and plugging of
piping, equipment and catalyst beds. All of these adverse results reduce the SRU reliability
since under these conditions the requirement for shutting down of unit increases for
maintenance repairs, catalyst change and/or unblocking an obstruction. The burner must
accomplish the combustion reactions. The combustion reactions are relatively fast. The
reaction furnace provides the residence time at high temperature required
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
for the Claus reactions and side reactions to occur. Many feed impurities and intermediate
components must be destroyed in the reaction furnace or they will cause downstream
problems.
These components must have adequate time for the reactions to reach
completion/equilibrium. The reaction furnace should have 5 to 7 seconds residence time.
The specific features and residence time required for an individual reaction furnace are
dependent on several factors including the operating temperature and expected feed
impurities.
• Fire-Tube Boiler.
• Water-Tube Boiler.
• Vertical boiler.
• Hydronic Boiler.
Fire-Tube Boiler:
A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one
or more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat energy from the gases
passes through the sides of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and
ultimately creating steam.
Water-Tube Boiler:
It is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by the fire.
Water tube boilers are used for high-pressure boilers. Fuel is burned inside the furnace,
creating hot gas which heats water in the steam-generating tubes. In smaller boilers,
additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace, while larger utility boilers rely on
the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam.
Vertical Boiler:
22
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
The Cyclone Hot Water Boilers provide for exceptionally high efficiencies, lower fuel
costs, and extremely rugged construction. Compact space saving vertical design four-pass
design shock proof, no tubes to loosen or burn out. Convenient access to "eye high" burner
solid state controls for trouble free operation factory assembled, fully automatic UL and
ASME CSD-1. Simple and inexpensive to install.
Hydronic Boiler:
Hydronic boilers are used in generating heat for residential and industrial purposes.
They are the typical power plant for central heating systems fitted to houses in northern
Europe (where they are commonly combined with domestic water heating), as opposed to
the forced-air furnaces or wood burning stoves more common in North America. The
Hydronic boiler operates by way of heating water/fluid to a preset temperature (or
sometimes in the case of single pipe systems, until it boils and turns to steam) and
circulating that fluid throughout the home typically by way of radiators, baseboard heaters
or through the floors. The fluid can be heated by any means...gas, wood, fuel oil, etc, but in
built-up areas where piped gas is available, natural gas is currently the most economical and
therefore the usual choice. The fluid is in an enclosed system and circulated throughout by
means of a motorized pump.
Ideally sulfur is condensed from the process gas at the cool condenser tube walls,
flows from the tube into the outlet channel, is separated from the process gas, and is
drained from the condenser. If the mass velocity is too high, liquid sulfur can be entrained in
the process gas and be carried to the next stage or from the SRU instead of draining from
the tube. If the mass velocity is too low, sulfur can condense in the vapor as a very small
droplet or fog. The sulfur fog droplets are so small that the gas stream carries them much
23
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
like atmospheric fog or smoke to the next stage or from the SRU. In either of these cases,
sulfur recovery is lost. Lower recovery does not directly affect SRU reliability, but lower SRU
recovery will cause additional load on the downstream tail gas cleanup unit or increase the
plant emissions. Either of these conditions may ultimately cause the SRU to be shut down
permanently for maintenance.
Some designs utilize one or more of condensers as BFW preheaters upstream of the
WHB. The lower level heat from the condenser is used to increase the generation of higher
pressure stream by preheating the WHB feed water. The condenser shell must operate at
the BFW header pressure with this design. But this will exert excessive stress on the tube to
tube sheet attachment and reduces unit reliability. If sulfur condensers are used as BFW
preheaters, the tubes should be strength welded to the tube sheet. Some designs allow the
first condenser to act like the BFW preheater but some steam is generated on the shell side
of the sulfur condenser. Because the shell is not designed for vaporizing conditions, vapor
blanketing of some tubes can occur. This can result in overheating the tubes and sulfide
corrosion.
Some designs also use cold BFW on the shell of the final sulfur condenser to
minimize the process outlet temperature and maximize sulfur recovery.
It is essential for each sulfur condenser to have an independent sulfur seal and look
box. The ability to observe the sulfur production from each condenser is a very valuable
process evaluation and troubleshooting tool. The sulfur rate, consistency of rate, color,
temperature, and presence of bubbles are all important information items that can only be
obtained from individual seals and look boxes.
Each sulfur condenser drain line, sulfur seal, look box and rundown line to the sulfur
pit should be fully steam jacketed. The drain line between the condenser and seal should
have a steam jacketed plug valve located as close as practical to the condenser to allow on-
line rodding of the drain line and sulfur seal. Clear access must be provided for rodding the
drain line and overhead access must be provided to rod the seal.
Some plants have implemented a method to flush sulfur seals to keep the seals open
and free flowing. Steam jacketed piping with block valves are employed from the sulfur
pump discharge to the inlet of each sulfur seal. This allows flushing the individual seals by
closing the block valve in the drain line from the condenser and flowing product sulfur from
the pump discharge through the seal and back to the sulfur pit. This is an excellent and safe
24
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
method to keep the seals free flowing. Some plants use steam to periodically blow the
sulfur seals when there is an indication of partial plugging. While this method normally
works, we feel it should not be done as a routine practice because of the safety risks from
the hot liquid sulfur.
Indirect method is preferred over direct method; however, each method has specific
applications where it should be considered. Each reheating method is briefly discussed
below.
The only reason to use hot gas bypass reheat in current design is for very small, isolated
location plants that do not have access to high pressure steam or adequate, reliable electric power
supplies.
25
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
Acid gas fired burners have been used in many SRU’s. There primary advantage the ability to
achieve any desired catalytic reactor inlet temperature. However, line burners have disadvantages.
The overall sulfur recovery is normally reduced because acid gas bypasses some conversion steps.
The burner air/fuel ratio must be closely controlled or oxygen breakthrough, soot formation, and/or
SO3 formation is likely.
We prefer to use a steam reheater design in which the high pressure steam is on the tube
side of a U-tube type heat exchanger. This type design avoids having to design the shell for the high
pressure steam and avoids tube to tube sheet stresses which can cause failures with steam leakage
into the process and SRU shutdown to make repairs. The U-tube bundle, free to expand within the
shell, avoids these mechanical stresses.
TYPES OF RECTOR:
Chemical reactors come in the form of vessels or tanks for batch reactors or back-
mix flow reactors ,as cylinders for fluidized bed reactors or as single or multiple tubes inside
a cylindrical container for plug flow reactor.
CATALYTIC REACTOR:
Use of catalysts requires modification to basic reactor design in order to account for
mass and energy transport issues arising from catalysts.
These reactors are solid-catalyst containing vessels. Their design can lead to high
pressure drops. These units are generally used in heterogeneous catalysis where the
catalysts and reacting species are of different phases. The major advantage of such units is
their simplicity and ease of catalyst access for maintenance and regeneration. Use of
multiple fixed beds can improve both heat transport and control resulting in improved
performance while maintaining the relative simplicity of this reactor arrangement.
These types of reactors are modified multiple fixed bed units , where the multiple
beds are catalyst-filled tubes arranged in parallel with a heat conducting fluid flowing
outside the tubes. These reactors offer good thermal control and uniform residence time
distribution , but experience increased complexity as well as catalyst in accessibility.
Catalyst access is somewhat simplified by packed tube arrangement although packing and
removing the catalyst from the tubes can still be difficult.
SLURRY REACTOR:
26
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
Reaction of slurries containing solid particles that can be physically separated from
the suspension fluid are often best performed in agitated tank-type fluid reactors. The
reactor offer simplicity good transport properties and control while sacrificing nothing in
catalyst access since catalyst particles can be added and removed continuously. There is
however, an increased element of equipment degradation due to particle impingement on
the fluid handling equipment, such as impellers, nozzles and pipes.
These units are also fluid reactors used where the fluid contains solid particles that
can be physically separated from from the suspension fluid. In this case however, the slurry
travels through the reactor in essentially plug flow. Again simplicity , access and control are
good with a uniform residence time distribution.
These are reactors with a gas phase-working fluid that requires gas flow around and
past fine particles at a rate sufficient to fluidize the particles suspended within the reactor.
There are considerable operating difficulties associated with initiating and running fluidized
bed reactors due to flow and suspension issues. Further these types of reactors have large
residence time distribution of the ease of back flow in the gas and approach CSTR
behaviour. The advantages of these reactors are their ability to process fine particles and
suitability to high reaction rate processes.
These designations are reserved for reactors where the reactant fluid flow through
catalyst meshes or thin beds. These are simple reactors particularly suitable for fast
reaction that require good control where catalyst access is important for purposes of
catalyst reactivation or maintenance or where large heats of reaction are involved.
DISPERSION REACTORS:
These types of reactors are fluid-containing vessels that allow dispersion of liquid
and gas phase reactants by bubbling the latter through the liquid or dripping the liquid into
the gas stream or into a less dense liquid, to achieve increased contact area and reaction
performance. Even though these reactors are simple and inexpensive reactors, they require
careful planning due to their sensitivity to flow behaviour.
FILM REACTORS:
A reactor design that maximizes contact area for gas/liquid reactions is film the
reactor that brings together a gas and liquid as a thin film over a solid support. This type of
reactor offers an added benefit of increased thermal control via the solid support. Such as
arrangement also allows for complex phase dependent reactions in which solid, liquid and
gas phase are involved.
27
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
SELECTION OF REACTORS:
The selection of best reactor type for a given process is subjected to # of major
consideration. Such design aspects, for example,
The reactor used for catalytic step of clause process of sulphur recovery is the fixed
bed catalytic reactor. The most important characteristic of FBR is that material flows
through the reactor as plug, all of the stream flows at the same velocity, parallel to reactor
axis with no back mixing. All material present at any given reactor cross-section has had an
identical residence time.
Fixed bed reactors are often referred to as packed bed reactors. They may be
regarded as the workhorse of the chemical industry w.r.t. number of reactors employed and
the economic value of materials produced. In a FBR, for a fluid- solid reaction, the solid
catalyst is present as a bed of relatively small particles randomly oriented and fixed in
position. The fluid moves by convective flow through the spaces between the particles.
There may also be diffusive flow or transport within the particles.We also focus on steady-
state operation thus ignoring any implications of catalyst deactivation with time.
Synthesis of Ammonia
Production of styrene monomer by dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene.
Alkylation of benzene to ethyl benzene.
Production of sulphuric acid.
Synthesis of butynediol from acetylene and formaldehyde.
FLOW ARRANGEMENT:
Traditionally most FBR are operated with axial flow of liquid down the bed of solid.
28
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
In adiabatic operation, no attempt is made to adjust temp within the bed by means
of beat transfer. For a reactor consisting of one bed of catalyst, this defines the situation
thermally. If catalyst is divided into two or more beds arranged in series (a multistage
reactor). There is an opportunity to adjust temp b/w stages, even if each step is operated
adiabatically this may be done in two ways:
(1) Ist involves the inter-stage beat transfer by means of heat exchangers used for
either exothermic or endothermic reaction.
(2) Second called the COLD-SHOT COOLING, can be used for exothermic reactions
DESIGN CONSIDERATION:
The most important factor to be considered in the design of such reactors is:
Residence time distribution: influence on conversion and selectivity.
Temp control: maintenance of temp limits, axially and radialy , min temp diff,
b/w reactor medium and catalyst surface , as well as within the catalyst particle.
Catalyst lifetime and catalyst regeneration
Pressure drop as a function of catalyst shape and gas velocity.
In addition to flow, thermal and bed arrangement an important design consideration
is the amount of catalyst required and its possible distribution over two or more stages. This
is the measure of size of reactor. The depth (L) and diameter (D) of each stage must also be
determined.
CATALYST USED:
Catalyst used in catalyst step of clause process is activated alumina (Al203) in the
form of spherical pellets.
29
Major Equipments Used in the Claus Process Chapter 2
1. Construct the pit using sulfate resistant concrete with limestone- free aggregate.
2. Use alloy piping for the steam coil steam supply down comers and condensate risers,
and any internal components such as ladder rungs that will be alternately covered with
liquid sulfur and then exposed to air as the pit level changes.
3. Install dual steam jacketed sulfur transfer pumps.
4. Use a fully steam jacketed steam eductor to continuously draw atmospheric air into the
pit, sweeping vapor space to prevent the accumulation of H2S.
5. Steam snuffing connection(s) for extinguishing internal sulfur fires.
6. The number of inlets depends on the size and configuration of the pit.
30
Chapter 3
MATERIAL BALANCE OF THE SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT
(SRU)
3.1 Introduction
T
he material balance across the proposed sulfur recovery unit (SRU) is done by
the conservation equation of mass, as is done conventionally. A system must
be defined to account for the streams entering and leaving. In our case the
obvious selection is the sulfur recovery unit (SRU) itself, while all the other
premises are considered surroundings. Some preliminary bases are to be
specified for the sake of convenience in the calculations. Following
specifications are taken to meet the above mentioned situation:
Now the material balance calculations are made first along the whole unit and then
across individual equipments. It is to be noted that whether the calculations are made
across the whole unit or the individual equipments, the basic law of conservation of mass
equation remains the same and is given as:
Main Reactions:
3
1- H2S + O2 SO2 + H2O (3.2)
2
3
2- SO2 + 2H2S S8 + 2H2O (3.3)
8
Side Reactions:
𝟕
4- C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 2H2O (3.5)
2
5- C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O (3.6)
CH4 = 0.004
H2O = 0.010
C2H6 = 0.0008
Flow Rate = ?
C3H8 = 0.0001
O2 = 0.210
N2 = 0.790
NOTE: In all the diagrams the compositions are mentioned in mole fraction basis
=
80 1 1000 1
tons day kg kgmol
24 1 256.5
day hr ton kg
= 13.0 kgmol/hr
16
H2S required by S8 = × 13.0 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)
3
32
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
= 69.30 kgmol
H2S supply for S8 (on account for 99.9% conversion from the Claus process)
= 34.65 kgmol
Total acid gas feed supply = 104.03 kgmol /0.523 = 198.80 kgmol
Stream-01 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F01 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.523 104.03
CO2 0.376 74.83
CH4 0.004 0.95
H2O 0.010 18.80
C2H6 0.0008 0.16
C3H8 0.0001 0.02
TOTAL 1.0 198.80
3.3 Material Balance across Furnace F-100
It is to be noted that according to the specifications of the Claus process only
30% of total sulfur dioxide produces in the furnace is converted into elemental sulfur. 1
CH4 = 0.004 N2 =?
N2 = 0.790
33
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
Main Reactions:
3
1- H2S + O2 SO2 + H2O (3.2)
2
3
2- SO2 + 2H2S S8 + 2H2O (3.3)
8
Side Reactions:
H2S still available for S8 production = 104.03 kgmol - 34.65 kgmol = 69.37 kgmol
0.10 kgmol
= 54.54 kgmol
= 259.70 kgmol
34
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
= 205.20 kgmol
74.83 kgmol
= 76.16 kgmol
= 58.0 kgmol
Stream-02 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F02 (kgmol/hr)
O2 0.210 54.54
N2 0.790 205.20
TOTAL 1.0 259.70
Stream-03 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F03 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.116 48.58
CO2 0.183 76.16
N2 0.50 205.20
SO2 0.058 24.25
35
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
There is no need for the calculation of material balance across the waste heat
boiler B-100 since no material change takes place in there. So the composition of Stream-03
and Stream-04 are identical.
Stream-04 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F04 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.116 48.58
CO2 0.183 76.16
N2 0.50 205.20
SO2 0.058 24.25
H2O 0.140 58.0
S8 0.010 3.90
TOTAL 1.0 416.0
Only energy changes occur and in the subsequent chapter related to the energy
balance, calculations are made across it.
N2 = 0.50 N2 =?
S8 = 0.999
H2O = 0.111
36
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
3.90 kgmol
Total amount of Stream-S21 = = 3.91 kgmol
0.999
Stream-S21 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-FS21 (kgmol/hr)
S8 0.999 3.90
H2O 0.001 0.004
TOTAL 1.0 3.904
Stream-05 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F05 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.117 48.58
CO2 0.184 76.16
N2 0.50 205.20
SO2 0.058 24.25
H2O 0.140 57.90
TOTAL 1.0 412.0
Stream-06 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F06 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.117 48.58
CO2 0.184 76.16
N2 0.50 205.20
SO2 0.058 24.25
H2O 0.140 57.90
TOTAL 1.0 412.0
37
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
Flow Rate = ?
Flow Rate = 412.0 kgmol/hr
H2S =?
H2S = 0.117
CO2 =?
CO2 = 0.184
N2 =?
N2 = 0.50
SO2 =?
SO2 = 0.058
H2O =?
H2O = 0.140
S8 =?
Now, according to the specifications of the Claus process, the reactor R-100
converts only 70% of the incoming sulfur dioxide into elemental sulfur.1 Thus:
= 33.90 kgmol
= 33.90 kgmol
H2O going out of reactor = 57.90 kgmol + 33.90 kgmol = 91.86 kgmol
3
S8 produced = 8 × 16.90 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)
= 6.36 kgmol
Stream-07 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F07 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.036 14.62
CO2 0.190 76.16
N2 0.511 205.20
SO2 0.018 7.27
1 th
“Sulfur Recovery”, GPSA Engineering data book Vol. 2, 11 edition, 1998. Chapter 22
38
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
N2 = 0.511 N2 =?
S8 = 0.015
Flow Rate = ?
S8 = 0.999
H2O = 0.111
Stream-S22 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-FS22 (kgmol/hr)
S8 0.999 6.37
H2O 0.001 0.0067
TOTAL 1.0 6.38
39
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
Stream-08 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F08 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.037 14.62
CO2 0.192 76.16
N2 0.520 205.20
SO2 0.018 7.27
H2O 0.232 91.86
TOTAL 1.0 395.12
Again there is no need for the application of material balance calculations around the
heat exchanger E-103. So the Stream-09 has the same composition as that of Stream-08.
Stream-09 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F09 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.037 14.62
CO2 0.192 76.16
N2 0.520 205.20
SO2 0.018 7.27
H2O 0.232 91.86
TOTAL 1.0 395.12
H2S = 0.037
CO2 = 0.192
N2 = 0.520
Flow Rate = ?
SO2 = 0.018
H2S =?
H2O = 0.232
CO2 =?
N2 =?
SO2 =?
H2O =?
S8 =?
40
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
Now, according to the specifications of the Claus process, the reactor R-101 converts
only 80% of the incoming sulfur dioxide into elemental sulfur.1 Thus:
= 11.64 kgmol
= 11.64 kgmol
H2O going out of reactor = 91.86 kgmol + 11.64 kgmol = 103.50 kgmol
3
S8 produced = 8 × 5.82 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)
= 2.18 kgmol
Stream-10 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F10 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.007 2.98
CO2 0.194 76.16
N2 0.524 205.20
SO2 0.003 1.45
H2O 0.264 103.50
S8 0.005 2.18
TOTAL 1.0 391.48
1 th
“Sulfur Recovery”, GPSA Engineering data book Vol. 2, 11 edition, 1998. Chapter 22
41
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
N2 = 0.524 N2 =?
S8 = 0.005
Flow Rate = ?
S8 = 0.999
H2O = 0.111
= 103.48 kgmol
Stream-S23 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-FS23 (kgmol/hr)
S8 0.999 2.18
H2O 0.001 0.002
TOTAL 1.0 2.20
Stream-11 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F11 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.037 2.98
CO2 0.192 76.16
N2 0.520 205.20
SO2 0.018 1.45
H2O 0.232 103.48
TOTAL 1.0 389.30
42
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
Again there is no need for the application of material balance calculations around the
heat exchanger E-105. So the Stream-12 has the same composition as that of Stream-11.
Stream-12 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F12 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.037 2.98
CO2 0.192 76.16
N2 0.520 205.20
SO2 0.018 1.45
H2O 0.232 103.48
TOTAL 1.0 389.30
H2S = 0.037
CO2 = 0.192
Flow Rate = ?
N2 = 0.520
H2S =?
SO2 = 0.018
CO2 =?
H2O = 0.232
N2 =?
SO2 =?
H2O =?
S8 =?
Now, according to the specifications of the Claus process, the reactor R-102 converts
only 95% of the incoming sulfur dioxide into elemental sulfur.1 Thus:
= 2.76 kgmol
1 th
“Sulfur Recovery”, GPSA Engineering data book Vol. 2, 11 edition, 1998. Chapter 22
43
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
= 2.76 kgmol
H2O going out of reactor = 103.48 kgmol + 2.76 kgmol = 106.27 kgmol
3
S8 produced = 8 × 1.38 kgmol (from equ. 3.3)
= 0.51 kgmol
Stream-13 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F13 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.0005 0.21
CO2 0.120 76.16
N2 0.528 205.20
SO2 0.0001 0.072
H2O 0.273 106.27
S8 0.001 0.51
TOTAL 1.0 388.43
N2 = 0.528 N2 =?
S8 = 0.999
H2O = 0.111
44
Material Balance of the SRU Chapter 3
0.51 kgmol
Total amount of Stream-S24 = = 0.52 kgmol
0.999
= 106.27 kgmol
Stream-S24 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rat-FS24 (kgmol/hr)
S8 0.999 0.51
H2O 0.001 0.0005
TOTAL 1.0 0.52
Stream-14 composition
Component Mole fraction Flow rate-F14 (kgmol/hr)
H2S 0.0005 0.21
CO2 0.196 76.16
N2 0.530 205.20
SO2 0.0001 0.072
H2O 0.274 106.27
TOTAL 1.0 387.91
45
Chapter 4
ENERGY BALANCE OF THE SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT
(SRU)
4.1 Introduction
T
he energy balance across the proposed sulfur recovery unit (SRU) is done by the
conservation equation of energy, as is done conventionally. A system must be
defined to account for the streams entering and leaving. In our case the obvious
selection is the sulfur recovery unit (SRU) itself while all the other premises are
considered surroundings. Some preliminary bases are to be specified for the
sake of convenience in the calculations. Following specifications are taken to meet the
above mentioned situation:
Time of operation: 1 hr
Ambient temperature: 25oC
Ambient pressure: 1 atm
Now the energy balance calculations are made by using the following equation for the
law of conservation of energy:
Furthermore, all the enthalpies of the streams are calculated by the following relation:
Q = Σ (mCp) ∆T (4.2)
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
Whereas:
Main Reactions1:
Side Reactions:
NOTE: In all the diagrams the compositions are mentioned in mole fraction basis
1
All heat of reaction data is taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claus_process
47
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
H2O = 0.010
Flow Rate = 259.7 kgmol/hr
C2H6 = 0.0008
o
Temp. = 70 C
C3H8 = 0.0001
O2 = 0.210
N2 = 0.790
Stream-02 O2 N2 Total
m (kgmol/hr) 54.54 205.20 259.70
Cp (kJ/kgmol-oC) 29.49 29.30 -
∆T (oC) 45.0 45.0 -
Q02 (kJ/hr) 72377 270556 342940
Temp. = 215.6 C
o Temp. =? Fig 4.2: Energy
H2S = 0.116
balance across
H2S = 0.523
furnace F-100
CO2 = 0.376 CO2 = 0.183
48
N2 = 0.790
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
reactions taking place = (-4147.20 - 1165.60 - 891.0 - 1560.0 - 2220.0) kJ/hr = -9983.80 kJ/hr
in the furnace
Now we calculate the output temperature of the Stream-03 using equ. 4.1:
Q = Σ (mCp) ∆T
49
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
The waste heat recovery boiler extracts such an amount of energy from the stream-03 that
the outlet temperature of the stream leaving the boiler; stream-04, becomes equal to 649
o
C (1200 oF).
o o
Temp. = 649 C Temp. = 124.4 C
N2 = 0.50 N2 = 0.50
S8 = 0.999
H2O = 0.111
The condenser E-100 reduces the temperature of the stream-04 from 649 oC (1200 oF) to
124.4 C (256 oF) which is the dew point temperature of rhombic sulfur.
50
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
o o
Temp. = 124.4 C Temp. = 248.8 C
N2 = 0.50 N2 = 0.50
The heater heats the incoming stream-05 from 124.4 oC (256 oF) to 248.8 oC (480 oF) which
is the required temperature of the first reactor R-100.
o Temp. =?
Temp. = 248.8 C
N2 = 0.50 N2 = 0.511
S8 = 0.015
51
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
Now we calculate the output temperature of the Stream-07 using equ. 4.1:
Q = Σ (mCp) ∆T
o
Temp. = 124.4 C
S8 = 0.999
H2O = 0.111
52
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
o o
Temp. = 124.4 C Temp. = 204.4 C
N2 = 0.520 N2 = 0.520
The heater heats the incoming stream-08 from 124.4 oC (256 oF) to 204.4 oC (400 oF) which
is the required temperature of the second reactor R-101.
53
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
N2 = 0.520 N2 = 0.524
S8 = 0.005
Now we calculate the output temperature of the Stream-10 using equ. 4.1:
Q = Σ (mCp) ∆T
54
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
o o
Temp. = 243.3 C Temp. = 124.4 C
N2 = 0.524 N2 = 0.520
S8 = 0.005
Flow Rate = 2.20 kgmol/hr
o
Temp. = 124.4 C
S8 = 0.999
H2O = 0.111
o o
Temp. = 124.4 C Temp. = 196.6 C
N2 = 0.520 N2 = 0.520
55
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
The heater heats the incoming stream-11 from 124.4 oC (256 oF) to 196.6 oC (386 oF) which
is the required temperature of the third reactor R-102.
o Temp. =?
Temp. = 196.6 C
N2 = 0.520 N2 = 0.524
S8 = 0.005
Now we calculate the output temperature of the Stream-13 using equ. 4.1:
Q = Σ (mCp) ∆T
56
Energy Balance of the SRU Chapter 4
o o
Temp. = 207.2 C Temp. = 124.4 C
N2 = 0.524 N2 = 0.530
H2O = 0.111
57
Chapter 5
EQUIPMENTS DESIGN
o
o Temp. = 1177 C
Temp. = 215.6 C
o
Temp. = 70 C
Pressure = 101300 Pa
O2 = 0.210
N2 = 0.790
Here the equipment called muffle furnace is actually a plug flow reactor provided
with refractory linings to avoid material damage on account of liberation of high exothermic
heats of reaction and combustion. In this thermal reactor we treat acid gas with air to
produce sulfur dioxide which then reacts in the Claus three stage reactors to produce
elemental sulfur. As we are oxidizing or burning hydrogen sulfide in the presence of air, the
reaction will be highly exothermic, thus liberating high heat contents, so we named it a
furnace. Design is totally on reactor based calculations.
The basic design steps included are (keeping in mind that due to absence of kinetic
data the reactor has to be designed based upon the concept of residence time):
• Plug flow.
• Steady state.
• Constant density
Or Volume of Reactor (V) = Residence time (T) × Volumetric flow rate (u) (5.1)
The residence time is actually based upon the results obtained from the information and
calculations of the kinetics of the reactions involved. Since kinetic data is not available we
have to take help from literature. The residence time is taken as 2.5 seconds.1
1 th
Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, Volume-1, 7 Edition by Robert H. Perry, Don Green
59
Equipments Design Chapter 5
uo - ui
ε= (5.2)
ui
Whereas:
ε = Expansivity (dimensionless)
Now:
Inlet mass feed flow rate (mi)
Inlet volumetric flow rate (ui) = (5.3)
Density of the inlet stream (ρi)
Inlet mass feed flow rate (mi) = Mass flow rate of stream-01 + Mass flow rate of stream-02
For the calculation of the mass flow rate of both streams we must know the average
molecular weight of both the streams.
Stream-01 composition:
Molecular weight
Component Mole fraction (kg/kgmol)
H2S 0.523 34.0
CO2 0.376 44.0
CH4 0.004 16.0
H2O 0.010 18.0
C2H6 0.0008 30.0
C3H8 0.0001 44.0
Average molecular Weight of stream-01 = (0.523 × 34.0) + (0.376 × 44.0) + (0.004 × 16.0) + (0.010
= 34.60 kg/kgmol
Similarly:
Stream-02 composition:
Molecular weight
Component Mole fraction (kg/kgmol)
O2 0.210 32.0
N2 0.790 28.0
60
Equipments Design Chapter 5
= 28.84 kg/kgmol
Now:
198.80 kgmol 34.60 kg
Mass flow rate of stream-01 =
hr 1 kgmol
= 6878.50 kg/hr
= 7490.0 kg/hr
Inlet mass feed flow rate (mi) = 6878.50 kg/hr + 7490.0 kg/hr = 14368.50 kg/hr
We know that the general equation of gas is given by the following relation:
PV = nRT
Whereas:
Or:
M
PV = RT
M.W
Whereas:
61
Equipments Design Chapter 5
M P × M.W
=ρi =
V RT
For the calculation of molecular weight of the gas we proceed as follows:
The composition of the stream formed after the mixing of stream-01 and stream-02 is as
follows:
Molecular weight of the mixed stream = (0.226 × 34.0) + (0.163 × 44.0) + (0.002 × 16.0) +
= 32.10 kg/kgmol
Now:
1 × 32.10
ρi = = 0.94 kg/m3
0.0821 × 416.2
Now from equ. 5.3:
14368.50 kg/hr
Inlet volumetric flow rate (ui) = = 15285.60 m3/hr
0.94 kg/m3
62
Equipments Design Chapter 5
For the calculation of the mass flow rate of outlet stream we must know the average
molecular weight of this stream.
Stream-03 composition
Molecular Weight
Component Mole fraction
(kg/kgmol)
H2S 0.116 34.0
CO2 0.183 44.0
N2 0.493 28.0
SO2 0.058 24.25
H2O 0.140 18.0
S8 0.010 256.0
Average molecular weight of the stream-03 = (0.116 × 34.0) + (0.183 × 44.0) + (0.493 ×
(0.010× 256.0)
= 32.28 kg/kgmol
= 13428.48 kg/hr
49551.50 - 15285.60
ε= = 2.24
15285 .60
Now the volumetric flow rate is given by:
63
Equipments Design Chapter 5
u = ui (1 + εXa) (5.5)
For high rate of mixing and for reaction completion we take small length to diameter ratio
as:
L / Di = 3.375
Whereas:
L = 3.375 Di
3 4V
Di = = 1.65 m
π×3.375
And:
64
Equipments Design Chapter 5
As the reactions taking place in the furnace F-100 are all exothermic and the
temperature within the furnace rises to 1177 OC (2150 OF), some kind of refractory material
is used to avoid the damage of the material of construction of the plug flow reactor on
account of high thermodynamic temperature. The refractory thickness is so adjusted that
the allowable temperature for shell material will be 354.5 OC (670 OF) because we have
suggested using the SA-516 material for the shell construction. By using 0.08 m (3.5 in)
refractory (Casto Last G; as it is more convenient for operating under high temperatures and
resistant towards sulfur and its products) the shell internal diameter is now increased.
Do = Di + 2t
65
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Pressure drop occurs only if there is a catalyst bed and is calculated by the Ergun equation.
Since no catalyst bed is not used over here so ΔP = 0, since a plug flow reactor operating
without any catalyst has 0 pressure drop.1
1
A. Kayoed Coker, “Modeling of chemical kinetics and reactor design”.
66
Equipments Design Chapter 5
N2 = 0.500 N2 = 0.500
S8 = 0.010 S8 = 0.010
Fig 5.2: Material and energy flow across waste heat recovery boiler B-100
STEP-7: Correction of Ud
STEP-9: Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient (hi and hi,o) Calculations
67
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Mass flow rate of cooling water is already calculated in energy balance which comes out to
be equal to 3.24 x 103 kg/hr
(ΔTLMTD)preheat = 585 oC
(ΔTLMTD)superheat = 659 oC
(ΔTLMTD)weighted = Qtotal
(Q/LMTD)preheat + (Q/LMTD)superheat
Whereas:
Now:
(ΔTLMTD)weighted = 649 oC
68
Equipments Design Chapter 5
• Length:
• BWG = 16
• No of tubes (NT):
Nearest count = 91
0.38 m
NT = at (db/da)2.29
db = 0.3 m
69
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Baffle spacing
STEP-7: Correction of Ud
PREHEATING:
De = 0.02 m
Re = 191.0
jH = 7.0 2
SUPERHEATING
jH = 42 2
70
Equipments Design Chapter 5
STEP-9: Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient (hi and hi,o) Calculations
jH = 90
k = 0.0084 W/m-K 2
PREHEATING
SUPERHEAT
PREHEATING
Re = 191
f = 0.0048 1
71
Equipments Design Chapter 5
SUPERHEATING
Re = 6532
f = 0.0022
Re = 2.04 x 104
f = 0.001
ΔPr = 24 kPa
Total pressure drop on tube side (ΔPT) = 42.0 kPa; Which is in the allowable limit i-e: 68.0
kPa
72
Equipments Design Chapter 5
o o
Temp. = 248.8 C Temp. = 354.4 C
N2 = 0.500 N2 = 0.511
S8 = 0.015
73
Equipments Design Chapter 5
DIAMETER OF BED:
Now suppose L/D = 3
So diameter of bed can be calculated as;
DB = (4Vb/3*)1/3
= 2.32 m
LENGTH OF BED:
LB = 3D = 6.96m
Provide 10% free space over bed (top and bottoms for support of catalyst bed) so;
LENGTH OF REACTOR:
LB(1.1) = 7.656m
DIAMETER OF REACTOR:
As L/D = 3, so diameter of reactor = 2.552 m
Vol. OF REACTOR:
V = 39.14 m3
74
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Where
Pi = Design Pressure = 50 psig
Di = Diameter of reactor
f = Stress factor for SA-516-17 at 522K is 30845535 N/m2
j = joint efficiency is 0.85
Cc = Corrosion allowance is 2mm
t = 50(93.36)/{4(4475)(.125) - 1.2(50)}
= 0.05m
t = 0.05 m
75
Equipments Design Chapter 5
REACTOR R-101:
76
Equipments Design Chapter 5
DIAMETER OF BED:
Now suppose L/D = 3
So diameter of bed can be calculated as;
DB = (4Vb/3*)1/3
= 2.274m
LENGTH OF BED:
LB = 3D = 6.82m
Provide 10% free space over bed(top and bottoms for support of catalyst bed) so;
LENGTH OF REACTOR:
LB(1.1) = 7.50m
DIAMETER OF REACTOR:
As L/D = 3, so diameter of reactor = 2.50m
Vol. OF REACTOR:
V = 36.86m3
REACTOR R-102:
77
Equipments Design Chapter 5
DIAMETER OF BED:
Now suppose L/D = 3
So diameter of bed can be calculated as;
DB = (4Vb/3*)1/3
= 2.294m
LENGTH OF BED:
LB = 3D = 6.88m
Provide 10% free space over bed(top and bottoms for support of catalyst bed) so;
LENGTH OF REACTOR:
LB(1.1) = 7.57m
DIAMETER OF REACTOR:
As L/D = 3, so diameter of reactor = 2.524m
Vol. OF REACTOR:
V = 37.86m3
78
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Dynamic pressure drop across a granular bed can be estimated by means of Ergun’s
Equation. The equation is dimensionally consistent.
S8= 0.999
H2O= 0.111
1) Heat duty
Heat duty = 1,644,838 kJ/hr
79
Equipments Design Chapter 5
2) LMTD
Process gas Inlet temperature = 470 °F
= 60.6 °F
ID = 1.01 in = 0.0842 ft
Length of tube = 20 ft
PT = 0.13 ft
80
Equipments Design Chapter 5
As Area = π× do× L
π× do
= 1,099/ π× 0.104
= 3365 ft
= 3365/20
= 169
= 11,152/ (0.8611)
= 12,949 lb/ft2. hr
81
Equipments Design Chapter 5
NRe = Di x Gt /
= 27,715
=0.025 ft
= 0.333×0.105
Flow Area for shell side = inside cross-sectional area of shell - outside cross sectional
82
Equipments Design Chapter 5
4 4
= 49.41 ft
= 0.043 ft
= 0.17 ft
= 20/(3.3+0.025)
83
Equipments Design Chapter 5
=6
= 0.75 x 2.083
= 1.56 ft
jH = 45 (fig. 28 D.Q.Kern)
CP = 0.4632 Btu/lb. F
µ = 0.578 lb.hr/ft
Now, we need to calculate Overall Design Coefficient to check our earlier assumption
As,
(1/Ud) = (1/ho) + (1/hi) (OD/ID) + xw/kμ (OD/ID + xw) 1/hdo +1/hdi (OD/ID)
84
Equipments Design Chapter 5
6) Pressure Drop
L = Length of tube= 20 ft
D = OD of tubes= 0.7476 ft
85
Equipments Design Chapter 5
N+ 1 = 12 L /B = 60
Re = 12,051
ƒ = 0.003 ft2/in2
Ds = 2.083 ft
De = 0.171 ft
Shell passes 1
Tube passes 1
Number of baffles 6
86
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Fig 8.5: Material and energy flow across process stream heater E-105
The purpose of the heater is to heat the incoming stream-11 from 124.4 C to 196.9 C as stream-
12. The overall design steps are as follows:
87
Equipments Design Chapter 5
• Mass velocity
• Reynolds Number.
• Prandtl Number.
• Wall Temperature
• Wall Viscosity
• Determination of JH
• Mass velocity
• Equivalent Diameter
• Reynolds Number.
• Prandtl Number.
• Wall Temperature.
88
Equipments Design Chapter 5
• Wall Viscosity.
• Determination of JH.
The physical properties of the process stream and the steam used are summarized in the following
table for a quick and easy review:
o o
Heat Capacity (Cp) 34.50 kJ/kgmol- C Heat Capacity (Cp) 40.06 kJ/kgmol- C
3 3
Molar Density 0.252 kgmol/m Molar Density 0.56 kgmol/m
Thermal o Thermal o
0.1 kJ/hr-m- C 0.2 kJ/hr-m- C
Conductivity Conductivity
Q = mcCpc(t2 –t1)
mh = Q/λ
As:
Qh = Qc
= 30 kgmol/hr
89
Equipments Design Chapter 5
= 280oC
Schedule no = 40 Di = 0.053 m
Schedule no = 40 di = 0.035 m
Flow Area
Ai = π (Di )2 /4 = 9.6×10-4 m2
Mass Velocity
Reynolds's Number
Prandtl Number
2
D. Q. Kern, “Process Heat Transfer”. (pg 110), Table 11 (pg 844)
90
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Pr = Cp µ/k = 10.5
Wall Temperature
Wall Viscosity
JHi = 70. 1
hi = 91 kJ/hr-m2-oC
Flow Area
Mass Velocity
Reynolds's Number
Prandtl Number
Pr = Cpµ/k = 8.5
Wall Temperature
= 139.8 oC
91
Equipments Design Chapter 5
Wall Viscosity
JHo = 165. 2
ho = 1275 kJ/hr-m2-oC
Uc = 51519 kJ /m2-hr-oC
STEP-7: Corrected Ud
So nearly:
92
Equipments Design Chapter 5
ANNULUS:
Re = 48 x 104
ΔPt= (ΔPr + ΔPs) x ρ = (6690.2 + 0.0074) x 0.252 x 29.64 = 49971.0 kg/m2 = 49.9 KPa
INNER PIPE:
(Re)0.42
ΔPi = 4fGi2 L
2g ρ2 di
93
Chapter 6
PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL
6.1 Introduction
W
ell-designed and properly applied instrumentation is required for efficient
and reliable SRU operation. An SRU with the best designed piping and
equipments cannot achieve its intended function without proper
instrumentation. Today, extremely good instrumentation is available, and
no plant should be limited by lack of proper instrumentation. However,
even with excellent equipment available, instrumentation must be available and must be
properly designed and installed. There will always be some residual H2S and SO2 in the SRU
area. Instruments must be protected from these corrosive components through purging and
sealing. Copper and brass components (tubing, valves, electrical connection, etc.) should
never be used in SRU's unless they are inside purged enclosure. Some key instrumentation
areas are discussed below.
based on the relationship 2SO2 - H2S = 0. When this relationship satisfied, the optimum
amount of combustion air is being supplied to the SRU. If the result is positive, too much air
is being fed and the rate should be reduced. Likewise, if the result is negative, too little air is
being fed and the rate should be increased. It is apparent that the tail gas analyzer must
work properly to achieve optimum air control with efficient, reliable operation. If the air
controls are off, inadequate impurity destruction with equipment plugging and/or
equipment corrosion may occur. The tail gas analyzer must be properly located, use proper
sampling (preferably supplied by the analyzer manufacturer), and be properly celebrated.
This requires correct initial design and regular maintenance.
6.2.6 Reheaters
Most reheater types will utilize a slightly different control system. All reheaters will
employ a temperature control loop; the differences occur in the stream actually controlled.
95
Process Instrumentation & Control Chapter 6
Direct fired line burners require the most complicated controls and includes automatic
shutdowns associated with the firing controls.
Operation personnel tend to do whatever is necessary to keep the SRU on-line even
though it can often result in unsafe operating conditions if the system is properly designed,
width properly selected and installed equipment, and is properly maintained, and the
shutdown system can perform its intended function reliably without nuisance shutdowns.
The following items should initiate an SRU Shutdown in all SRU's:
CONDENSER 4
Temperature of exiting acid gas stream from the final condenser is controlled by
BFW and the temperature of BFW entering the final condenser is controlled by 45 psig
steam at temperature of 289 F. Two feedback control system do both the duties.
96
Process Instrumentation & Control Chapter 6
CONDESNER 1-2-3
97
Chapter 7
MECHANICAL DESIGN
7.1 Introduction
The corrosion problems can be minimized with proper metallurgy. In the SRU, we
will discuss the material of construction and lining of refractory for the most important
equipments. We will discuss these in the light of sulfide corrosion. Many types of
equipment in the SRU highly demand the refractory linings due to many reasons. One of
them is the high corrosion of the H2S and Sulfur. Another is to reduce the heat loss to the
surroundings. The material of construction and refractory linings for the equipments:
The specific features and residence time required for an individual reaction furnace
are dependent on several factors including the operating temperature and expected feed
impurities.
The burner and furnace are typically constructed of carbon steel. The very severe
high temperature, reducing atmosphere process operating conditions in the burner and
furnace require protection of the carbon steel.
The carbon steel must be protected from acid corrosion (liquid phase H2O, SO2,
SO3) and high temperature sulfide corrosion by H2S. the primary form of protection is
insulating the steel from the processing atmosphere with a multi-layer refractory lining. The
refractory lining should be designed to maintain the inside metal temperature between
400-600 oF.
Mechanical Design Chapter 7
We feel all new SRU reaction furnace linings should utilize at least 90% alumina hot
face material. Brick linings are more durable than cast able or plastic ram materials. The
initial installation of brick many be slightly more expensive, but brick normally provides a
longer lining life and requires less maintenance. The brick used for the hot face should be
mullite-bonded material. The high alumina hot face brick is very dense, has good high
temperature strength, but has poor insulating properties.
The second refractory layer should be low iron, class 2600 or 2800 insulating
firebrick (IFB). The IFB is a lower density, greater porosity brick than the hot faced high
alumina brick, and therefore, has better insulating properties. Insulating castable refractory
is also used as the backup layer to the hot-faced brick. If insulating castable is used, it is
important to insure the inner surface of the castable is perfectly round. Any out of
roundness makes installation of the outer brick layer more difficult and can result in an
uneven installation that may have voids between the layers.
If and IFB layer is used, the outer layer (layer next to the shell) is often a 1/8-1/4”
layer of ceramic fiber paper. This material has very good insulating properties. Often the
ceramic fiber paper provides more insulation that the two layers of brick.
The reaction furnace internal features mentioned above (choke ring, checker, wall,
etc.) must be incorporated into the refractory lining design.
The WHB tube sheet and tube inlets have traditionally been protected using high
alumina ceramic tube ferrules/insert and approximately 4” of 60+% alumina castable
refractory on the tubesheet face between the ferrules.
Once installed, the castable is cured into a solid block containing the ferrules.
Properly curing the castable is often difficult. It is difficult to maintain the recommended
time-temperature profile by firing the SRU main burner and operations is normally being
pushed to get the SRU back on-line after a shutdown. Inadequate/improper curing generally
results in reduced WHB tubesheet refractory effectiveness and life.
The WHB tube sheet refractory has been an area of high maintenance, particularly is
SRU’s undergoing frequent start-up/shutdown cycles. It is difficult to properly support the
99
Mechanical Design Chapter 7
castable refractory. Movement in the tubesheet that takes place during cycling and flexing
of the tubesheet often cause cracking of ferrules and refractory. Once a crack develops, it
allows the hot process gases to reach the tubesheet and/or tube. High temperature sulfide
corrosion often occurs, eventually resulting in tube failure. Boiler feedwater (BFW) leakage
into the hot refractory lined reaction furnace causes additional damage. Very significant
SRU down time is required for retubing and refractory repairs.
For the tube sheets we prefer the austenitic stainless steel, which is more resistant
to the sulfur corrosion.
We the newer design thick hex-head ferrules for the WHB tube sheet are a
significant improvement. The hex-head design protects the tube sheet and the tube inlet in
one step. The hex-heads fit together to completely cover the timesheet in the tube field
area. Ceramic fiber paper is placed between the heads to fill any spaces between heads.
The hexhead ferrules can be installed much quicker that the conventional ferrules and
castable refractory. The individual ferules can move slightly as the tube sheet moves
without causing breakage/cracking. The only castable refractory is outside the tube field
near the outer edge of the tube sheet where it is easier to support and is less subject to
movement.
Internal thick refractory lining including internal partitions below the top of the
catalyst bed to protect the shell from possible internal sulfur fires.
External insulation for heat conservation and the prevent corrosion of the vessel
shell. Catalyst support by refractory covered steel beams that support stainless steel or
Alonized steed grating covered with two layers of stainless steel screen. The lower screen
should be 4 x 4 mesh, and the upper screen 8 x 8 mesh. Both screens should be tied to the
grating using stainless steel wire.
Sulfur Condensers:
Care must be taken in choosing the most appropriate material of construction for the sulfur
condensers because of the acid gas is in contact with in the sulfur tubes. The most favorable
material of construction for the tube side is the typical austenitic stainless steel which
provides a best solution for reducing the corrosion.
The shell is usually insulated for reducing the heat loss to the surroundings.
Sulfur Pits:
Product sulfur is normally collected in a below grade, concrete pit equipped with steam
coils to keep the sulfur molten. The pit does not directly affect the SRU process operation
100
Mechanical Design Chapter 7
until the SRU must be shut down because of problems with the pit. Some common sulfur pit
problems are steam coil leakage, sulfur pumps failure, internal sulfur fires, and even
internal explosions. There are a few design features that will significantly improve the
reliable operation of the sulfur pit. Construct the pit using sulfate-resistant concrete with
limestone-free aggregate. Use piping for the steam coil steam coil steam supply down
comers and condensate risers, and any internal components such as ladder rungs that will
be alternately covered with liquid sulfur and then exposed to air as the pit level changes.
101
Chapter 8
HAZOP STUDY OF THE SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT (SRU)
8.1 Introduction
The objective of overall plant safety is to provide safety, health and care to all the
manpower working in the plant and to provide maintenance and safety to the plant by
reducing risks of accident.
leakage and spillage hazards due to corrosion and other factors should be paid extra
attention.
8.3.1 Lights
Proper light arrangements should be made, to facilitate the movement and working
of personnel and minimizing the risk of tripping over pipes.
103
HAZOP Study of the SRU Chapter 8
should be given to avoid any exposure to Sulfur Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfur. High
pressure steam is also an important factor for safety consideration.
104
Chapter 9
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS & COST ESTIMATION
9.1 Introduction
A capital investment is required for any industrial process and determination of the
necessary investment is an important part of a Plant Design Project in cost analysis of an
industrial process, Capital investment costs, manufacturing costs and general expenses
including income taxes are taken into consideration.
Working capital is the additional investment needed, over and above the fixed
capital, to start the plant up and operate it to the point when income is earned.
1. Start up.
Economic Analysis & Cost Estimation Chapter 9
The total investment needed for a project is the sum of the fixed and working capital.
Fixed charges:
Administrative expenses.
106
Economic Analysis & Cost Estimation Chapter 9
Marketing expenses.
R & D.
Financing.
Total capital investment is estimated on the basis of purchase equipment cost. Cost
data given in the “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers” by Max .S .Peter and
Klaus D. Timberhead, & Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6 by J.M Coulson & J.F Richardson.
The value of Marshall & Swift Equipment cost index are given as
index.value.at. present.time
Present cost = original cost *
index.value.at.original .time
107
Economic Analysis & Cost Estimation Chapter 9
Boiler (B-100)
Cost constant = C = 60 £
index.value.at. present.time
Cost of boiler = cost (1998)
index.value.at.original .time
= (60884.87)(1218/1070)
= 69306.33 £
Ce = C S “
C = 9300 &
n = 0.40
S = 31.63 cu m
108
Economic Analysis & Cost Estimation Chapter 9
index.value.at. present.time
Cost of reactor = cost (1998)
index.value.at.original .time
= (37028.07) (1218/1070)
= 42149.7 £
= 12644.9 £
= 21074.85 £
= 227608.35 £
Condenser E-106
Given as
Purchased cost = bare cost * type factor * pressure factor heat transfer area =
125.799 sq m
Pressure factor = 1
109
Economic Analysis & Cost Estimation Chapter 9
index.value.at. present.time
Cost of condenser (C-d) = cost (1998)
index.value.at.original .time.
= 61924.5 £
As the heat duty of condenser E-100, E-102, E-104 and E-106 is more, we take 10% more
heat transfer area for the cost calculations, so
Pressure factor = 1
index.value.at. present.time
Cost of one condenser = cost (1998)
index.value.original .time
= 91000 (1218/1070)
= 103586 £
For others equipment like pre heaters, knock out drums and other minor, we take factor
20% of the estimated equipments
110
Economic Analysis & Cost Estimation Chapter 9
Now using ratio factors for estimating capital investment items based on delivered
equipment cost as given in plant design and economics for chemical engineers book.
111
Economic Analysis & Cost Estimation Chapter 9
= 495601531 Rs.
112
REFERENCES
9. Kern D.Q. “Process Heat Transfer”, McGraw Hill Bool Co., New York,
1950
10. McCabe, W.L & Smith, J.C., “Unit Operation for Chemical
Engineering”, 6th Edition McGraw Hill Book Co., New York
11. Peters, M.S. & Timmerhause, K.D., “Plant Design & Economics or
Chemical Engineers” 2nd Edition McGraw Hill Book Co., New York
12. “Sulfur Recovery.” GPSA Engineering Data Book vol. II, eleventh
edition, 1998. Chapter 22