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Session
2003(F) – 2007(F)
By
Atiq Ur Rehman Muhammad Nauman Yousf
FAISALABAD
Plant Design Report on
Production of 140 MTPD Conc. Nitric Acid
(98%) by Recycling and Rectification
Session
2003(F) – 2007(F)
Project Advisors
Engr. Naveed Asif (Assistant Professor)
Submitted By
Name UET Registration Number
Sajjid Hussain 2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-03
Atiq Ur Rehman 2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-11
Ali Ayub 2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-18
Ahmad Saleem 2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-24
Muhammad Raza Afzal 2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-30
Muhammad Nauman Yousaf 2003(F)-UET-IEFR-CHEM-FD-31
Faisalabad
Pakistan
Plant Design Report on
Production of 140 MTPD Conc. Nitric Acid (98%)
by Recycling and Rectification
Session 2003(F) – 2007(F)
This project is being submitted to Chemical Engineering
Department, NFC Institute of Engineering & Fertilizer
Research, Faisalabad in the partial fulfillment of
BECHELOR’S DEGREE
IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Approved on:
--------------------------- ----------------------------
Engr. Naveed Asif
(Assistant Professor)
----------------------------
Head
Chemical Engineering Department
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINERING
Faisalabad
All praises to Almighty Allah,
Whose uniqueness oneness &
wholeness is unchangeable. All
respects are for His Holy Prophet,
Muhammad (peace be upon him)
who enabled us to recognize our
Creator.
Our parents who not only supported
us financially throughout our
education but gave us the strength of
character and should always remain
as beacon of light and life for us.
Acknowledgement
All praise to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, who provided us with the
strength to accomplish this main project. All respects are for His
HOLY PROPHET (PBUH), whose teachings are true source of
knowledge & guidance for whole mankind.
Before anybody else we thank our Parents who have always been a
source of moral support, driving force behind whatever we do. We
are indebted to our project advisor Engr. Naveed Asif (Assistant
Professor)for his worthy discussions, encouragement, technical
discussions, inspiring guidance, remarkable suggestions, keen
interest, constructive criticism & friendly discussions which enabled
us to complete this report. He spared a lot of precious time in
advising & helping us in writing this report.
We are sincerely grateful to Engr. Shehla Asif (Assistant Professor)
for their profound gratitude and superb guidance in connection with
the project.
We are also thankful to R & D Department of NFC (IEFR) for their
cooperation in search of design material.
Authors
Table of Contents:
Chapter # 1
Introduction
History 1
Chemical properties 3
Chapter # 2
Process Description
Process Selection 13
Material Balance
Basis 15
Reactor 17
Cooler/Condenser 21
Oxidation Tower 23
Compressor 25
Distillation Column 27
Absorption Column 30
Bleaching Column 32
Chapter # 4
Energy Balance
Energy Balance 36
Chapter # 5
Equipment Design
49
Equipment design by Atiq-Ur-Rehman: Reactor
65
Equipment Design By Sajid Hussain: Oxidation tower
74
Equipment Design By Ali Ayub: Absorber
94
Equipment Design By Muhammad Nauman Yousaf: Stripper
109
Equipment Design By Ahmad Saleem: Distillation column)
124
Equipment Design By Muhammad Raza Afzal: Partials Condenser
Chapter # 6
Mechanical Design
Absorber 134
Stripper 140
Chapter # 7
Introduction 142
Chapter # 8
Safety
Chapter # 9
Material Of Construction
Introduction 157
Chapter # 10
HAZOP Study
Introduction 162
Chapter # 11
APPENDECES 183-
207
Chapter: 01 Introduction
Chapter: 01
Introduction
HISTORY
The first reports of nitric acid have been credited to Arab alchemists of the eighth
century. By the middle Ages it was referred to as aqua fortis (strong water) or aqua
valens (powerful water). From that time onward, nitric acid was produced primarily from
saltpeter (potassium nitrate) and sulphuric acid. In the nineteenth century, Chilean
saltpeter (sodium nitrate) from South America largely replaced potassium nitrate.
However, at the beginning of twentieth century newer manufacturing technologies were
introduced. In Norway, where electricity was inexpensive, electric arc furnaces were used
to make nitrogen oxides, and subsequently nitric acid, directly from air. The commercial
life of these furnaces was relatively brief and most were shut down by 1930. At about the
same time, a different production method was being developed. In 1908, at Bochum,
Germany, Ostwald piloted a 3-t per day nitric acid process based on the catalytic
oxidation of ammonia with air. In1913 the synthesis of ammonia from coal,air and water
was successfully demonstrated using the Haber-Bosch process. With a secure and
economical supply of ammonia, ammonia oxidation was firmly established as an
industrial route to nitric acid manufacture.
1
Chapter: 01 Introduction
calculated as 100% and the strength of the product acid is 60% HNO3 by weight. This
plant was designed by a German firm Gmbh UDHE. It is in production since 1977.
Here nitric acid is used to produce different explosives. These explosives are used further
to make different arms. This unit is currently fulfilling Pakistan Army’s demand for
explosives.
For the most part, nitric acid is manufactured and consumed at concentrations of about
60%. But concentrated (90% or more) nitric acid is needed for
Isocyanates
Nitrobenzene
2
Chapter: 01 Introduction
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Crystals of pure nitric acid are colorless
7. The V.P and density of acid containing NO2 increase with %age of NO2 present.
8. The density, viscosity and thermal conductivity of HNO3 are given in the table.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
ACIDIC PROPERTIES
1. As a typical acid it reacts readily with alkalis, basic oxides and carbonates to
form salts.
3
Chapter: 01 Introduction
OXIDIZING PROPERTIES
1. HNO3 is a powerful oxidizing agent that reacts violently with many organic
materials e.g. turpentine, charcoal.
3. HNO3 is used with certain organic e.g. furfuryl alcohol and aniline.
5. Concentrated HNO3 favors the formation of NO2 while at low strength the
formation of NO.
6. Concentrated HNO3 reacts with all metals except gold, iridium, Pt, Rh,
Tantalum, Titanium and certain alloys.
7. Concentrated HNO3 converts the oxides and sulphides etc. of most elements in a
low oxidation state to a higher level e.g., sulphur dioxide is oxidized to
sulphuric acid.
8. Chrome, iron, Al readily dissolves in HNO3 but concentrated acid form a metal
oxide.
4
Chapter: 01 Introduction
As suggested in the process selection that nitric acid plant in Pakistan is not feasible with
out a fertilizer complex. This fertilizer complex will have following main units.
1. Ammonia plant
3. CAN plant
4. Utilities
ABSTRACT
Following factors should be considered in plant location selection
3. Transport facilities
4. Availability of labor
8. Climate
MARKETING AREA
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities such as mineral acids and fertilizers
where the cost of the product per ton is relatively low and the cost of transport a
significant fraction of the sale price the plant should be located close to primary market.
5
Chapter: 01 Introduction
RAW MATERIALS
Main raw material for producing ammonia is natural gas and for plants producing bulk
chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material, where it is also
close to the marketing area.
The availability of price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location.
Plants producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw
material, where this is also close to the marketing area.
TRANSPORT
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable a site should be selected that is close to
atleast two major forms of transport, road, rail, waterway or a sea port. Road transport is
being increasingly used and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse.
Rail transport will be cheaper for the long distance transport of bulk chemicals.
Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and essential
equipment and supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be
considered.
AVAILABILITY OF LABOR
Labor will be needed for the construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area but there should
be an adequate pool of unskilled labor available locally, and labor suitable for training to
operate the plant .Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance .Local trade
union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the
availability and suitability of the local labor for recruitment and training.
UTILITIES
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general
process use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality.
6
Chapter: 01 Introduction
Process water may be drawn from a river from wells or purchased from a local authority.
At some sites the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake or from sea at
other locations cooling towers will be needed.
Electrical power will be needed at all sites. A competitively priced fuel must be available
on site for steam and power generation.
All industrial processes produce waste products and full consideration must be given to
difficulties and cost of their disposal .The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be
covered by local regulations and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the
initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met.
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community .Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community.
SITE LAYOUT
The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical
flow of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a
safe distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to future expansion
of the site. The ancillary buildings and services required on a site in addition to the main
processing units will include
1. Storage for raw materials and products, tank farms and ware houses
2. Maintenance workshops
5. Fire stations
7
Chapter: 01 Introduction
When roughing out the preliminary site layout the process units will normally be sited
and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps,
from raw materials to final product storage .Process units are normally spaced at least
30m apart greater spacing may be needed for hazardous processes.
The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should be
arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in traveling between buildings.
Administration offices and laboratories in which a relatively large number of people will
be working should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes may have
to be sited a safer distance.
The sitting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe
alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction and for
operation and maintenance .Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical
run of pipes to and from the process units.
Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume of condensate
spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties.
The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and unloading facilities and
the process units they serve .Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited
at least 70 m from the site boundary.
8
Chapter: 01 Introduction
PLANT LAYOUT
The economic construction and efficient operations of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principle
factors are
1. Economic considerations
3. Convenience of operation
4. Safety
5. Future expansion
6. Modular construction
COSTS
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe b/w equipment and the least amount of structural steel work.
However this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to elevate
the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump.
OPERATION
Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
9
Chapter: 01 Introduction
MAINTENANCE
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement .Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst i.e.
ammonia burner should be located on the inside of buildings .Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance such as compressors and large pumps should be also placed
under cover.
SAFETY
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment and confine the
effects of an explosion .At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from
each level in process buildings.
PLANT EXPANSION
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs and service
pipes over sized to allow for future requirements.
MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment structural steel piping and
instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site by road or sea
1. Improved quality
10
Chapter: 02 Process Description
Chapter: 02
Process Description
Oxidation of NO to NO2 and absorption of NO2 in water to form weak HNO3 (50-
70 wt%).
Since HNO3 forms an azeotrope with water at concentration of about 68%, stronger acid
cannot be produced by simple distillation of weaker acid.
11
Chapter: 02 Process Description
The second approach to the concentration of nitric acid, of late called the Direct Strong
Nitric process, is an outgrowth of the atmospheric pressure process. At atmospheric
pressure, the rate of oxidation of nitric oxide to the dioxide is extremely slow so that
relatively little dioxide is present when the gas reaches the condenser after the ammonia
burner. Most of the water formed can, therefore, be condensed in an atmospheric plant
forming a solution with only 2-4% by weight nitric acid. Part of this acid is used as
makeup in the process, but most of it has normally been discarded.
The process gas leaving the condenser is contacted by concentrated nitric acid in an
oxidation tower, reversing the absorption reaction by converting nitric oxide plus nitric
acid to nitrogen dioxide and water. The dioxide in the process gas is chemically absorbed
into azeotropic or greater strength acid. Air stripping and rectification of the resulting
stream produces strong acid of 98-99 wt% strength.
12
Chapter: 02 Process Description
PROCESS SELECTION
We have selected concentrated nitric acid (CNA) process which is a direct strong nitric
acid process because of its following advantages over other processes;
Recycle loops and a special rectification step are innovations of this process. They
eliminate the refrigeration, oxygen and chemical dehydrating agents (eg;
sulphuric acid or magnesium nitrate) required by classical manufacturing
techniques, and thus decrease utilities and operating expenses considerably.
This plant can be fully automated – only two operators a shift are required.
This process can also make concentrated and/or weak acid (50-60%) in any
proportion: the product mix can be changed by adjusting the position of two
valves.
13
Chapter: 02 Process Description
The dry gas stream is preheated and sent to bottom of oxidation tower. Here 50-60% acid
from the absorption section of the system enters the top of the column. As the gas and the
liquid flow counter currently, the acid oxidizes NO to NO2
Dilute acid from the bottom of the oxidation unit is sent to the absorption section of the
route for concentration. The process gas leaving the top of oxidation tower is combined
with air containing nitrogen oxides and then compressed. The compressed gas is cooled
before entering the absorption section of the process. This section actually consists of two
columns, one produces the superazeotrope and the other makes a weak acid. The gases
first enter the superazeotrope column and are contacted with azeotropic (68%) acid from
the distillation unit. Nitrogen dioxide is absorbed and a superazeotrope of 80% nitric acid
is formed. This superazeotrope, saturated with nitrogen oxides, is stripped with air,
preheated and then fed to distillation column. The normal azeotropic acid mixture used
for absorption is taken off the bottom of distillation column. Concentrated acid, 98% is
obtained at the top.
Since the process gases leaving the top of the superaziotropic absorption tower are still
rich in nitrogen oxides, they are sent to another absorption unit. Here low-concentration
acid from the oxidation tower enters in the middle. HNO3 which is about 50-60% is
removed from the bottom.
The exiting gases have concentration of NOx in the order of 300-400ppm. The tail gas is
preheated to about 450oC by process streams in the ammonia oxidizer and the streams
leaving the compressor.
14
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
Chapter: 03
MATERIAL BALANCE
BASIS
140 metric tons/day of 98% HNO3 on 100% basis
1 hr operation
Nitric acid
= 5952.38 kg/hr
= 119.95 kg/hr
(Ref: “Routes to concentrated nitric acid”, L.M.Marzo and S.M.Marzo, Spain 1978.
Fertilizer acids).
15
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
= 37777.5 kg/day
= 1574.06 kg/hr
= 92.59 kgmol
For ammonia oxidation, the stoichiometric gas composition is 15% by Vol% of NH3 in
air. However, this composition is in explosive range of NH3 air mixture. So atmospheric
plants are operated at 14%.
= 568.76 kg mol/hr
= 119.44 kg mol/hr
= 449.36 kg mol/hr
16
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
3b
NH3=92.54kgmol/hr
O2=119.4kgmol/hr
N2=449.36kgmol/hr
NO=92.59 kgmol/hr
H2O=141.57 kgmol/hr
O2=4.6115 kgmol/hr
N2=450.28n kgmol/hr
= 90.73 kgmol/hr
17
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
= 113.4 kg mol/hr
=138.88KgmoleH2O/hr
= 1.85 kg mol/hr
O2 consumed = 1.3888KgmoleO2/hr
=0.925KgmoleN2/hr
= 2.775KgmoleH2O/hr
= 92.58Kgmole/hr
= 114.7Kgmole/hr
= 4.6115 kg mol/hr
= 0.925+449.36
= 450.28 kg mol/hr
18
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
H2O leaving = H2O produced in 1st reaction + H2O produced in 2nd reaction
= 0.925+449.36
= 141.575 kgmol/hr
19
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
NO=92.59kgmol/hr
H2O=141.575kgmol/hr
O2=4.6115kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr
NO2=9.223kgmol/hr
NO=83.36kgmol/hr
H2O=141.575kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr
REACTION;
O2 is limiting reatanct
=9.23 Kgmole/hr(NO)
=9.223Kgmole/hr
20
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
COOLER/CONDENSOR (E 05) ;
NO2=7.948kgmol/hr
NO=83.785kgmol/hr
7 N2=450.28kgmol/hr
NO2=9.223kgmol/hr
NO=83.36kgmol/hr
H2O=141.57kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr 8
HNO3=0.8kgmol/hr
H2O=141.5kgmol/hr
REACTION;
=0.425Kgmole/hrH2O
Check;
0.85 x 63
2% = x 100%
21
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
= 9.223-1.275
= 7.948 kgmol/hr
= 83.36 + 0.425
= 83.785 kgmol/hr
= 141.575-0.425
= 141.15 kgmol/hr
22
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
13
11
D
NO=8.375kgmol/hr
NO2=234.18kgmol/hr B (60wt%HNO3)
N2=450.28kgmol/hr HNO3=297.27kg/hr
H2O=693.6kg/hr
10
12
A
NO=83.785kg/hr
C (35 wt%HNO3)
N2=450.28kg/hr
HNO3=146.48kg/hr
H2O=769.05kg/hr
REACTION;
= 75.40 kgmol/hr
= 150.8 kgmol/hr
= 226.2 kgmol/hr
23
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
=83.785-75.40
=8.3785 Kgmole/hr
HNO3 BALANCE;
H2O BALANCE;
B = 31213.65 kg/hr
C =23071.65 kg/hr
24
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
COMPRESSOR (K 01) ;
16
NO2=247.5kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
15
NO=8.37kgmol/hr
NO2=239.181kgmol/hr
O2=74.99kgmol/hr
N2=732.148kgmol/hr
REACTION;
NO leaving = 0 kgmol/hr
NO2 leaving = NO2 leaving from oxidation tower + NO2 entering from recycle
25
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
NO2 entering from recycle stream is 2% of total NO2 entering the compressor
2% = 230
11157.57 + 230
2% = 2.007%
= 247.5 kgmol/hr
= 74.99 – 4.18
= 70.81 kgmol/hr
26
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
24
B
HNO3 (98wt%)=5833.3kg/hr
H2O = 119kg/hr
23
A
HNO3 (80%)=11905.8kg/hr
H2O (20%wt)=2976.4kg/hr
18
C
HNO3 (68%wt)=6072.4kg/hr
H2O (32%wt)=2857.6kg/hr
= 5952.3kg/hr
A=B+C
A = 5952.3 + C eq.1
HNO3 balance;
27
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
NO2=103.6kgmol/hr
NO=46.3kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr HNO3(68%)=6072.4kg/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
H2O(32%)=2857.6kg/hr
H2O=52.9kgmolhr
NO2=247.5kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
HNO3(80%)=11905.8kg/hr
H2O(20%)=2976.4kg/hr
NO2=10580kg/hr=230kgmol/hr
REACTION;
HNO3 balance,
6072.4 + X = 11905.8
NO produced = ½ x 92.6
= 46.3mol/hr
= 46.3mol/hr = 833.4kg/hr
28
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
2976.46 = 2976.46
= 138.9kgmol/hr
= 247.9 – 138.9
= 108.6 kgmol/hr
29
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
NO2=1.036kgmol/hr
NO=1.389kgmol/hr
O2=11.49kgmol/hr
HNO3(40%)=146.48kgmol/hr N2=732.14kgmol/hr
H2O(60%)=769.05kgmol/hr
NO2=103.6kgmol/hr
NO=46.3kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr HNO3(60%)=297.27kgmol/hr
H2O(40%) = 693.6kgmol/h
REACTIONS
from eq.1,
O2 consumed = ¾ x 44.911
=33.66kgmol/hr
= 22.46kgmol/hr
30
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
From eq.2,
O2 consumed = ¼ x 102.56
= 25.64kgmol/hr
= 51.28kgmol/hr
= 11.49kgmol/hr
31
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
21
14
HNO3(80%) = 11905.8kg/hr
H20 = 29764kg/hr O2 = 74.9kgmol/hr
NO2 = 5kgmol/hr N2 = 282.14kgmol/hr
NO2= 5kgmol/hr
23
22 3
HNO3(80%wt)=11905.8kg/hr
O2 = 74.9kgmol/hr H2O (20%wt)=2976.46kg/hr
N2 = 282.14kgmol/hr
32
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
D
A
A H2O=52.9kgmol/hr
E
O2=119.4kgmol/hr A
N2=449.36kgmol/hr HNO3=92.59 kgmol/hr
H2O=6.61 kgmol/hr
B OVERALL PLANT
A BALANCE
NH3=92.59kgmol/hr F
HNO3=0.85 kgmol/hr
H2O=141.5 kgmol/hr
G
A
C
NO2=0.1%=1.036 kgmol/hr
A
NO=0.2%=1.389 kgmol/hr
O2=74.9 kgmol/hr
O2=1.5%=11.49 kgmol/hr
N2=282.14kgmol/hr N2=98.12%=732.14 kgmol/hr
B = ammonia entering
D = water entering
33
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
CHECK:
Stream A:
= 16402.88kg/hr
Stream B:
Stream C:
= 10296.72kg/hr
Stream D:
Stream E:
= 5952.15 kg/hr
Stream F:
34
Chapter: 03 Material Balance
= 2594.25kg/hr
Stream G:
= 20956.92Kg/hr
A + B + C + D = E + F +G
29503.29 = 29225.83
35
PROCESS FLOW SHEET
1
H 01
25
2
M 01 13
D 01
3a D 03
11 12
E 01
3b
R 01 12
10
9
4 6 7
5 11
E 02 E 03 E 04
E 05
2a
H 02 E 07
G 01 E 06
14 20
10 19 E 11
18
14 24
23
D 02
K 01 D 04
N 02 N 01 CW 17
15
16
E 09
21 23 D 05
E 08 E 10 E 12
CWR
22
18
F 01
E02 Tail gas pre heater E07 Heat exchanger E11 Condnser D03 Bleaching column
H01 Ammonia Filter
E03 Waste Heat boiler E07 Heat exchanger E12 Reboiler D05 Distillation column
H02 Air Filter
E04 Air Pre heater E08 Heat exchanger D01 Oxidation tower K01 Compressor
M01 Mixer
E05 Cooler /Condenser E09 Heat Exchanger D02 Super azeotrope tower F01 Stack
E01 Heat Exchanger
E06 Heat exchanger E10 Acid heat exchanger D03 Weak acid tower N01 Expander
R01 Reactor
(absorption tower) N02 Motor
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
Chapter: 04
Energy Balance
N2 = 449.36 = 67..94%
661.35
H2 O = 141.575 = 20.55 %
O2 = 4.6115 = 0.67 %
N2 = 450.28 = 65.347 %
689.05
NO = 21.6 kcal/mol
36
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
=1999944-8026972.352
=-6027028.35 kcal/hr
=-994400.8 kcal/hr
=-5032627.55 kcal/hr
For Reaction 2
=-160389.17 kcal/hr
=-20276 kcal/hr
=-140113.1725 kcal/hr
Now
=-5172740.725 kcal/hr
37
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
= 863008.475 kcal
Σ Hp = [ (m Cp ) NO + (m Cp) H2O + (m Cp ) O2 + (m Cp ) N2 ] ΔT
= 4794700.24 kcal
q = Σ Hp + Σ ΔH at 25˚C - Σ Hr
= 4794700.24+(-5172740.725)-863008.4
=--1241048.885 kcal
38
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
P1 = 1 atm
P2 = 10atm
T1 = 48 C
C.R = (P2/P1)1/n
= 3.16
Cp/Cv = = 1.4
m= - 1
Ec
Ec = efficiency of compressor = 78%
m= 0.366
For stage 1,
T2 = T1 (P2 /P1)0.366
= 321 (3.16)0.366
= 489.09˚K
=216.9 ˚C
For stage 2;
Now T1 =50˚C
Again,
T2 = T1 (P2 /P1)0.366
= 323 (3.16)0.366
39
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
= 492.13˚K
=492.13 ˚C
NO = 83.784
N2 = 450.28
HNO3 = 297.27
H2O = 693.6
NO = 8.375
NO2 = 234.18
N2 = 450.28
HNO3 = 146.48
H2O = 769.05
Cp of N O = 7.146
Cp of N2 = 6.95
Cp of HNO3 = 26.29
Cp of H2O = 9.25
Cp of NO2 = 8.9625
H1 of NO = mCp(T2 –T1)
40
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
= 14968.01
H2 of N2 =m Cp (50 – 25)
= 450.28 x 6.95 x 25
= 78236.15 kcal
=195380.7 kcal
= 160395 kcal
=3850.95 (T2-25)
41
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
For reaction
ΔH rxn at 25 °C = 32.4 kcal /g mol = 2553424.56 kcal (from Kirk Othmer, Vol 13)
Now,
Hp + ΔHrxn at 25oC - Hr = 0
HEAT OF REACTION:
42
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
SENSIBLE HEAT:
At T= 25˚C
Stream 1:
30.01 kJ/kgmol-˚C
43
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
ń = 1001.22745 kgmol/hr
Q1= ńCpmixΔT
Q1 =7.14x105kJ/hr
Stream 2:
3.1944 kJ/kg˚C
m = 23071.14 kg/hr
Q2= mCpmixΔT
Q2 =1.84x106kJ/hr
Stream 3:
29.06 kJ/kgmol-˚C
ń = 746.05 kgmol/hr
Q3= ńCpΔT
44
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
Q3 =4.34x105kJ/hr
Stream 4:
2.7116 kJ/kg˚C
m = 31212.81(50-25) kg/hr
Q4= mCpmixΔT
Q4 =2.11x106kJ/h
Now,
45
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
Q= ṁ CpΔT
ṁ=32.8 kg/s;
So,
46
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
Inlet = 25˚C
Outlet=50˚C
Composition
NO=83.785kgmol/hr = 17.12%
N2 = 450.28kgmol/hr = 82.81%
Cp(mix)=6.94 Kcal/kgmol˚C
Q= n Cp ΔT
= 94039.25 Kcal/hr
Hot fluid
Inlet =73˚C
Composition:
N2=23.56 mole%
NO2=69.7 mol%
O2=6.74 mol%
Cp(mix)=7.98 Kcal/kgmol˚C
Q = n Cp ΔT
47
Chapter: 04 Energy Balance
Heat duty:
NO2=67.343 lbm/hr
N2=24490.513lbm/hr
H2O=7815.56 lbm/hr
Refrence temperature=77oF
∑Q=Q1+Q2+Q3=2392629.962 Btu/hr
If the mixture is cooled up to 50oF below the saturation temperature of steam then
Q5=∑mCp∆T=6008.159 50 oF
=300407.9847Btu/hr
Qc=Q4+Q5
=6810772.75 Btu/hr
Qc = ∑mCp∆T
m=54053.75 lbm/hr
48
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Chapter: 05
Equipment Design
REACTOR
Reactor is a container for chemical reaction and is the heart of reaction process.
The choice of reactor is dictated by the process conditions, the type of reaction and the
mode of catalyst exposition. The oxidation of ammonia is a gas-solid reaction of catalytic
type. Since the catalyst is in the form of wire gauze, so a fixed bed reactor is best suited.
The reaction is exothermic and the heat of reaction is to be conserved as it will be used to
supply power required for compression, to generate steam and to preheat air, hence the
mode of operation will be adiabatic.
The reactor is classified as a heterogeneous, catalytic, shallow fixed bed, adiabatic, down
flow reactor. Most of the reactors employed in nitric acid industry are tapered along with
700 angles.
CHOICE OF CATALYST
Catalysts which increase the rate of oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen oxide (NO) include
platinum, its alloys with metals of platinum group, oxides of iron, manganese, cobalt etc.
The activity of platinum and platinum alloy catalysts is higher than that of others. Non-
platinum catalysts are cheaper but they are less active and unstable. For these reasons at
most of plants where HNO3 is made from ammonia, platinum catalysts are used.
90% Pt with 10% Rh is selected as catalyst for this reaction because it can operate at
high temperatures, maximum yield is obtained and the contact time can be accurately
controlled.
49
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
SHAPE OF CATALYST
The platinum-rhodium catalyst is employed in the form of gauze made of fine wire. For
oxidation at atmospheric pressure, 2-4 layers of 80 mesh gauze are used. At higher
pressure, 20-30 layers are used.
Since we are operating at atmospheric pressure, so we use 2-3 layers of 80 mesh gauze,
0.06mm wire diameter with 1024 holes per cm2 .The free space is 69.8%
The gauzes are stacked in a fixed bed assembly and operate under bulk mass transfer
control.
CATALYST POISONING
Even minute traces of some materials are such serious poisons for platinum catalysts that
extreme care must be taken to eliminate them. Dusty air and pipe line scale may poison
or damage the catalyst and must be avoided. The effect of various poisons is shown in
table.
Lead 0.2% 5%
Soaps 0.0045%
50
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
The reaction is so rapid that the amount of catalyst required is very small and heat
transfer is not feasible. The reaction is limited by mass transfer and the design of screen
packs has been based on pilot plant and plant experience.
A major issue in design is arrangement of layers of screens and supports in a manner that
will assure good distribution of flow. The L/D ratio of the bed is very small i.e(6.25x10-
3
). Poor distribution not only reduces capacity but also causes hot spots in exothermic
reactions that can volatize metal catalyst. Excessive loss of a precious metal catalyst in
this manner is, of course, intolerable. The distributor installed after the Pt/Rh gauze
restricts the flow enough so that the fluid is spread evenly over the Pt/Rh gauze. The
porous pack is made of nichrome and has randomly oriented pores. Bt using an efficient
distributor of this type, savings in expensive precious metal are realized. This not only
reduced Pt inventory (from 2 troy oz per daily ton HNO3 to 0.8) but also reduced the
amount of Pt subject to volatization.
The loss of platinum has a significant impact on the cost of producing HNO3.
Thus its recovery was an incentive for the development of Pt recovery process. The most
efficient recovery process is the use of a Pd-rich alloy gauze located immediately below
the oxidation gauze which captures the Pt species. The overall reaction may be
represented by
PtO2 + Pd PtPd + O2
Recovery of Pt involves the dissociation of PtO2 to its respective elements and formation
of an alloy between Pt & Pd. Early recovery gauzes contained 80%Pd and 20%Au and
were capable of recovering about 35-40% of the Pt involved. More recently, the Pd
content has been increased and it has become recognized that gauze geometry
optimization leads to increased recovery efficiencies. Current recovery systems can be
designed specifically for each plant. These operate in the mass transfer limited regime
providing recoveries up to 80%.
51
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
REACTIONS
The efficiency of reaction is 98%.The major competing reaction yields nitrogen and is
represented as;
INLET STREAM;
Kgmol/hr %
NH3=92.59 14.0
02 =119.4108 18.05
N2 =449.3680 67.95
INLET TEMPERATURE;
T=2000C = 473K
INLET PRESSURE;
n = 661.35 kgmol/hr
PV = znRT
NH3 O2 N2
(Ref: )
52
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Tc (mix) = (0.14x405.16)+(0.1805x154.2)+(0.6795x125.8)
=56.722+27.83+85.48
=170.033K
Pc (mix) = (0.14x112.8)+(0.1805x50.43)+(0.6795x34)
=15.792+9.1025+23.103
=47.9975 bar
= 473/170.033
= 2.7818
= 1.01/47.9975
=0.02104
z =1 (from graph)
V = znRT/P
= 15.68x103 m3/hr
53
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
= 1.3014 x 10-1 m3
= 7.919 kg
= 9.5 kg
Losses;
= 2310.5 g
= 2.310 kg
= 11.81 kg
V= znRT/P
n = 661.35 kg mol/hr
T = 473 K
P = 101.325 KPa
Z =1 (from graph)
54
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
=25667.63 m3 /hr
= 7.1298 m3 /sec
Where,
P=101.3 KPa
= 27.25
Z=1
p = PM/zRT
=0.7019 kg/m3
= 0.839m
55
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Component kgmol/hr %
NO 95.59 13.43
O2 4.6115 0.66
N2 450.28 65.34
H2 O 141.575 20.54
N2 0.6534 126.2 34
= 26.2326
= 240.59 K
= 75.52 bar
Pr = 1.01/75.52 = 0.01337
56
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Tr = 1143/240.59 = 4.75
n = 661.35 kgmol/hr
R = 0.08314 m3 bar/kgmolK
V = znRT/P
P = 101.3 kPa
T = 1143 K
R= 8.314 KPam3/kgmolK
p =PM/Zrt
= 0.2796 kg/m3
mv = 17.28 m3/sec
= 1.1087 m
57
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
D = 1.1087/0.698
= 1.588 m
L/D for catalyst bed = 6.25 x 10-3 ( Ref; Howard F.Rase,”Chemical Reactor design for
=9.83 x 10-3 m
SKETCH
NH3+air mixture
D1
D2 Pt/Rh gauze
Random pack Pd/Au getter
Support screen
NO gas+ H2O
58
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
HEIGHT OF CONVERTOR;
As D1=0.818m
D2=1.574m
D2 - D1=1.574 - 0.818
=0.756
a1 = 0.756/2 = 0.378
NOW
As θ = 700
Tan θ =h1/a1
h1 = a1 tan θ
= 0.378 tan 70
= 1.0385 m
NOW D2 = 1.574m
59
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
D3 = 1.0985m
D2 – D3 = 1.574 – 1.0985
= 0.4755
a2 = 0.477/2 = 0.23775
Now
tan θ = h3 / a2
h3 = a2 tan θ
= 0.23775 tan70
= 0.6532 m
60
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
SO
= 1.7015 m
VOLUME OF CONVERTOR;
AS
h1 = 1.0386m
h3 = 1.7015m
h2 = R2 tan θ
= (1.574/2) tan 70
= 2.162 m
V1 = ∏ R12 h1
= ∏ (0.81/2)2 x 1.0385
= 0.5351 m3
V2 = ∏ R22 h2
= ∏ (1.574/2)2 x 2.162
= 4.206 m3
∆ V = V2 –V1
= 4.206 – 0.535
= 3.67 m3
61
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
V3 = ∏ R32 h3
= ∏ (1.0985/2)2 x 1.7015
= 1.6211 m3
∆ V’= V2 – V3
= 4.206 – 1.6211
= 2.584 m3
So
= 5.3 m3
P = bs ρ u2/g c ε2 ds
where,
= tortuosity factor = 1
bs = screen thickness
62
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
N = mesh size = 80
d= wire diameter
L = [ 1/N2 + d2 ]
= 0.01357 inch
awR = π L N2
ε = 1 – π L N2d = 0.618
4
μmix= 0.0048 /3600 lbm/in sec
u1 = 2491.97 in/sec
= 0.0867
u2 = 1326.37 in/sec
u =1909.17 in/sec
∆ P = 0.969 psi
63
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
SPECFICATION SHEET
Operation : Continuous
Materials handled:
64
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Oxidation Tower
In absorption gas mixture is contacted with liquid solvent which absorbs one or more
components from the gas stream. The absorbed gas and solvent leave at the bottom and
unabsorbed components leave as gas from the top.
Chemical reaction:
The gas NO and HNO3 flow counter currently ,the acid oxidizes NO to NO2 .this
reaction is endothermic .
1. Suitable for high liquid flow rate 1. Suitable for Larger Diameter
2. Pressure drop per equilibrium stage is Towers
lesser than plate towers 2. Liquid Distribution is good
3. Replacement of packing is easier and 3. Repair and Maintenance is difficult
cheaper for smaller towers
4. Suitable for small diameters 4. Easier to make provision for inter-
5. Suitable when no inter-cooling and cooling and withdrawal of side-
withdrawal of side-streams is required streams
6. Should be considered if separation 5. Not advisable to use for corrosive
process involves corrosive fluids. and toxic liquids
7. Packed height of less than 6m.
65
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
OPERATING CONDITIONS
66
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Operating temperature
Inlet temperature = 50 °C
Outlet temperature = 48°C
= 1.1283 kg / m³
b
NOG = ∫dy/y = ln yb / ya
a
(Unit operations of chemical engr,Mccabe&Smith , 5th ed.)
NOG = 3
ya, mol fraction of NO in leaving gas = 0.012
yb, mol fraction of NO in entering gas = 0.154
67
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
FLV = 0.056
From graph
K4 at flooding line = 4
From Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engr, Vol 6,fig 11.44
%age flooding = (K4 at 42mm H2O per m of packing /K4 at flooding line)0.5 x 100
= 61%
Calculating gas mass flow rate per unit column cross-sectional area
Where,
Fp = Packing Factor
Using Ceramic Berl saddles 51mm = 2in
68
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Fp = 35 mֿ¹ for Ceramic Berl Saddles (from unit operations of chemical engineering, 5th
ed, pg 689)
μL = 0.0015 Ns / m² at 50°C
= 4.30/ 4.407
= 0.975 m²
= ( 4 /π x 0.9135 )0.5
= 1.11 m
Column area = π / 4 x d2
= π / 4 x 1.072
= 0.975 m²
Calculating height of liquid phase transfer unit HL & height of gas phase transfer unit
HG:
69
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
(Sc)v = μv / ρv x Dv
= 0.00002
1.1283 x 0.0000317
= 0.559
(Sc)L = μL / ρL x DL
= 0.0015
1338.35 x 1.456 x 10 ^-9
= 770
= 8.75/ 975
= 8.97kg /m² s
70
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
= 0.5448m
= 0.646 m
ESTIMATION OF HOG:
HOG = HG +( m Gm/ L ) x HL
mGm / L optimum value of this term as suggested by Colburn will lie b/w 0.7 – 0.8
using average 0.75
Z = NOG x HOG
= 3 x 1.03
Z = 3.09 m
71
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
ΔP = α x 10βLx (G2/ρg)
Where α and β are the factors related to the packing material ceramic berl saddle of
51mm.
α = 0.16
β = 0.12
L = liquid mass velocity = 1.76 lbs /ft 2 s
2
G = gas mass velocity = 0.917 lbs / ft sec
LIQUID HOLD UP :
The amount of liquid holdup is given by the following formula,
72
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET :
Unit: Absorber
Function: Absorption of NO in HNO3
Operating pressure: 1.0 atm
Diameter of the column : 1.11
Number of Transfer Units: 3
Height of Transfer Unit : 1.03m
Height of Packing : 3.09m
Height of Column : 4.09 m
Packing : 0.051 m Ceramic Berl Saddles
Total Pressure Drop : 0.026 atm
Distributor: Orifice type
Material of construction Stainless Steel
Packing Support Ceramic grid plate
73
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Absorber
Introduction
References.
74
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
INTRODUCTION:
TYPES OF GAS ABSORPTION:
Physical Absorption
Advantages:
Equilibrium partial pressure of the solute over the solution reduces which greatly
increase the driving force for mass transfer.
More economical.
The main function of this column is to reduce the concentration of NOx leaving
from the superaziotropic column from 2000 ppm (which is harmful for the environment)
to 300ppm and to improve the economics by concentrating the acid which is coming from
oxidation tower from 35% to 60% which is then recycled to the oxidation tower.
75
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Packed Column
Vapor liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate column or packed
column. These two types of operations are quite different. A selection scheme
considering the factors under four headings.
i) Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors, corrosive
systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
iii) Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its
internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
iv) Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation, continuous
distillation, turndown, and intermittent distillation.
i) Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
iii) If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column, because
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it
ineffective.
iv) Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid
are must be removed before cleaning.
76
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
vi) Design information for plate column is more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column low as compared to gases. ht of the
packed column is more than plate column.
vii) If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In
packed columns packing.
viii) Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in
plate column.
ix) When large temperature changes are involved as in the distillation operations
tray column are often preferred because thermal expansion or contraction of
the equipment components may crush the packing.
x) Random-Packed Column generally not designed with the diameter larger than
1.5 m and diameters of commercial tray column is seldom less than 0.67m.
On the basis of merits and demerits of both types of columns, I have selected the
“Tray Column” for my system because:
System is non-foaming
77
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
TYPES OF TRAYS:
Sieve trays
Valve trays
Downcomerless trays
Med – High High Lowest of all Med. or Good Will be used in most
trays with application
1. Sieve Better than As good or 2/1 (3/1 can usually
downcomers
bubble cap better than be achieved)
bubble cap
78
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
79
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Calculation of diameter.
Checking of entrainment.
Calculation of height.
80
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Operating Conditions
T3=45oC, P3=8.62 bar
T2=25oC, P2=10 bar,
ρv=9.8 kg/m3 2 ρL=1209.8 kg/m3
Q3=5.4x105kJ/hr
mol% kgmol/hr kg/hr Q2=1.8x106kJ/hr
NO2 O.14 1.036 47.656 3 wt% kg/hr
NO 0.186 1.389 41.67 HNO3 40 9228.24
O2 1.54 11.49 367.68
2 H2O 60 13842.9
N2 98.13 20928.93732.14 20471.92 23071.14
746.06
CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
81
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
82
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
83
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
At bottom:
T= 25˚C = 298 K
Now from Coulson & Richardson vol 6 the vap-liquid factor is calculated as:
84
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Now from figure 11.27 pg#567, Coulson & Richardson vol. 6 (3rd edition), value of
K1=0.11
Flooding velocity;
ρL ρ V 1360 11.08
Uf K 1 0.11 1.22m/s
ρV 11.08
Superficial velocity:
An=0.70m2
By taking downcomer area as 12% of the total column cross sectional area.
Column Diameter:
Ac 4
Dc 1m
Π
At top:
85
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
T= 40˚C = 313 K
Now from figure 11.27 pg#567, Coulson & Richardson vol. 6 (third edition), value of
K1=0.1
Flooding velocity:
ρL ρ V 1209.8 9.8
Uf K 1 0.1 1.106m/s
ρV 9.8
Superficial velocity:
An = 0.63m2
By taking downcomer area as 12% of the total column cross sectional area.
86
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Column Diameter:
Ac 4
Dc 1m
Π
So it can be concluded from the calculation at the top that the diameter of the
column at bottom and at the top is same and is found out to be 1 m.
= 6.38x10-3 m3/sec
= 5.30x10-3 m3/sec
Now from the figure 11.28 pg#568, Coulson & Richardson vol. 6 (3rd edition), for
1m dia. column at the given flow rates, required pattern is “Cross Flow (single pass)”
Diameter of column 1m
D2
Column cross sectional area A c Π 0.785m 2
4
Downcomer Area:
87
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Net Area:
Active Area:
Hole Area:
Weir height:
Weir length:
Ad
100 12%
Ac
lw
0.77
Dc
l w 0.77 Dc 0.77 1m 0.77m
Hole size:
Plate thickness:
88
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
WEEP POINT:
Take minimum feed rate as 70% of maximum fee rate of turn down ratio 70%
2/3
Lw
2/3
5.3984
how min 750 min 750 22.4mm
ρL w 1360 0.77
From graph 11.30, page # 571,”Coulson and Richardson” Vol. 6. At, hw + how = 72.4 mm,
the value of,
K2 = 30.6
As, actual minimum velocity is greater than design vapor velocity, so the
minimum operating rate will be well above the weep point,
89
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Ah A
100 h 100 0.1 100 10
Ap Aa
Now,
From figure 11.34, 6th Ed. “Coulson and Richardson’s” ,At (Ah/Aa)*100=10,
When Plate thickness to plate diameter ratio is 0.6;
Then, Co = 0.74
Reisdual Drop:
12.5 10 3 12.5 10 3
hr 9 mmliq
ρL 1360
Note:
200mm liquid was assumed to calculate the top pressure 212.5 mm is considered
acceptable.
90
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Let,
Am = Aap = 0.0308 m2
hb = ht + (hw + how max ) + hdc = 198.5 +(50 +28.4 ) 5.6 =282.5 mmliq
Now,
RESIDENCE TIME:
91
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
NO. OF HOLES:
ΠD2
Area of one Hole 1.9634 10 5 m2
4
Total hole area 0.05966
Total no. of holes
Area of one hole 1.9634 10 5
N 3038 no. of holes
ENTRAINMENT:
Uv
Percentage flooding 100 (Uv based on net area)
Uf
Volumetric flow rate Vv 0.7659m 3 /s
Vv 0.7659m 3 /s
Uv 1.11m/s
An 0.6908m 2
Uf 1.22m/s
1.11
Percentage flooding 100 90%
1.22
FLV 8.2 10 2
Now, from figure#11. 29 at page#570 from C & R vol 6, the value of fraxtional entrainmen t is,
ψ 5.1 10 2 0.051 (well below 0.1)
No. of plates = 10
92
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Plate No. 1
Plate I.D. 1m
93
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Absorbers and strippers are often used in conjunction with each other. Absorbers are
often employed to remove trace components from gas streams. Strippers are often applied
to remove the trace components from the liquid in a more concentrated form. Absorption
and stripping operations are carried out in vertical, cylindrical columns or towers
containing plates or packing elements. The plates and packing provide a surface area for
the liquid and gas to come into contact facilitating mass transfer between the two streams.
The gas and liquid streams for both operations are commonly counter-current for a more
effective mass transfer. The columns are simpler than those for distillation are because
they commonly do not include a condenser.
The solute in the solvent is removed in the stripping column by a stripping gas that enters
at the bottom of the column. The solvent now exits from the bottom of the column and is
condensed before it is recycled back to the absorption column. The gas exiting the
stripping column can now be stored or processed easier. Absorption and stripping are
conducted in tray towers, packed columns, spray towers, bubble columns, and centrifugal
contactors. For the additional design considerations, one needs to specify an isothermal or
non isothermal absorber. Each case will be dealt with separately, starting with the
isothermal, and followed by the non-isothermal with an example problem. The non-
isothermal case is of more importance as it more closely models current topics in our
design of the anhydride plant and is presented in more detail than the isothermal case.
Reboiled strippers typically have forced reboilers and employ a reboiling medium at a
temperature as low as possible to minimize solvent decomposition. The reboiler outlet
temperature arises as the bottom heavies concentration increases. Waste is withdrawn
when reboiler capacity is expended or when temperature target is reached .Because feed
vaporizations Occurs primarily in reboiler , the tray liquid flow rates across the column
are fairly constant , simplifying the tray design .Rebolied stripper operating pressure are
lower than any other part of extraction unit .
94
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in plate
column.
SELECTION OF TRAYS
The terms "trays" and "plates" are used interchangeably. There are many types of tray
designs, but the most common ones are:
SIEVE TRAYS
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapour passes straight upward
through the liquid on the plate. The arrangement, number and size of the holes are design
parameters
95
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
VALVE TRAYS
In valve trays, perforations are covered by lift able caps. Vapour flows lifts the caps, thus
self creating a flow area for the passage of vapour. The lifting cap directs the vapour to
flow horizontally into the liquid, thus providing better mixing than is possible in sieve
trays.
A bubble cap tray has riser or chimney fitted over each hole, and a cap that covers the
riser. The cap is mounted so that there is a space between riser and cap to allow the
passage of vapors. Vapors rises through the chimney and is directed downward by the
cap, finally discharging through slots in the cap, and finally bubbling through the liquid
on the tray.
96
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Valve tray
1. They are essentially sieve trays with large diameter holes covered with by
movable flaps
2. Their operating capacity is low as compared to sieve trays but higher than bubble
caps trays.
3. They give higher pressure drop than sieve trays.
Si =Ki V / L
Where
Si = Stripping factor for component i
Ki = vapour / liquid equilibrium ratio for component i
V= entering vapour flow rate into the column
L = entering liquid flow rate into the column
Si = 1.8328
97
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Where
Si = stripping factor fpr component i
N = number of equilibrium stages required for specified solute fraction stripped.
Now calculate the % age stripped of the key component in each stage .
1 82.91
2 84.23
3 88.76
4 96.59
5 99.30
6 99.86
7 99.97
8 99.98
9 99.99
L 334
( ρV / ρL ) 1/ 2 = ( 1.362/1425 ) 1/ 2
V 427.64
= 0.024
From fig
Csb =0.05 m/sec
98
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Vn = 1.07 m/sec
The net column area area used in the sepration process = An
An = m . v / V n
Where
m . v = volumetric flow rate of vapour
An = 29.04*427.64 / 3600*1.07 * 1.362
An = 0.777 m2
Assume the downcomer occupies 15 % of the cross section area of the column,thus
Ac = An / 0.85
Ac = 0.777/ 0.85
Ac = 0.914
The column diameter is calculated as
D = (4 Ac / π )1/ 2
D = 1.078 m
Hc = ( Nact -1) * Hs + H
Where
Hc =Actual column height
Nact = Actual # of trays
Hs = plate spacing
H = Additional height required for column operation
Hc = (18-1)*0.46 + 0.92
Hc = 8.74 m
99
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Weir length
Lw / dc = 0.81
Lw 1 . 28 0 . 81
= 1.0368 m
Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
100
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Check Weeping
= 4.03 kg/sec
2/3
5.7575
Maximum how 750
1402 1.0368
= 19.48 mm liquid
2/3
4.03
Minimum how 750
1402 1.0368
= 15.4 mm liquid
=65.4mm liquid
K2 = 30.6
K 0.925.4 d h
U min 2
v 1 / 2
101
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
30.6 0.925.4 5
U min
1.362 1 / 2
= 10.488 m/s
0.98 0.7
0.091
= 7.54 m/s
0.98
Uˆ h 10.77 m/s
0.091
Ah Ah 0.091
and 0 .1
A p Aa 0.91
Co = 0.84
102
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
2
Uˆ
hd 51 h V
C o L
2
10.77 1.284
hd 51 =7.54mm liquid
0.84 1425
Residual Head
12.5 10 3
hr 8.77 mm liquid
1425
ht = hd + (hw + how) + hr
ht = 85.8 mm liquid
Take hap = hw – 10 = 40 mm
= 0.04147 m2
As this is less than Ad use Aap in eq. 11.92 coulson vol.6 i.e,
103
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
2
l
hdc 166 wd
L Aap
2
5.757
hdc 166
1425 0.041472
= 1.57529 mm liq.
= 156.86 mm liq.
0.157<1/2(0.46+0.81)
Ad hbc L
tr
Lwd
= 7.58 sec
≡ 8 sec
104
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Check Entrainment
=0.1
= K1 = 0.075
FLV(base) = .1
Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50 mm imperforated strip round plate edge;
50 mm wide calming zone.
Lw/Dc = 0.825
Q = 107o
105
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
t r 1.41 50 10 3 73
180
1.73
3
Area of imperforated edge strip Ap/ 50 10 1 . 73 ) 0 . 0865 m2
Area of calming zone Acal 2 1.03 50 10 3 0.1 m2
Total area of perforations, Ap = Aa – Ap/ - Acal = 0.89 – 0.0865 – 0.1 =0. 70m2
Ah 0.089
0.127
Ap 0.70
lp/dh = 2.8
No of Holes
5
Area of one hole 1.964 10
0.91
No. of holes
1.964 10 5
106
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
= 4531.57
≡ 4634
107
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Specification Sheet
Identification
Item Main Stripper
Item # D – 102
Tray type: Sieve tray
Function : To strip NO2
Operation: Continuous
Top Bottom
Design Data :
108
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Definition
“Process in which a liquid or vapor mixture of two or more substances is separated
into its component fractions of desired purity, by the application and removal of
heat”.
109
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
There are many types of distillation columns, each designed to perform specific
types of separations, and each design differs in terms of complexity.
Batch columns
Continuous columns
Batch Columns
In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the
column is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out.
When the desired task is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.
Continuous Columns
Vapor liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate or packed
column. These two types of operation are quite different. The relative merits of
plate over packed column are as follows:
1-Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
flooding.
110
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
2-If a system contains solid contents; it will be handled in plate column, because
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it
ineffective.
3-Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid are
low as compared to gases.
4-For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate
column.
5-If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In
packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
6-For non-foaming systems the plate column is preferred.
7-Design information for plate column is more readily available and more reliable
than that for packed column.
8-Inter stage cooling can be provided to remove heat of reaction or solution in
plate column.
9-When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.
Our mixture which is to be processed is “Water, Isopropyl alcohol, Acetone”. I’ve
selected plate column because:
1-System is non-foaming.
2-Temperature is high i.e. 90C.
There are three main types, sieve tray, bubble cap, valve tray. I’ve selected sieve
tray because:
1-They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
2-Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
3-Peak efficiency is generally high.
4-Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
111
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Sieve trays
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them. Vapor passes straight
upward through the liquid on the plate. The arrangement, number and size of the
holes are design parameters.
Because of their efficiency, wide operating range, ease of maintenance and cost
factors, sieve and valve trays have replaced the once highly thought of bubble cap
trays in many applications.
Column internals such as trays/plates and/or packing which are used to enhance
component separations.
112
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
A schematic of a typical distillation unit with a single feed and two product
streams is shown above.
113
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapor or gas. Although
it provides high interfacial liquid-vapor contact, excessive foaming often leads to
liquid buildup on trays. In some cases, foaming may be so bad that the foam mixes
with liquid on the tray above. Whether foaming will occur depends primarily on
physical properties of the liquid mixtures, but is sometimes due to tray designs and
condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is always reduced.
Entrainment
Entrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapor up to the tray above and is again
caused by high vapor flow rates. It is detrimental because tray efficiency is
reduced: lower volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of higher
volatility. It could also contaminate high purity distillate. Excessive entrainment
can lead to flooding.
114
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Weeping/Dumping
This phenomenon is caused by low vapor flow. The pressure exerted by the vapor
is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak
through perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to dumping. That is the liquid
on all trays will crash (dump) through to the base of the column (via a domino
effect) and the column will have to be re-started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp
pressure drop in the column and reduced separation efficiency.
Flooding
Reflux Conditions
Minimum trays are required under total reflux conditions, i.e. there is no
withdrawal of distillate. On the other hand, as reflux is decreased, more and more
trays are required.
115
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Feed Conditions
The state of the feed mixture and feed composition affects the operating lines and
hence the number of stages required for separation. It also affects the location of
feed tray.
Remember that the actual number of trays required for a particular separation duty
is determined by the efficiency of the plate. Thus, any factors that cause a decrease
in tray efficiency will also change the performance of the column. Tray
efficiencies are affected by fouling, wear and tear and corrosion, and the rates at
which these occur depends on the properties of the liquids being processed. Thus
appropriate materials should be specified for tray construction.
Column Diameter
116
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Design of Regenerator
Diameter of the Column:
Top
Product
Feed
Bottom
Product
At Top:
T = 185 0F = 185 + 460 = 6450R
P = 14.7 Psig =29.4 Psia
Avg. M.Wt. = 62.1Kg/Kgmol
ρL = 60.47 lbm/ft3 (From Plant Design book)
117
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
(Л / 4)D2 = G / Vm x ρg
D = √ [4 G / (Л x Vm x ρg x 3600)]
D = √ [(4 x 13095.06) / (Л x 4.56x0.26 x 3600)]
D = 2 ft
At Bottom:
T =248 0F=248+460=7080R
P = 14.7 Psig = 29.4Psia
Avg.M. Wt. = 48.6 Kg/Kgmol
ρL = 58 lbm/ft3 (From Plant Design book)
R = 10.73 lbf.ft3/in2 lbmol 0R
ρg = PM/RT = 29.4x48.6/10.78x70 =0.18 lbm/ft3
For the tray spacing of “24 inch” (From Plant Design book ,Page No.684 ,4rth Edition)
Vm = Kv √ [(ρL - ρg) / ρg] Here Kv=0.3(From Graph,Plant Design
Book,4rth Edition,Page No.657)
Vm = 0.3 √ [(58-0.18)/0.18]
118
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Vm =5.38 ft/sec
Now;
D = √ [4 G / Л x Vm x ρg x 3600]
D = √ [(4x19646) / Л x5.38x 0.18 x 3600]
D= 2.68 ft
No. of Plates Required:
D = 99.203 Kgmol/hr
Xd = 0.933
F = 354.34 Kgmol/
hr
Xf = 0.533
W = 255.143 Kgmol/hr
Xw = 0.378
119
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
So,
R = 1.2 (0.683 )
R = 0.82
Equation of the Top operating line;
Yn = ( Ln / Vn )Xn+1 + ( D / Vn )Xd
Ln / D = R =0.82 => Ln =0.82 D
Ln = 0.82 (99.203) = 81.346 kgmol/hr
Vn = Ln + D = 81.346+99.203 = 180.549 kgmol/hr
Therefore,
Yn = ( 81.346/180.549 )Xn+1 + (99.203/180.549)x0.933
Yn = 0.45 Xn+1 + 0.512
Equation of the Bottom operating line;
Ym = ( Lm / Vm )Xm+1 - ( W / Vm )Xw
Vm = Vn =180.549 kgmol/hr
Lm = Ln + F = 81.346+354.34 =435.686kgmol/hr
Therefore;
Ym = (435.686/180.549 )Xm+1 - ( 255.143/180.549 )x0.378
Ym =2.413 Xm+1 – 0.534
Equilibrium Data; We have eq.
ya = α xa / [1 + (α – 1)xa]
By “McCabe-Thiele Method”:
Using “top and bottom operating lines” and the “equilibrium curve” from the
graph,
The theoretical no. of stages required = 08
120
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
As,
Efficiency = Theoretical no. of stages / Actual no. of stages
Actual no. of stages = Theoretical no. of stages / Efficiency
Actual no. of stages = 8 / 0.535
= 14.95 ~ 15
121
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
=46.92 ft
122
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
123
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
How,
Weir height = hw = 2 in
= 0.167 ft (R & Coulson vol. 6 or Rule of
Thumb)
hg =0
Therefore,
ht = 0.28+0.167+0.06
= 0.507 ft
∆PT = (59.24.x 32.2 x 0.507) / (144 x 32.2)
∆PT = 0.208 Psig
% ∆P = 44.8 %
124
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
So we say that partial condenser condenses the vapors at a point high enough to provide a
temperature difference sufficient to preheat a cold stream of process fluid . this save heat
and eliminates the need for providing a separate preheater .
DESIGN CALCULATIONS:
Heat duty:
NO2=67.343 lbm/hr
N2=24490.513lbm/hr
H2O=7815.56 lbm/hr
Reference temperature=77oF
∑Q=Q1+Q2+Q3=2392629.962 Btu/hr
If the mixture is cooled up to 50oF below the saturation temperature of steam then
125
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Q5=∑mCp∆T=6008.159 50 oF
=300407.9847Btu/hr
Qc=Q4+Q5
=6810772.75 Btu/hr
Temperature limit
77 oF to 203 oF
Qc = ∑mCp∆T
m=54053.75 lbm/hr
T1=392 oF , T2=342 oF
t1=77 oF , t2 =203 oF
R= T1 - T2/ t2- t1
=0.4
S= t2- t1 / T1 - t2 =0.4
FT=0.98
1 shell pass
2 tube passes
LMTD= 224.864 oF
126
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Q = UDA(t)w
A = 154.53 ft2
Exchange Layout
A = at Nt Lt
Lt = 18 ft.
A = 0.2618 18 Nt
Nt = 32.792
Nt = 32 (Nearest count)
So
A = 150.7968ft2
Then
(T-tw)ho=(T-t)UD
(367-tw)150=(367-140)205
tw=57 oF
=211.88 oF
127
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Db=2504(32/0.244)1/2.207
=0.752 ft
Hc=0.95KL[ L ( L - V )g/µTl]Nr-1/6
Nr = Db /Pt
=35.305
=2/335.305=23.536
For,
=1.7450.0018+0.765990.1346+0.71490.6546+0.50780.2089
=0.6923 lbm/ft3
So,
Tl =ml/Lnt
=93.84
tw=366 oF
KL =0.436
µ L =0.0217 lbm/hr ft
L =50.05 lbm/hr ft
V =0.55 lbm/ft3
Now
128
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
at = 0.016136 m2
hi = 4200(1.35+0.0265)0.173590.8 /22.0980.2
at =0.00412 ft2
at’=at32/2=0.06605 ft2
Res = De Gs/
=2045879.07
ρ = 58 lbm/ft3
s.gr=0.929
f=0.00001
f G 2t L n
Pt 10
5.22 10 D s
=0.6857 psia
P2
129
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
=4*2*0.098/1=0.784
Pt =0.784+0.6857
=1.4697 psi
Which is satisfactory
130
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
Specification Sheet
No. Required = 1
Operation: Continuous
25 0C to 95 0C
17004 kg/hr
131
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
UC =207 Btu/hr. ft2. oF = 4231 KJ/hr RD =0.0001 hr. ft2. oF/ Btu = 4.89*10-6 hr
m2 0C m2 0C/KJ
NOMENCLATURE
as = Area of shell
B = Baffle Spacing
f= Friction Factor
Hv = Heat of vaporization
132
Chapter: 05 Equipment Design
ID = Internal Diameter
L = Tube Length,ft
n = Number of passes
OD = Outer Diameter
PT = Tube Pitch
Q = Heat Flow
s= Specific Gravity
133
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
Chapter: 6
Mechanical Design
Absorber
Mechanical design:
For stainless steel vessel:
So, max allowable stress f is;
f = 165 N/mm²
Operating pressure = 130.9psi
Design pressure is 10% of operating pressure
So, design pressure,
Pi = ((130.9×10/100)) + 130.9
Pi = (13.09+130.9)
Pi = 143.99psi
Thickness of shell:
Taking joint efficiency 80%
J = 0.80
t = Pi Di/2fJ−Pi
= ((143.99×3.2808)/ (2× 479042.95 ×.8) − (143.99)
t = 0.0006ft
= .0073 in
As less corrosive service,
So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.118 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
T = 0.0073 + 1.18
T = 1.187 inch
134
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
Thickness of head:
We choose torispherical head. So, the equation for thickness of tori spherical head is;
Cs = 1/4[3+(Rc/Rk)1/2]
= ¼[3+1.29] = 1.07
t = PiRcC s / 2fj + Pi(Cs-.2)
= .00065ft
= .008in
. So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.118 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
T/= .008 + 1.18
= 1.188 inch
135
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
Oxidation Tower
Mechanical design:
For stainless steel vessel:
So, max allowable stress f is;
f = 165 N/mm²
Operating pressure = 14.7 psi
Design pressure is 10% of operating pressure
So, design pressure,
Pi = ((14.7×10/100)) + 14.7
Pi = (14.7 + 1.47)
Pi = 16.17 psi
Thickness of shell:
Taking joint efficiency 85%
J = 0.85
t = Pi Di/2fJ−Pi
= ((16.17 × 3.64)/ (2× 479042.95 ×.85) − (16.17)
t = 0.00007ft
= .0009 in
As less corrosive service,
So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.11 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
T = 0.0009 + 1.18
T = 1.1809 inch
136
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
Thickness of head:
We choose torispherical head. So, the equation for thickness of tori spherical head is;
Cs = 1/4 [3+ (Rc/Rk)1/2]
= ¼[3+1.29] = 1.02
t = PiRcCs / [2fj + Pi (Cs-.2)]
= .00007ft
= .00084in
So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.11 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
Total thickness of head
T/= .00084 + 1.18
= 1.1808 inch
137
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
Distillation Column
Mechanical Design:
Carbon steel is used as the material of construction.
Diameter of the column = 2.34 ft =28.08 in
Pressure of the column = 14.7 psig
Max. allowable pressure or Design pressure = 14.7 (1.1 )= 16.7 Psig As (Design
Pressure = 10 to 15% of Working Pressure)
psigMax. allowable design stress = 13700 psig
(From Plant Design book ,Page No.(537,538) ,4rth
Joint efficiency(For fully Radiographed) = 1.0 ,
Edition)
138
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
= 1.77
Now,
t = (16.17 x 28.08x 1.77) / [(2 x 1 x 13700) + 16.17x(1.77 – 0.2)]
= 0.029 in
139
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
Stripper
Mechanical design:
For stainless steel vessel:
Design stress = 145 N/mm2
Operating pressure = 14.7psi
Design pressure is 10% of operating pressure
So, design pressure,
Pi = ((14.7×10/100)) + 14.7
Pi = (1.47 + 14.7)
Pi = 16.17 psi
Thickness of shell:
Taking joint efficiency 85%
J = 0.85
t = Pi Di/2fJ−Pi
= (16.17× 4.199)/ (2× 420977.13×.85) − (16.17)
t = 0.00009ft
= .0011 in
As less corrosive service,
. So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.118 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
T = 0.0011 + 1.18
T = 1.181 inch
Thickness of head:
We choose torispherical head. So, the equation for thickness of tori spherical head is;
Cs = 1/4[3 + (Rc/Rk)1/2]
= .1/4[3 + 4.09] = 1.77
t = PiRcC s / 2fj + Pi(Cs-.2)
= .00007ft
140
Chapter: 06 Mechanical Design
= .0008in
So, taking corrosion allowance is taken as 0.118 inch /year
As plant life is 10 years, so for 10 years corrosion allowance is 1.18 inch
So, total thickness is;
Total thickness of head
T/= .0008 + 1.18
= 1.18 inch
141
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
Chapter: 07
INRODUCTION:
Measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control. Either the control can be
affected automatically, semi-automatically or manually. The quality of control obtainable
also bears a relationship to the accuracy, re-product ability and reliability of the measurement
methods, which are employed. Therefore, selection of the most effective means of
measurements is an important first step in the design and formulation of any process control
system.
Safety.
Production Specifications.
Operating Constraints.
Economics.
Environmental regulations
The measurement instruments cannot measure the process parameter directly. Rather
measures some other parameter, and infers that in the desired parameters. Consider the
following examples.
142
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
II. If a steam pressure in a boiler drum is required by using a common pressure gauge, in
reality the mechanical deflection of the measuring element inside the gauge is what is
being measured relative to the steam pressure. This deflection of the measuring
clement is converted to angular motion; a pointer is linked to the measuring element
and compared to a calibrated scale as an inferred pressure measurement.
The phenomenon of inferred measurement causes the instrument to carry out a.c. conversion
from one energy to another, i.e. in case of room thermometer, from heat energy to
mechanical energy. However, this conversion process increases the complexity of the
instrument and consequently increases the potential sources of error.
The most common parameters measured on a process plant are Sometimes referred to as Big
Four” i.e. pressure, temperature, level and flow. These accounts for about 80% of all
measurements on a typical process plant.
The remaining 20% include analytical measurements cf density, humidity and speed etc.
143
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTATION
Following are some of the main types of instrumentation
RECORDING INSTRUMENTATION
In Practical work process parameters such as temperature, pressure, and flow require
continuous measurements. If a review of the measurements is required provision must be
made to note the parameters with respect to time. The recorder is a device to accomplish this
task and may take many forms depending upon the application. The usual method is to
inscribe the measurement of the parameter on a chat with respect to time. These charts can be
circular or linear, and may be driven by a clock mechanism. The process parameter is record
by a pen which leaves a trace on the chart. The duration of the record is a Function of chart
speed (time base) and length of chart paper.
INDICATION INSTRUMENTATION
The indicator mechanism is selected to match the parameter signal and desired range of
measurement, i.e. it may use a pointer on a calibrated scale to, indicate. In recent years
circular gauges have been superseded by linear indicator displaying the process parameter in
the form of a pointer against a calibrated scale. I)igital display unit, which give a numerical
indication of the process parameter are becoming increasingly common.
144
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
ALARM INSTRUMENTATION
The purpose of alarm instrumentation is to detect process parameters that deviate outside the
predetermined limits. An alarm instrument loop usually consists of a switch or contact
closure device as a field device, and on end device such as horn, light or bell. The alarm loop
is normally digital having two conditions corresponding to an alarm state and a non alarm
state.
To suppress the influence of disturbances is the most common objective of’ a control system.
This control objective attempts to return the process parameter back to the set point as
effectively as possible. The control systems made changes to the process to cancel the effects
of any external disturbances.
PROCESS STABILITY
Ensuring the stability of a process is an important aspect of control. With out stable control
the behavior of control process can range form virtually inactive, to very little control action
taking place. This may lead to unstable process.
An unstable condition affects the safety of plant and personnel, in addition causing poor
productivity.
145
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
With proper control of process variables and stability of the process it is possible to run the
plant at the optimum production rate.
I. Controller
IV. Process
The process variable may be energy or material which is to be adjusted to a definite value
Examples of process variables are pressure, level, flow, temperature and composition.
SET POINT
ERROR
It is the difference between the actual value of the controlled variable and the set point.
OR
FEED BACK
Feed back is the form of information gained by monitoring the controlled variable, and
comparing the controlled variable signal to the set point. If the feed back causes the
difference between the set point and the controlled variable to increase, then the feed back is
positive. This situation is dangerous and undesirable.
146
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
However under negative fed back control, the set point (usually a fixed value) and the
controlled variable are continually compared and the error between the two diminishes.
If all the components of the loop are interconnected so that information can be passed
continuously around the loop, the loop is called closed fed back control loop.
If the flow of information around the loop is interrupted in any way (as, for example when
the controller is placed on manual control) then the loop is said to be open and automatic
feed back cases.
I. CONTROLLER
The principle function of’ a controller is to generate an output signal that will control the
final control clement in order to remove error. The controller is normally the only component
in the loop that is capable of counteracting the effect of disturbances on the process.
This measures the value of a controlled variable. Sensing elements are used to convert a
measurement. such as pressure, temperature, or flow, into a movement or signal that can be
used for transmission to a controller, recorder or an indicator. They are also called detectors
or sensors.
This is the component of a control system that adjust the value of the controlled variable e.g.
valve, variable transformation.
IV. PROCESS
Process may be defined as manufacturing operation which uses energy to produce a change
in a material, or to produce another energy conversion. The process may take many forms. It
may be the maintenance of water level in a boiler tank, the control of flow rate of various
liquids and gases, or the maintenance of pressure in a vessel.
147
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
All these meters are installed with thermo-wells when used locally. This provides
protection against atmosphere and other physical elements.
Pumps, compressor and other process equipment associated with pressure changes in
the process material are furnished with pressure measuring devices. Thus pressure
measurement becomes an indication of energy increase or decrease.
Most pressure measurement in industry are elastic element devices, either directly
connected for local use or transmission type to centralized location. Most extensively used
industrial pressure element is the Bourdon Tube or a Diaphragm or Bellows gauges.
148
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
Most flow measures in the industry are/ by Variable Head devices. To a lesser extent
Variable Area is used, as are the many available types as special metering situations arise.
.
COLUMN
GENERAL CONSIDERATION
OBJECTIVES
2. Bottom composition
MANIPULATED VARIABLES
2. Reflux rate.
LOADS OR DISTURBANCES
2. Composition of feed.
149
Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
3. Temperature of feed.
CONTROL SCHEME
Overhead product rate is fixed and any change in feed rate must be absorbed by
changing bottom product rate. The change in product rate is accomplished by direct level
control of the reboiler if the stream rate is fixed feed rate increases then vapor rate is
approximately constant & the internal reflux flows must increase.
ADVANTAGE
Since an increase in feed rate increase reflux rate with vapor rate being approximately
constant, then purity of top product increases.
DISADVANTAGE
The overhead reflux change depends on the dynamics of level control system that adjusts it.
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Chapter:07 Instrumentation & Plant Control
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Chapter: 08 Safety
Chapter: 08
Safety
INTRODUCTION (ABSTRACT):
Every organization has a legal and moral obligation to safe-guard the health and welfare of
its employees and general public. Safety also leads to good business. So by good
management practice and ensuring safe operations personal safety, plant safety and efficient
operations can he achieved.
a. Accidents
b. Fires
c. Explosions or
Process industries have a wide range of hazards. These hazards are the result of the presence
of:
iii. High pressure which may release in the case of structural failure or explosion.
The Hazards and their prevention may be divided into two major groups.
Major Hazards are accidents which may happen due to mechanical failure of equipment
under sever operating conditions of temperature and pressure.
The mechanical failure of equipment can be prevented by taking following steps into
account.
ii. While designing the equipment, it is necessary to select proper instruments and to
control the process at the safe operating conditions. Safety acts a guide line in the
design of control systems along with other factors.
iii. Clear and effective procedures play an important role in the safe operations of a
chemical plant. The equipment manufactures provide operating instructions. But in
the plant where hundreds of small units are looked, it is necessary to lay down
standard operating procedures (S.O.P’s) to ensure safe start up, shut down and normal
operations.
Accidents may also result during handling and storage of 1-lazardous material, Injury to plant
personal may also result due to toxicity of chemicals being handled during operations. It is
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Chapter: 08 Safety
At a typical nitric acid plant, large amount of nitric acid and nitrogen oxides are handled. So
major HAZARDS of nitric acid and nitrogen oxides are given below.
i. Highly toxic
i. Contact Hazards
i. CONTACT HAZARDS
II. The symptoms resulting from skin contact vary from moderate irritation to sever
burns, depending on
b. Strength of acid
1. Due to highly toxic action of nitrogen oxides these gases are taken as the most toxic
gases.
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Chapter: 08 Safety
i. Sever pulmonary symptoms may set with in 5-8 hours after breathing as little
as 25 PPM through out an 8-hour period.
ii. Breathing 100-150 PPM for 0.5-1 hour may produce pulmonary edema.
iii. A few breaths of 200-700 PPM may produce sever pulmonary edema with in
5-8 hours.
4. Most cases of nitrous fume poisoning can be classified into the following categories.
i. Slight symptoms
i. Slight symptoms
a. Slight symptoms may occur with in 48 hours breathing light nitrous oxide
fumes.
From mild effects the recovery is apparently complete but after words the sever attacks
eventually continue. In typical case of NO poisoning the sequence of attacks may be
b. Only slight discomfort may be felt with worker continuing his job.
c. 5-8 hours after exposure, the victim may face very sever attack?
a. Shocking
b. Dizziness and
c. Irregular respiration
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Chapter: 08 Safety
To protect contact Hazards following safety equipment should be provided to the workers.
c. Rubber gloves
d. Safety goggles
e. Gas masks
f. Fire extinguisher
i. Skin
ii. Eye
a. II skin is a Heeled by the acid the affected part should he washed with
Na2CO3 solution or weak alkali solution.
d. If acid is swallowed, the victim should drink warm water soap-water or milk
in large quantities.
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Chapter: 08 Safety
c. Report the case at once so that a doctor may see it as soon as possible.
To protect respiratory Hazards the workers should he provided the safety equipment
including
a. Safety
d. Rubber gloves
e. Safety goggles
f. Gas masks
g. Fire extinguisher
i. In the case of nitrogen oxides poisoning first acid should be given immediately.
ii. In such situation patient should he moved to open and un-contaminated atmosphere.
iii. No exertion should he allowed to the patient. Patient should breath pure
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Chapter: 09 Material of Construction
Chapter: 09
Material of Construction
INTRODUCTION
The corrosion problem affects many industries. In chemical industries it is one of the most
serious, and perhaps the most costly, of the problems confronting the chemical engineer, not
only because of the added cost to production due to replacement of apparatus, shutdowns for
repair, etc., but also because of possibility of contamination of the product through catalytic
action or other wise. Therefore losses due to Corrosion Can run into hundreds of millions of
rupees. Any development, therefore, that will have for its object the control or reduction of
this heavy loll must be welcomed by the chemist and the engineer.
The ammonia may be converted into nitric acid by an oxidation process was known as a
theoretical possibility for many years. The success of this process should not be considered
as due solely to the skill and ingenuity of the chemist. It is due as well to the availability of
suitable materials which satisfactorily resisting the corrosive action of the acid and capable of
fabrication into required forms, have made possible the construction of the necessary plants
and equipment. These materials are the iron chromium alloys. Therefore early nitric acid
plants were severely restricted in design by the available materials of construction until high
chromium content iron was developed in the 1920, commonly used construction materials
were acid brick, earthen ware and glass. As better materials of construction came along,
nitric acid process design could he improved. Higher operating pressures resulted in lower
plant capital cost.
CORROSION PRINCIPLES
In case of pure metals, what may be called the affinity of its atoms for the stranger atoms of
some other substance determines the readiness with which it will combine with this
substance, generally displacing some other element with which the stranger atoms have
previously been in combination. This is the basis of the process called “corrosion”. IF this
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Chapter: 09 Material of Construction
affinity can be reduced by the atoms of some other metal, as is the case in solid solutions (a
solid solution is formed when two or more elements or compounds share a common lattice.
The composition may vary with in very wide limits), susceptibility to attack will be
considerably reduced. If this energy of affinity is still further reduced by the addition of a
third metal in the solid solution, there will result still greater resistance to attack. This is well
illustrated by numerous alloys. Iron is readily attacked by oxygen even at normal
temperatures. The addition of chromium in suitable proportions, which forms a solid
solution, produces practically complete resistance at ordinary temperatures and even at
moderately elevated temperatures. If a third metal, as nickel or silicon in proper is added,
which also enters solution with the iron and chromium resistance to oxidation is extended to
still higher temperatures, and the alloy becomes resistant to a number of materials which
neither the plain iron, nor even the iron chromium solid solution, will resist. The solid
solution class of alloys is inherently better, not only From the chemical resistance, but also
From a mechanical stand point, for such alloys almost always possess the best physical
properties as regards both strength and toughness of any alloy of the series.
I. Converters.
IV. Valves.
Alloys that will with stand high temperature and have good strengths at 1000- 1900oF are
available hut are usually very expensive. These alloys, for use in the ammonia burner, should
resist oxidation and nitriding and have good sealing resistance. Also, good thermal shock
properties are desirable, particularly for internals and un-cooled items that undergo high
stresses.
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Chapter: 09 Material of Construction
The Fe-Ni-Cr alloys such as Inconel 601, Hastelloy X, Nichrorme, RA-333 etc, are suitable
alloys to consider for use in these high heat environment.
The major concern with equipment in the hot areas of the nitric acid is not strength, although
the alloys used must have some hot strength, but is whether the material can take the
environment without breaking down. In general ideally, the alloy should contain high nickel,
chrome and silicon. High nickel means over 35% Ni, high Cr means over 20% Cr, and high
Si means over 0.5% Si. Many wrought and even a few cast alloys ft into this analysis, and
any one of them can do the
As temperatures fall to 1000°F and below, and if the gases are dry, the standard austenitic
stainless steel arc used, providing they are not subjected to attack from cooling media that
contain high chloride levels. Alloys such as 304L, 321, 430, 329, 310 and Incoloy 800, may
be used in this area. Most of this equipment involves tubular components, although the dry
gases being cooled are not trouble some, the cooling media on the water side are often the
cause of failures. A careful look at the water side may be deciding factor in the choice of
materials.
Examples of trouble areas are in items of equipment. Such as tail-gas heaters, cooler
condensers and tail-gas pre-heaters. Type 304L and type 430 are the usual materials of
construction, but in some cases are being replaced by type 329, which has better corrosion
resistance. Some plants attributed their problems to acid condensate in the tail gas impinging
on the O.D. others felt the attack was on the tube I.D. as a result of the relatively cool tail gas
(from tail-gas heater) impinging on the tubes containing hot process gas and causing
localized cooling and re-boiling of weak acid.
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Chapter: 09 Material of Construction
The aqueous acid is strongly oxidizing and extremely corrosive to most materials such as
steel, copper alloys, rubber products, aluminum (low concentrations) and many more.
Materials for weak-acid condensers and absorption towers must be carefully selected since
these are the areas of most sever aqueous corrosion.
Choice of materials for wet acid service is the normal stainless alloys, special purpose
stainless alloys or high silicon irons (seldom used in modern construction except for pumps
and valves).
Type 304L cooling coils are used in absorption towers but the alloy is just barely adequate,
and alloys with better corrosion resistance are being looked at, particularly as higher
absorption pressures are being use. Most of’ the other standard grades of’ austenitic stainless
steels would have similar corrosion rates. Type 316 is not selected specifically for nitric acid
service because it has slightly less resistance than 304L and is more costly. Type 304L shows
poor corrosion resistance to hot, very strong acid, including fuming nitric acid (but has good
resistance to red and white fuming at room temperatures).
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Chapter: 09 Material of Construction
Aluminum alloys are only good for very for very high acid concentrations (80-100%) at
ambient temperatures. Any dilution of the acid will cause accelerated attack.
High nickel alloys such as Inconel 600, Hstelloy B and C, Chlorimet 3 etc. do not perform as
well as regular type 304L, and so are not considered for use in aqueous acid conditions.
Gold, tantalum and platinum exhibit excellent resistance but are expensive.
Non metallic, and especially teflon and kynar, are used for nitric acid service when the acid is
weak and cold. Both teflon and kynar are good in the weak acids (to 20%) at high
temperatures, but at higher concentrations these plastics are only good at ambient
temperatures. Glass has excellent resistances to 400°F at all concentrations Viton linings are
the one rubber product that is popular. It is good to 100°F at all concentrations.
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Chapter: 09 Material of Construction
Table 1 lists the concentrations and limiting temperatures for many materials that should or
should not be used in nitric acid service.
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
Chapter: 10
Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment
Report
INTRODUCTION
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of
systematic qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities and
can be applied to a whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment It uses as its
database the usual sort of plant and process information and relies on the judgment of
engineering and safety experts in the areas with which they are most familiar. The end
result is, therefore reliable in terms of engineering and operational expectations, but it is
not quantitative and may not consider the consequences of complex sequences of human
errors. The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:
2) To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of a
hazardous incident occurring.
6) To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team's detailed
comments.
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
2) Select the HAZOP study team. The team leader should be skilled in HAZOP
and in interpersonal techniques to facilitate successful group interaction. As
many other experts should be included in the team to cover all aspects of
design, operation, process chemistry, and safety. The team leader should
instruct the team in the HAZOP procedure and should emphasize that the end
objective of a HAZOP survey is hazard identification; solutions to problems
are a separate effort.
3) Collect data. Theodore16 has listed the following materials that are usually
needed.
Process description.
Process flow sheets.
Data on the chemical, physical and toxicological properties of all raw
materials,, intermediates, and products.
Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs).
Equipment, piping, and instrument specifications.
Process control logic diagrams.
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
Layout drawings.
Operating procedures.
Maintenance procedures.
Emergency response procedures.
Safety and training manuals.
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
4) Conduct the study. Using the information collected, the unit is divided into
study "nodes" and the sequence diagrammed in Figure , is followed for each
node. Nodes are points in the process where process parameters (pressure,
temperature change between nodes as a result of the operation of various
pieces of equipment' such as distillation columns, heat exchanges, or pumps.
Various forms and work sheets have been developed to help organize the node
process parameters and control logic information.
When the nodes are identified and the parameters are identified, each node is
studied by applying the specialized guide words to each parameter. These guide words
and their meanings are key elements of the HAZOP procedure. They are listed in Table.
Repeated cycling through this process, which considers how and why each
parameter might vary from the intended and the consequence, is the substance of the
HAZOP study.
5) Write the report. As much detail about events and their consequence as is
uncovered by the study should be recorded. Obviously, if the HAZOP
identifies a not improbable sequence of events that would result in a disaster,
appropriate follow-up action is needed. Thus, although risk reduction action is
not a part of the HAZOP, the HAZOP may trigger the need for such action.
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
The HAZOP studies are time consuming and expensive. Just getting the P & ID's
up to date on an older plant may be a major engineering effort. Still, for processes with
significant risk, they are cost effective when balanced against the potential loss of life,
property, business, and even the future of the enterprise that may result from a major
release.
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
Acid Rain
- NOx and sulfur dioxide react with other substances in the air to form acids which fall to
earth as rain, fog, snow or dry particles. Some may be carried by wind for hundreds of
miles. Acid rain damages; causes deterioration of cars, buildings and historical
monuments; and causes lakes and streams to become acidic and unsuitable for many fish.
Particles
- NOx reacts with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid and
related particles. Human health concerns include effects on breathing and the respiratory
system, damage to lung tissue, and premature death. Small particles penetrate deeply into
sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease such as
emphysema and bronchitis, and aggravate existing heart disease.
Climate Change
- One member of the NOx, nitrous oxide or N2O, is a greenhouse gas. It accumulates in
the atmosphere with other greenhouse gasses causing a gradual rise in the earth's
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Chapter:10 Hazop Study & Envoirmental Impact Assessment Report
temperature. This will lead to increased risks to human health, a rise in the sea level, and
other adverse changes to plant and animal habitat.
Toxic Chemicals
- In the air, NOx reacts readily with common organic chemicals and even ozone, to form
a wide variety of toxic products, some of which may cause biological mutations.
Examples of these chemicals include the nitrate radical, nitroarenes, and nitrosamines.
Visibility Impairment
- Nitrate particles and nitrogen dioxide can block the transmission of light, reducing
visibility in urban areas and on a regional scale in our national parks.
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
CHAPTER: 11
Evaluation of costs in the preliminary design phase is some time called guess estimations.
A plant design obviously must present a process that is capable of operating under
condition which will yield a profit.
CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, large amount of -money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment, land and service
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
facilities must be obtained and the plant-must be erected. Complete with all pipe controls
inn services. In addition it is necessary to have money available for payment of expenses
involved in the plant operation.
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the
fixed capital investment while the necessary for the operation of the plant is termed as the
working capital investment.
The capital which is necessary lor the operation of the plant is called working capital
investment.
The capital needed to supply flu- necessary maMiif'acttirini1 and plant facilities is called
fixed capital investment.
i. Direct Cost
DIRECT COST
The direct cost items arc incurred in the construction of the plant in addition to the cost of
equipment.
1. Purchased Equipment
4. Piping
7. Yard Improvement
8. Services Facilities
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
9. Land
INDIRECT COST
1. Design and Engineering
2. Contractor's Expenses
3. Contractor's Fee
4. Contingency
Various methods are employed for estimating capital investment. The choice of any
method depends on the foil owing-factors,
b. Accuracy Desired
2. Unit estimate
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the amount of design detail available; and the
accuracy of the cost data available; and the time spent on preparing the estimate. In the
early stages of a project only an approximate estimate will be required an justified by the
amount of information by then developed.
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
173
Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
DIRECT COST
Electrical (installed) 11 % E d
Land 6% E h
INDIRECT COST
Engineering and supervision 33%E
Contigency 10%(D+I)= x
174
Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
1. ABSORPTION COLUMN
Cost of trays:
Cost of column:
For D = 1m
*Cost = 18000$
Pressure = 1.1
2. SUPERAZEOTROPIC COLUMN:
Cost of trays:
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
Cost of column:
For D = 1m
Cost = 18000$
3. DISTILLATION COLUMN:
Cost of trays:
Cost of column:
For D = 1m
Cost = 18000$
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
4. STRIPPER
Cost of trays:
Cost of column:
For D = 1.25m
Cost = 20000$
5. Reactor
Cost of catalyst:
177
Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
6. BOILER COST
9. COMPRESSOR
178
Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
Material of construction:
DIRECT COST
179
Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
INDIRECT COST
Fixed Capital Investment = Total direct + indirect cost + contingency + Contractor’s fee
= 36989338.02$
Now
= 0.15(36989338.02 + W.C)
=(5548400.703/0.85)
= 65275530.239 $
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
PRODUCT COST.
Depreciation Value.
d=(V – Vs)/n
Where
V=36989338.02$
Vs=5%V
n=10 years
d= 3513987.112$
=37.77 M.T/day
=29504033.86 Rs
=491733.89$
W.C.I.
W.C=65275530.239 $
Total Amount=69281251.23$
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Chapter: 11 Cost Estimation
=69281251.23$/140*330
= 500.6$/M,T
=0.523$/Kg
=31.38 Rs/Kg
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Appendices
APPENDECES
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
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Appendices
207
REFERENCES:
3. Peters, M, S. & Timmerhaus, K.D., “Plant Design & Economics for Chemical
Engineers”, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill.