Old Iranian

21/11/2018 The Linguistics Research Center
Old Iranian Online

Series Introduction
Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum
The term 'Old Iranian' is the designation for the sub-group of Indo-European languages which, between approximately
1350 and 350 B.C., spread across the Iranian plateau, an area bounded in the north by present-day Turkmenistan, the
Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus Mountains, in the East by the Indus River, in the south by the Persian Gulf, and in the
west by Mesopotamia. Of these languages, Old and Young(er) Avestan and Old Persian are textually preserved.
Median, Parthian, (Old) Sogdian, Carduchi, and Scythian are also known from their mention in Greek and Hellenistic
sources, but are recorded only sporadically as glosses, toponyms, and lexical borrowings by speakers of the better-
attested languages.
Indo-Iranian Origins
Too little historical or archaeological evidence is available to reconstruct de nitively the earliest emergence of Iranian-
speaking communities. There are, however, striking linguistic and ideological similarities between the extant texts of
Old Iranian and those preserved in the closely related dialects of Old Indo-Aryan recorded in the regions to the east and
west of the Iranian plateau. These include the Vedic liturgical texts of the Punjab region on the one hand, and a few
words and passages from the legal and diplomatic documents of southeastern Anatolia's Mitanni kingdom, ruled by an
Indo-Aryan minority, on the other. These Indo-Aryan and Iranian dialects have been collectively termed Indo-Iranian. A
rough chronology can be established for the members of each dialect family by analyzing their linguistic evolution.
At some time between 2500 and 2000 B.C., a group or groups of nomadic Indo-European speaking peoples of
Southeastern Russia and Central Asia migrated to the regions just north of the Iranian plateau. As they settled the
region, the proto-language of Indo-Iranian gradually divided into Indo-Aryan and Iranian. By ca. 1500 B.C., various tribes
from the Indo-Aryan group began to penetrate the Indian subcontinent; a small number also headed west. Though
these developments do not shed any direct light on the emergence of the Iranian dialects, the historical information
that they provide may at least be used to establish an initial chronological boundary.
The Indic group left behind a body of texts that contain the most complete picture of Indo-Iranian mythology and
religion available. In the late 19th century, the great German philologist Max Müller gave a date to these texts by
starting with the much later Indian Buddhist sutra literature and working his way back in time. Since these sutras
contained the names of Indian and Hellenistic kings that are also mentioned in Greek works datable to ca. 200 B.C.,
Müller concluded that the two sets of texts were contemporary. Then, positing 200 years as a reasonable time for the
development of each of several previous bodies of religious texts, he moved backwards from the sutras through each
genre to arrive at a date of ca. 1400 B.C. for the earliest Indian literature, the Vedas. This date agrees with that of a
treaty between the Indo-Aryan-ruled Mitanni of Anatolia and the Hittites, their neighbors to the west, ca. 1380 B.C.
Though no similar record exists regarding the Iranians, it is reasonable to assume that whatever motivations the Indo-
Aryans had for migrating into their future homelands at this time also led the Iranian groups to move into the Iranian
plateau during the same period.
Indo-Iranian Religion
The Indo-Iranian religion, as it is preserved in the Indian Rigveda and its ancillary literature, consisted of plant and
animal sacri ce conceived as a system of hospitable exchange between a pantheon of gods, or devas, and
communities of human beings. Through priestly intermediaries, a human sacri cer invited to a sacri cial feast those
https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol_printable/aveol 1/146
gods whose favor he sought, offering into the re gifts of meat, dairy products, and the invigorating beverage called
soma to enhance the gods' power and strength. According to the system of reciprocal exchange inherited from the
Indo-European tradition, this obliged the gods to act in turn on the sacri cer's behalf by assuring him continual
acquisition of cattle, sustained good health, frequent military victory, and male progeny. As far as can be gleaned from
existing literature, a similar ideology lay at the foundation of early Iranian ritual practice as well.
Avestan: Dialects and Dates

The term Avesta -- from the Pahlavi, or Middle Persian, avestak -- is used to denote the sacred literature of the early
Iranian people, which preserves the earliest collections of an Iranian language. Though its meaning is uncertain, it is
likely that the term refers to either the collected texts themselves or to the sacred knowledge contained in them. The
language is preserved in two dialect forms denoted as 'Old' and 'Young(er)' Avestan. It is likely, however, that there is an
overlap in time between the latest Old Avestan and the earliest Young Avestan since they share certain features. It may
then be assumed that the two dialects were spoken in distinct regions by independent tribes or clans.
Each of the dialects is preserved in the Yasna, or 'sacri cial liturgy' in seventy-two chapters, of the Zoroastrian religion.
The core of this collection, Chapters 28-53, contains the Gathas, or songs, of Zarathustra, poet-priest of the clan
Spitama, and the Yasna Haptanhaiti, or the 'Sacri ce of the Seven Chapters', which together preserve the only Old
Avestan literature extant. The Gathas are subdivided into ve groups -- chapters 28-34, 43-46, 47-50, 51, and 53. The
Haptanhaiti are inserted between the rst and second of these collections as chapters 35-42; written in prose, these
include prayers and praise to the various divine beings. Their language is still fairly archaic. The remaining Yasna
chapters consist primarily of praise and offerings of thanksgiving written in the younger language in both poetry and
prose. Young Avestan is also found in the prayer book called Khorda Avesta, the liturgical extensions collected as
Visperad, the mythical literature and ethical code known as Venidad, and various fragments.
Since none of these texts make reference to anything historically veri able, they cannot be dated precisely. The Old
Avestan of the Gathas, however, is both linguistically and stylistically similar enough to the middle chronological layers
of the Indian Vedas to be dated to the same period of time -- i.e., ca. 1250 - 1000 BC. The Haptanhaiti may be as much
as a century or two younger. Because Young Avestan shows signi cant developments away from the older language, it
may be dated between the 10th and 6th centuries B.C., though texts composed toward the end of this period contain
enough grammatical errors to prove that the language was no longer fully understood by that time.
Zarathustra
As the author of the Gathas, the poet-priest Zarathustra is commonly credited as inaugurating the radical innovation
that sets Iranian religion -- called Zoroastrianism in the West, after the Greek version of the poet's name -- apart from
the remainder of Indo-Iranian tradition. Such degree of originality, however, is not assured. Though the later Zoroastrian
tradition recognizes Zarathustra as its founder, the religion's origin is so obscure and its development so long that it is
possible that others preceded him but were forgotten because the institutional structure necessary to preserve their
work was insu cient at such an early date, or because Zarathustra's poetic or theological genius eclipsed all who
came before, or both, or because of some other accident of history. Moreover, the nature of the innovation ascribed
may not be quite as radical as is generally believed since Zarathustra can only be seen to stand the Indo-Iranian
tradition on its head -- as is typically assumed -- from the point of view of the more voluminous Vedic liturgy. But sheer
bulk proves nothing, and continued study of the available data may yet render very different results.
In the Rigveda's most linguistically archaic layers, an epithet -- asura -- was attributed to several of the more important
gods of the ritual pantheon. Though the term's precise meaning remains uncertain in these earliest passages, it is
clearly honori c in usage. Yet even here a struggle between this special group of gods and the others can be detected;
by the beginning of the middle compositional period -- still early in terms of both linguistic and ideological development
-- the term asura had been stripped of its elevated meaning. The Indian kavis, or poet-priests, had begun to apply the
term, not to the most honored of their gods, but exclusively to the losers in the ensuing battle of divinities. The devas,
pure and simple, became the victors, the ones worthy of worship, while the asuras were demonized as a new class, the
honori c sense of the word lost in the dust-bin of a mythology irrevocably changed.
Yet Zarathustra sang of a quite similar cosmic struggle, in which the asuras -- or rather the ahuras, as they were known
to him -- appear to have retained their elevated status among other gods, who were otherwise like them. Taken in
conjunction with the similar usage in the earliest Rigveda, this suggests the Indo-Iranian antiquity of the term's
honori c meaning; the innovation in the ontology of gods seems then to have been an Indian rather than an Iranian
one. What was new in the Iranian tradition, where it differed from the conservative elements of the Indian belief, was
the elevated degree of demarcation between those gods who were 'ahuric' and those who were not and were therefore
demoted to a sort of demonic status. If the Rigveda is any indication, Indo-Iranian cosmology never developed the
sophisticated, systematic duality that divided the Iranian cosmos, from heaven to earth through and through, in half.
Zarathustra's contribution, then, was not a wholly new world view but one carried to its logical conclusion, in which one
member of a group of ahuras -- Ahura Mazda, the 'Wise Lord' -- was honored above the others of his group, who were
then personi ed as aspects of the Wise One's personality or manifestation in the world.
To complete the picture, Ahura Mazda was given an opponent, the (non-ahuric) daeva Angra Mainyu, the 'Evil Spirit'.
These two were conceived to be in eternal con ict, bringing respectively either good or evil, asha (Truth/Order) or druj
(deception), to both the divine and human realms. In fact, it is the inability to distinguish between these moral and
ontological dualities that distinguishes, according to Zarathustra, ahuric beings and their human followers from daevas
and theirs. Only through the power of Vohu Manah, 'Good Thinking', can order and righteousness prevail.
Later Developments
In the Haptanhaiti and, more extensively, the Young Avestan texts, Ahura Mazda was thought to be aided by six moral
qualities emanating from himself and personi ed as amesha spentas, 'Bene cent Immortals'. Zarathustra simply
called these ahuras; it is interesting to note that, though in all lists the amesha spentas are six in number, the texts
claim that there are seven. Most likely, the seventh is Ahura Mazda himself, chief among the other ahuras who, in time,
ceased to be known as such and became only amesha spentas.
The amesha spentas include the following. Vohu Manah, 'Good Thinking' or 'Good Mind', was already mentioned
above. Asha Vahishta was the 'Highest Truth' in the world, the ideal underlying the order of things; Zarathustra
constantly exhorted Asha's earthly followers, the Ashavan, or 'Possessors of the Truth', that they not be seduced or
confused by the Dregvan, or 'Possessors of the Lie'. Xshatha Vairya personi ed Ahura Mazda's desired rule over the
earth as a realm emancipated from Druj, a condition that Zarathustra hoped to bring about by persuading all people
everywhere to follow his teaching. The spenta Armaiti was thought to be the earth's 'bene cent accord,' and had the
earth entrusted to her care. Haurvatat and Ameretat embodied the 'prosperity' (or 'well-being') and 'immortality' that
humanity sought. Finally, Shraosha represented proper 'obedience' to the other spentas, to Ahura Mazda's prophet
Zarathustra, and to Ahura Mazda Himself.
Old Persian
Old Persian is known exclusively from inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings of Persia, found in southeastern Iran at the
ancient capital Persepolis, at the ancient sites of Naqs-i-Rastam, Murghab, Susa, Hamadan, Behistan, and Elvend, and
in Armenia and Western Egypt. These are primarily the inscriptions of Darius the Great and his successor Xerxes, who
ruled from 521-486 and 486-465 B.C., respectively. They are inscribed in the scripts of various languages. Usually
cuneiform but also Aramaic versions are found.
The inscriptions offer rst-hand accounts, often propagandistic, of their authors' accomplishments in battle, which are
usually ascribed to the will of Ahura Mazda. Thus, commands to obey the will of the king are accompanied by the
insistence that doing so is also to obey the will of Ahura Mazda (since the latter placed the king on the throne). Xerxes'
Daeva Inscription at Persepolis (cf. Lesson 10) also includes a record of the persistence of some older form of Indo-
Iranian deva-worship, long since supplanted in the Acheaminid royal house by the advent and spread of the Zoroastrian
reforms. Unfortunately, the nature and extent of these older practices are impossible to gauge.
Old Persian is not descended from Avestan, but rather evolved from a distinct dialect. No earlier sample of it is
attested, but signi cant phonetic differences from Avestan and a much simpli ed case and verbal system suggest that
Old Persian had a long history of development. Some of the changes can also be accounted for through the in uence
of neighboring languages (e.g., Assyrian, Babylonian, and the Iranian dialect Median) and languages of trade (e.g.,
Aramaic and Elamite).
Related Language Courses at UT
Most but not all language courses taught at The University of Texas concern modern languages; sometimes courses
are offered in ancient languages, though more often at the graduate level. Iranian language courses are taught in the
Department of Middle Eastern Studies (http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/mes/) (link opens in a new browser
window). Other online language courses for college credit are offered through the University Extension
(http://www.utexas.edu/ce/uex/online/) (new window).
Iranian Resources Elsewhere
Our Web Links (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/links.php) page includes pointers to Iranian resources

elsewhere (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/links.php#Iranian).
Old Iranian Online

Lesson 1: Old Avestan
Scott L. Harvey, Winfred P. Lehmann, and Jonathan Slocum
The Gathas of Zarathustra are the earliest extant collection of an Old Iranian language. In form and stylistic technique,
they are not unlike the larger collections of hymns preserved in the Indian Rigveda, since their author was a sacri cial
priest reared in the same traditional methods of Indo-Iranian liturgical composition. Much of their grammar and
vocabulary, however, is unique, and their strikingly different mythology gives a great deal more weight to theodicy and
moral code than anything in any Indian work contemporary to the period. These differences often render comparison
with the Indian texts well-nigh impossible; interpretation is often di cult, given the total absence of other
contemporary works in Old Iranian dialects. Fortunately, Zarathustra's composition and ideology are rigorously uni ed
and consistent and can at least be understood, albeit to a limited extent, within the framework of the hymns
themselves.
Reading and Textual Analysis

Yasna 29, the Cow's Lament, is one of the most widely discussed Gathas in Zarathustra's opus. Nevertheless, it
remains one of the most di cult to comprehend, since the hymn is unique among the Gathas for its dialogic form.
Who is the cow? What is her purpose? Which other characters are speaking or described? Though the Rigveda
preserves a number of hymns of this type, scholars have yet to determine their rules of composition with satisfactory
precision. Thus, answers to these questions must be tentative at best. Yet as with Zarathustra's other compositions,
the hymn shares themes and formulae with other Gathas and one can utilize these and the context of the hymn itself
to formulate an interpretation.
The cow represents humanity at large, the Wise Lord's great ock of men. Her plight is their plight and the provider she
seeks is the virtuous man who can lead them to prosperity. Zarathustra opens the hymn with the cow plaintively asking
her Fashioner why He created for her such a sorrowful existence and imploring him to wrest her from its estate. In
verse two, the Fashioner asks Truth to respond to the cow. Verse three is not easily attributed, though one may
presume it is Truth's reply. Zarathustra makes the verse serve double duty, both as a warning against questioning the
intentions of the gods and implying that Truth has sent him -- the poet -- as the 'savior' who is sought by the cow: "he to
whom I shall go ... will be the strongest of beings." This introduces a major theme of the hymn. Verses four and ve
then read as the rst direct address to Ahura Mazda, his Wise Lord. The remaining verses will be covered in Lesson 2.
1 - xšmaibyā gə̄uš urvā gərəždā kahmāi mā θwarōždūm kə̄ mā tašaṯ
xšmaibyā -- pronoun; dative plural masculine <yūžəm-> 'you' -- to you

gə̄uš -- noun; genitive singular feminine <gao-> 'cow' -- cow's
urvā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <urvan-> 'soul, self' -- soul
gərəždā -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <gərəz-> 'lament, complain' -- lamented
kahmāi -- interrogative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ka-> 'who, what' -- for whom
mā -- enclitic pronoun; 1st person accusative singular <azəm-> 'I' -- me
θwarōždūm -- verb; 2nd person plural s-aorist indicative middle <θwarōz> 'carve, fashion, shape, create' -- did
you create
kə̄ -- interrogative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ka-> 'who, what' -- who
tašaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative active <tas> 'carve, create, fashion, shape' -- fashioned
ā mā aēšəmō hazas-cā rəmō āhišāyā dərəš-cā təviš-cā
ā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' -- ...

aēšəmō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <aēšəma-> 'anger, fury, wrath' -- cruelty
hazas-cā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <haza-> 'power, violence, oppression' + conjunction; <ca>
'and' -- and oppression
rəmō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <rəma-> 'bloodlust, violence, chains' -- bloodlust
āhišāyā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' + verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active <hišāy->
'bind, tie up' -- have fettered
dərəš-cā -- noun; nominative singular feminine <darəs-> 'wantoness, rage, fury' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' --
and rage
təviš-cā -- noun; nominative singular neuter <təvis-> 'violence' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and violence
nōiṯ mōi vāstā xšmaṯ anyō aθā mōi sąstā vohū vāstryā
nōiṯ -- negative particle; <nōiṯ> 'no, none' -- no

mōi -- enclitic pronoun; 1st person dative singular <azəm-> 'I' -- for me
vāstā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <vāstar-> 'herdsman' -- herdsman
xšmaṯ -- pronoun; ablative singular <yūžəm-> 'you' -- than you
anyō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <anya-> 'other' -- other
aθā -- adverb; <aθā> 'so, thus, likewise' -- therefore
mōi -- enclitic pronoun; 1st person dative singular <azəm-> 'I' -- to me
sąstā -- verb; 2nd person plural s-aorist imperative active <sand> 'show, seem' -- you must all show
vohū -- adjective; accusative plural neuter <vohu-> 'good' -- good
vāstryā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <vāstrya-> 'herdsman; pasture' -- pastures
2 - adā tašā gə̄uš pərəsaṯ ašəm kaθā tōi gavōi ratuš
adā -- adverb; <adā> 'then, thereupon, thus' -- then

tašā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <tašar-> 'carver, fashioner, shaper, creator' -- fashioner
gə̄uš -- noun; genitive singular feminine <gao-> 'cow' -- cow's
pərəsaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <pərəs-> 'ask' -- asked
ašəm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- Truth
kaθā -- adverb; <kaθā> 'how, in what way' -- what
tōi -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine <ha-> 'you' -- your
gavōi -- noun; dative singular feminine <gao-> 'cow' -- for the cow
ratuš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <ratu-> 'judgement, model, plan' -- allotment
hyaṯ hīm dātā xšayantō hadā vāstrā gaodāyō θwaxšō
hyaṯ -- relative adverb; <hyaṯ> 'if, so, when' -- when

hīm -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- her
dātā -- verb; 2nd person plural aorist indicative middle <dā-> 'give, put' -- you all gave
xšayantō -- present participle active; nominative plural masculine <xšaya> 'ruling' -- ruling
hadā -- preposition; <hadā> 'together with' -- together with
vāstrā -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vāstrya-> 'herdsman; pasture' -- pasturage
gaodāyō -- compound adjective; accusative singular neuter <gao-> 'cow' + ; <dā-> 'give, put' -- cow-tending
θwaxšō -- noun; accusative singular neuter <θwaxša-> 'zeal, care, nurture' -- nourishment
kə̄m hōi uštā ahurəm yə̄ drəgvōdəbīš aēšəməm vādāyōiṯ
kə̄m -- interrogative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ka-> 'who, what' -- whom
hōi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- for her
uštā -- verb; 2nd person plural imperfect indicative active <vas> 'desire, wish' -- do all of you desire
ahurəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- as the Lord
yə̄ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
drəgvōdəbīš -- noun; instrumental plural masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- by the Possessor of
the Lie
aēšəməm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <aēšəma-> 'anger, fury, wrath' -- cruelty
vādāyōiṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative active <vādāya-> 'destroy' -- would destroy
3 - ahmāi ašā nōiṯ sarəjā advaēšō gavōi paitī-mravaṯ
ahmāi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- to him
ašā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- with Truth
nōiṯ -- negative particle; <nōiṯ> 'no, none' -- not
sarəjā -- compound noun; nominative singular masculine <sar-> 'protection, alliance' + ; <jan> 'smite, slay,
destroy' -- slayer of the alliance
advaēšō -- compound noun; nominative singular masculine <a-> (privative) + ; <dvaesa-> 'hatred' -- free from
hatred
paitī-mravaṯ -- verbal pre x; <paiti> 'near, toward, with respect to' + verb; 3rd person singular present
subjunctive active <mrū> 'speak, say' -- would reply
avaēšąm nōiṯ vīduyē yā šavaitē ādrə̄ng ərəšvåŋhō
avaēšąm -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- of those
vīduyē -- in nitive; dative singular <vid> 'see, know, obtain' -- to know
yā -- relative pronoun; instrumental singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- by which
šavaitē -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle <šava-> 'drive forth, set in motion' -- He drives
ādrə̄ng -- noun; accusative plural masculine <ādra-> 'lowly' -- lowly
ərəšvåŋhō -- noun accusative plural masculine; <ərəšva-> 'lofty' -- to lofty
hātąm hvō aojištō yahmāi zavə̄ng jimā kərədušā
hātąm -- present participle active; genitive plural masculine <ah-> 'be, become' -- of beings
hvō -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- he
aojištō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <uγra-> 'strong' + superlative su x; <-ista-> indicates
superlative -- strongest
yahmāi -- relative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- to whom
zavə̄ng -- noun; accusative plural neuter <zava-> 'call, request' -- requests
jimā -- verb; 1st person singular aorist subjunctive active <gam> 'go' -- I shall go
kərədušā -- perfect active participle; instrumental singular masculine <(hapax) krd> 'send' (?) -- on account of
having sent out
4 - mazdå saxvārə̄ mairištō yā zī vāvərəzōi pairī-ciθīṯ
mazdå -- noun; nominative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- the Wise One
saxvārə̄ -- noun; accusative plural neuter <saxvār-> 'invocation, poetically formulated vow' -- pacts
mairištō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <mairišṯa-> 'knowing/remembering best' -- remembering
best
yā -- relative pronoun; nominative accusative masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- that
zī -- emphatic particle; <zi> 'for, indeed' -- indeed
vāvərəzōi -- verb 3rd person singular perfect indicative middle; <vərəz> 'do, make, perform' -- has made
pairī-ciθīṯ -- adverb; <pairi> 'around, among' + ; <ciθ> inde nite marker -- sometime before
daēvāiš-cā mašyāiš-cā yā-cā varəšaitē aipī-ciθīṯ
daēvāiš-cā -- noun; instrumental plural masculine <daēva-> 'divine being' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and by
daevas
mašyāiš-cā -- noun; instrumental plural masculine <mašya-> 'human being' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and by
men
yā-cā -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' --
and that
varəšaitē -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active <vərəz> 'do, make, perform' -- will make
aipī-ciθīṯ -- adverb; <aipi> 'toward, approaching' + ; <ciθ> inde nite marker -- sometime later
hvō vīcirō ahurō aθā nə̄ aŋhaṯ yaθā hvō vasaṯ

vīcirō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <vīcira-> 'discerning' -- discerning
ahurō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- Lord
aθā -- adverb; <aθā> 'so, thus, likewise' -- just as
nə̄ -- enclitic pronoun; dative plural masculine <azəm-> 'I' -- for us
aŋhaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah-> 'be, become' -- it will be
yaθā -- adverb; <yaθa> 'just as, like' -- just as
vasaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <vas> 'desire, wish' -- would wish
5 - aṯ vā ustānāiš ahvā zastāiš frīnəmnā ahurāi ā
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- so

vā -- emphatic particle; <vā> 'indeed, for, etc.' -- then
ustānāiš -- adjective; instrumental plural masculine <ustana-> 'stretched forth' -- stretched out
ahvā -- noun; instrumental singular feminine <ah> 'energy, zest, zeal' -- with zeal
zastāiš -- noun; instrumental plural masculine <zasta-> 'hand' -- with hands
frīnəmnā -- present participle middle; nominative dual masculine <frī> 'devote' -- devote ourselves
ahurāi -- noun; dative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- the Lord
ā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' -- to
mə̄ urvā gə̄uš-cā azyå hyaṯ mazdąm dvaidī frasåbyō
mə̄ -- adjective pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ma-> 'my' -- my

urvā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <urvan-> 'soul, self' -- soul
gə̄uš-cā -- noun; genitive singular feminine <gao-> 'cow' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and the cow's
azyå -- adjective; genitive singular feminine <azi-> 'fertile' -- fertile
hyaṯ -- conjunction; <hyaṯ> 'if, so, when' -- so
mazdąm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- the Wise One
dvaidī -- verb; 1st person dual aorist indicative middle <dā-> 'give, put' -- we may dispose
frasåbyō -- noun; dative plural feminine <frasā-> 'question, inquiry' -- to inquiries
nōiṯ ərəžəjyōi frajyāitiš nōiṯ fšuyentē drəgvasū pairī

ərəžəjyōi -- adjective; dative singular masculine <ərəžəji-> 'living justly' -- living justly
frajyāitiš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <frajyāiṯi> 'life's possibility' -- prospect
fšuyentē -- present participle active; dative singular masculine <fsuya-> 'breed (esp. cattle)' -- for the cattle
breeder
drəgvasū -- noun; locative plural masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- the Possessors of the Lie
pairī -- postposition; <pairi> 'around, among' -- among
Lesson Text
1 - xšmaibyā gə̄uš urvā gərəždā kahmāi mā θwarōždūm kə̄ mā tašaṯ

ā mā aēšəmō hazas-cā rəmō āhišāyā dərəš-cā təviš-cā
nōiṯ mōi vāstā xšmaṯ anyō aθā mōi sąstā vohū vāstryā
2 - adā tašā gə̄uš pərəsaṯ ašəm kaθā tōi gavōi ratuš
hyaṯ hīm dātā xšayantō hadā vāstrā gaodāyō θwaxšō
kə̄m hōi uštā ahurəm yə̄ drəgvōdəbīš aēšəməm vādāyōiṯ
3 - ahmāi ašā nōiṯ sarəjā advaēšō gavōi paitī-mravaṯ

avaēšąm nōiṯ vīduyē yā šavaitē ādrə̄ng ərəšvåŋhō
hātąm hvō aojištō yahmāi zavə̄ng jimā kərədušā
4 - mazdå saxvārə̄ mairištō yā zī vāvərəzōi pairī-ciθīṯ

daēvāiš-cā mašyāiš-cā yā-cā varəšaitē aipī-ciθīṯ
hvō vīcirō ahurō aθā nə̄ aŋhaṯ yaθā hvō vasaṯ
5 - aṯ vā ustānāiš ahvā zastāiš frīnəmnā ahurāi ā

mə̄ urvā gə̄uš-cā azyå hyaṯ mazdąm dvaidī frasåbyō
nōiṯ ərəžəjyōi frajyāitiš nōiṯ fšuyentē drəgvasū pairī
Translation
1 The cow's soul lamented to you, [the gods]: "For whom did you create me?
Who fashioned me?
Cruelty, oppression, bloodlust, rage, and violence have fettered me,
[And] there is no herdsman for me other than you.
Therefore, you must all show me [the way to] good pastures."

2 Then the cow's Fashioner asked Truth: "What [was] your allotment for the cow
when, ruling [the earth], you all gave her cow-tending nourishment
together with pasturage?
Whom do all of you desire as the Lord who would destroy the cruelty [wielded] by the
Possessor of the Lie?"

3 [The one who is] not a slayer of the alliance with Truth
[and is] free from hatred for the cow would reply to him:
"[One] is not to know of those [things] by which He drives the lowly to lofty [heights].
[But] he to whom I shall go, on account of [his] having sent out requests [for aid?],
[will be] the strongest of beings.

4 [Zarathustra:] "The Wise One [is he] remembering best the pacts
that, indeed, he has made with daevas and men sometime before [now]
And [those also] that he will make sometime later.
He is the discerning Lord; it will be for us just as he would wish."

5 [Zarathustra: And] so, then, do we two -- my soul and the fertile cow's --
devote ourselves with zeal, with hands stretched out to the Lord,
So [that] we may dispose the Wise One to [answer our] inquiries.
Is there no prospect for the cattle-breeder living justly among the Possessors of the Lie?"
Grammar
1 The Alphabet
The earliest complete Avestan manuscripts date from the 13th to 14th centuries A.D. They are written in a script based
on the Pahlavi, or Middle Persian alphabet, invented to record an earlier version of the texts during the Sassanid
dynasty (ca. 224-640 A.D.). This earlier script had itself evolved from the Aramaic characters brought to the Iranian
plateau several centuries earlier still. Like Aramaic, Avestan is read from right to left.
The alphabet is presented here in its English transliteration, organized by place and manner of articulation. The
example of each character's approximate pronunciation is taken from American English unless otherwise noted.
Letter Sound Letter Sound Letter Sound
a gutter k kipper y youth
ā father x Ger. Loch r room
i sit, Ger. bitte x́ horse v vice;

medially,
werewolf
ī me xv x́ + v
u book g (ġ) gipper s sound
ū choose γ approx. brogue, Sp. haga š (ṣ̌) shout
e red ŋ sing š́ wish you

were here
ē hey c chip, It. ciao z zoo
o goat, Sp. rojo j jest ž azure
ō hoe ń Sp. año
ə approx Fr. ṯ approx. as British bitter h horse

peut-être
ə̄ herd, Fr. peur t time
ą gong d dime
å bawdy θ theater
δ father
n never
ṇ before t, d = n; before k, g = ŋ;
before p, b = m
p pour
f fair
b boar
B Sp. recibir
m moot
m̨ hmm...
In addition to the alphabet as described, the diphthongs /ay/ and /ao/ are written as contiguous letters:
aē sight
ao ouch
2 The Sound System

2.1 Phonology
The original pronunciation of both the old and the younger Avestan language is unknown. Existing texts re ect only the
liturgical enunciation of the hymns at the time they were rst written down, ca. 400 A.D. No more than a few fragments
of these earliest recensions are extant; peculiar word breaks, meaningless repetitions of verbal pre xes, and metrical
erosion show that the scribes had lost living contact with the language by this time. (Pliny and the Parsi tradition both
refer to an older manuscript recorded under the Arsacids who ruled from ca. 250 B.C. to 226 A.D., but no physical
evidence survives. Scholars who accept its existence believe that it had an even simpler and more ambiguous
orthography than the Sassanid fragments.) The degree of phonemic change that occurred between the original
composition and this fth century recension, and between this recension and the extant manuscripts from ca. 1350
A.D., cannot be gauged. Nevertheless, the pronunciation of the existing script is more or less certain. Each letter
represents one discrete phoneme and must, for the most part, be read individually. Exceptions are the vowel
combinations comprising diphthongs and the sequence ng.
Vowels: Front Central Back
High i, ī u, ū
Mid o, ō e, ē
Low a, ā
ə, ə̄
Diphthongs: å, aē, ao

Consonants:
Unaspirated Aspirated Unaspirated Aspirated Nasal Sibilant Sibilant
Unvoiced Unvoiced Voiced Voiced Unvoiced Voiced
Velars: k x, x́, xv g, ġ γ ŋ
Palatals: c j ń š, ṣ̌, š́ ž
Cerebrals: ṯ
Dentals: t θ d δ n, (ṇ) s z
Labials: p, f b, B m, m̨
Semivowels: y, r, v
Aspirates: h
2.2 Accentuation
Avestan orthography does not indicate accentuation, but scholars have traced four phonetic patterns that must be
ascribed to stress. The change h > xÉ is seen to occur when the vowel following h is accented. Likewise, an r
clustered with a following unvoiced velar, dental, or labial devoices when the vowel preceding that r is accented: rk >
hrk, rt > , and rp > hrp. In both instances, ca 'and' when added to the word shifts the accent to the nal syllable.
2.3 Length of Final Vowels

Word- nal vowels are generally long in Old Avestan (OAv) and short in Younger Avestan (YAv). The examples in these
lessons are in Old Avestan.
3 Noun In ection
Avestan is highly in ected. This means that, unlike English whose syntax is primarily governed by word order and the
use of prepositions, the functional relationships among the various words in a sentence are expressed by in ections,
or endings, added to the stem, or base form, of a noun or adjective.
There are cases in Avestan. In addition to syntactic function, these also express number -- singular, dual, or plural. Each
noun also has gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter.
The cases are as follows:
Case Primary Function English Translation
Nominative Grammatical Subject (subject)
Accusative Direct Object (object)
Instrumental Object of Means by, with
Dative Indirect Object to, for, for the sake of
Ablative Object of Origin from, out of, on account of
Genitive Subject of Possession or Character of
Locative Object of Location in, on, upon, over, under, at, etc.
Vocative Object of Address ('you', or name of person being addressed)
Case names and other grammatical terms are often abbreviated in these lessons (e.g., 'sg.' for singular, 'du.' for dual).
The nominal in ections applied to nouns and adjectives are classi ed according to the nal letter of the noun's stem.
Each "stem type" takes its own set of in ections, for which paradigms will be given through the course of these
lessons. For each paradigm, a single word will be used; where a case form is not attested for that word, but is found for
other words of the same stem type, the 'reconstructed' form will be marked by an asterisk. Where no attestation of a
case exists for any word of the stem type, the form will be labelled 'unattested'.
3.1 a-Stem Nouns, Masculine and Neuter
Singular: Masculine aspa- 'horse' Neuter šyauθna- 'work'
Nom. aspō, aspā *šyauθnəm
Acc. aspəm šyauθnəm

Instr. *aspā šyauθnā
Dat. *aspāi šyauθnāi
Abl. *aspāt šyauθnāt
Gen. *aspahya *šyauθnahya
Loc. *aspai šyauθnai

Voc. *aspā *šyauθna
Dual:
Nom. aspā šyauθne

Acc. aspā šyauθne
Instr/Dat/Abl. aspaebya šyauθnaebya
Gen.Loc. aspayāh šyauθnāh
Plural:
Nom. aspå, asp̊ŋhō šyauθnā

Acc. *aspə̄ng šyauθnā
Instr. *aspāiš šyauθnāiš
Dat/Abl. *aspaebyō šyauθnaebyō
Gen. *aspə̄m, aspanąm šyauθnanąm
Loc. aspaešu šyauθnaešu
3.2 ā-Stem Nouns, Feminine
Singular: daēnā 'insight'

Nom. daēnā
Acc. daēnąm
Instr. daēnayā
Dat. daēnayāi
Abl/Gen. daēnayo̊
Loc. daēnayā
Voc. daēne
Dual:
Nom. *daēne
Acc. daēne
Instr/Dat/Abl. *daēnābya
Gen/Loc. *daēnayå
Plural:
Nom. daēnå
Acc. daēn̊
Instr. daēnābiš
Dat/Abl. daēnābyō
Gen. daēnanąm
Loc. *daēnāȟu, daēnāhva
4 Verb In ection
Verbal in ections are added to a stem whose form conveys the tense of a verb. These endings express person,
number, mood, and voice.
There are three persons ( rst, second, and third), and three numbers (singular, dual, and plural).
'Mood' refers to the attitude of the speaker towards an action. The indicative mood conveys a merely descriptive sense
and is translated with the simple verb. The imperative mood indicates a command. Avestan also includes two
potential moods, a subjunctive and an optative; the former conveys a greater sense of probability than the latter. As in
Sanskrit, the subjunctive is found much more frequently in the older language (Vedic, Old Avestan) than in the younger
(Classical Sanskrit, Younger Avestan); its functions are gradually replaced, with respect to the degree of probability to
be communicated, by the optative mood and the future tense.
'Voice' refers to the nature of the action with respect to the logical subject of a sentence. The active voice indicates
direct action. The middle voice signals that a self-re exive purpose or bene t to the subject motivates the action
expressed. The passive is used when the agent of a sentence is not the grammatical subject; it is treated in Lesson 5.
The four tenses -- present, aorist, perfect, and future -- are classi ed by the formation of the stem, to which endings
are added. The present system is divided into two types, thematic and athematic. The thematic classes are presented
below; the athematic classes and the other tense systems will be treated in subsequent lessons.
4.1 The Present Tense
The present tense conveys action that occurs at the time of speaking. It may be translated with either a general sense,
as in "Zarathustra spins a tale," or with a continuous sense, as in "Zarathustra is spinning a tale."
Stems of the present system that end with the theme-vowel -a- are called thematic. This -a- may be added directly to a
verbal root in its stong or weak grade (cf. Section 8.2 on vowel gradation) as in the examples below, or it may be a part
of the fuller su xes -ya- or -aya-. To this stem, various endings are added.
Thematic Present Paradigms: bara- 'carry, bear'
Indicative Active Middle
1 sg. barāmi baire

2 sg. barahi unattested
3 sg. baraiti baraite

3 du. unattested *baraite

1 pl. barāmahi *baramaide
2 pl. baraθa *baraθve
3 pl. barənti barəṇte

Imperative
2 sg. bara baraŋvha

3 sg. baratu *baratąm

2 pl. *barata *baraδBvəm
3 pl. barəntu *barənta

Subjunctive
1 sg. barāni *barāne, *barāi
2 sg. barāhi *barān̨he
3 sg. *barāiti, barāṯ *barāite

3 du. *barātō unattested

1 pl. barāma unattested
2 pl. *barāθa unattested
3pl. *barąn barāŋte, *barāire

Optative
1 sg. unattested baraya

2 sg. baraiš baraiša
3 sg. baraiṯ baraita

1 pl. baraima *baraimaide
2 pl. *baraita *baraiθəm
3 pl. barayən *barayan̨ta
4.2 The Imperfect

The present system also includes the imperfect, a past tense; it is discussed in Lesson 5.
5 Word Order
The standard word order of an Avestan clause or sentence is generally Subject-Object-Verb, though the texts in these
lessons are poetic in nature and tend to be freer in form. Two common exceptions to the "verb last" rule are when a
verb is accompanied by an adverbial preposition, which may appear in the nal position, and when a verb is embedded
between an adjective and a noun. Adjectives generally precede the nouns they modify, though sometimes separated by
other words.
As an example of the "verb last" rule, Yasna 29 opens with a clause ended by the verb gərəždā:
xšmaibyā gə̄uš urvā gərəždā

To you the cow's soul laments...
The rst line of verse 5 demonstrates typical adjective-noun word order,
aṯ vā ustānāiš ahvā zastāiš frīnəmnā ahurāi-ā

And we with dwell (with) hands devoting ourselves to the Lord,
so two outstretched
where ustānāiš 'outstretched' precedes the noun zastāiš 'hands' and the phrase ends in the adverb rather than the
verb (or, as here, rather than the verbal adjective). The adjective and noun enclosing the clause's main verb ahvā 'we
two dwell' is a form of discontinuous word order called 'enclosure'.
These rules are of great help to the translator or interpreter of an Avestan liturgical text. Nevertheless, ambiguity may
occasionally occur. A line from Yasna 43.15, for example, may be rendered in two ways:
... vīspə̄ng angrə̄ng ašanō ādarə

... They call all the evil (ones) truthful.
... They call all the truthful (ones) evil.
Here, the accusative plural adjective vīspə̄ng 'all' precedes both of the accusative plural nouns angrə̄ng 'evil' and
ašanō 'truthful', and may be taken with either one since the stylistic device of the 'enclosure' may or may not be
employed. In such situations one must decide, based on context, which of the meanings best represents the author's
intent.
An exception to the standard adjective-noun pattern became formulaic in the later language: ahura- mazdah-,
literally 'Lord wise'. The phrase rst appeared in the Gathas, but only with a caesura or another [enclosed] word in
between, as in 51.15 or 51.5,
caesura: garō dəmānē ahurō mazdā jasaṯ ...

Ahura Mazda went into the house of song ...

enclosure: ahurō xšaθrā mazdå...

Ahura Mazda, by (his) power...
The phrase grew increasingly frequent in the Yasna Haptanhaiti and, by the time of the younger language, would
become the usual form, with or without caesura or enclosure.
Old Iranian Online

In addition to the 'ahuric' beings that Zarathustra's poetry brings to light, several Gathas also mention Geush Tashan,
the 'Creator of the Cow', and Geush Urvan, the 'Soul of the Cow'. Though the ontological status of these two is not
clearly spelled out, they do seem to maintain at least a semi-divine status due to their central role in early Iranian social
life. Like their Indian cousins, the Eastern Iranians of this period were pastoral nomads. Their economy depended on
cattle and, from the earliest times, their sacri cial ritual incorporated this most precious commodity by offering it up to
the gods. While Zarathustra seems to have proscribed this older practice, he continued to employ the symbols of the
earlier age, even as he refashioned them in keeping with new themes.
Yasna 29 continues with Ahura Mazda's response to Zarathustra's invocation. He appears to ignore Zarathustra himself
and address only the cow, whose inquiry began the hymn. Zarathustra, as poet, seems to be using this speech to begin
a progression to his main point, i.e. that it is he who is the spokesman who can lead humanity to their god. In verse six,
Ahura Mazda declares that there is no one righteous enough to play this role, but then asks, in seven, if this is really so.
In verse eight, Good Mind personi ed determines it is not, for Zarathustra Spitama stands ready to sing the Truth,
inspired by the sweetness of right thinking. Verses nine through eleven then show the cow's reluctance to accept
Zarathustra, Zarathustra's willingness to accept the responsibility, and nally the cow's acceptance of Zarathustra as
her ambassador to the gods and Mazda's ambassador to the world.
6 - aṯ ə̄ vaocaṯ ahurō mazdå vīdvå vafūš vyānayā
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- so

ə̄ -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <a-> 'he, this' -- the
vaocaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative active <vak> 'say, speak, declare' -- says
mazdå -- noun; nominative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- Wise
vīdvå -- perfect active participle; nominative singular masculine <vid> 'see, know, obtain' -- the Knowing One
vafūš -- noun; accusative plural masculine <vafu-> 'prophecy, teaching, solemn words' -- solemn words
vyānayā -- noun; instrumental singular feminine <vyāna-> 'insight, perception' -- by (his) insight
nōiṯ aēvā ahū vistō naēdā ratuš ašāṯ-cīṯ hacā

aēvā -- adjective; instrumental singular masculine <aēva-> 'one, alone' -- by one
ahū -- noun; nominative singular masculine <ahu-> 'lord' -- Lord
vistō -- past participle passive; nominative singular masculine <vis> ' nd' -- found
naēdā -- negative particle; <naēda> 'not, nor' -- nor
ratuš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <ratu-> 'judgement, model, plan' -- paragon
ašāṯ-cīṯ -- noun; ablative singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' + emphatic particle; <cīṯ> 'indeed, verily, etc.' -- some
Truth
hacā -- adposition; <hacā> 'from, out of' -- in accordance with
aṯ zī θwā fšuyantaē-cā vāstryāi-cā θwōrəštā tatašā
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- alas

zī -- emphatic particle; <zi> 'for, indeed' -- ...
θwā -- enclitic pronoun; 2nd person accusative singular <θwa> 'you' -- you
fšuyantaē-cā -- present participle active; dative singular masculine <fsuya-> 'breed (esp. cattle)' + conjunction;
<ca> 'and' -- for the bene t of the cattle breeder
vāstryāi-cā -- noun; dative singular masculine <vāstrya-> 'herdsman; pasture' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
the herdsman
θwōrəštā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <θwōrəšṯar> 'Fashioner' -- Fashioner
tatašā -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active <tas> 'carve, create, fashion, shape' -- has fashioned
7 - tə̄m āzūtōiš ahurō mąθrəm tašaṯ ašā hazaošō
tə̄m -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- the
āzūtōiš -- adjective; genitive singular feminine <āzuiti-> 'fat, butter' -- for (procuring) butter
ahurō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- the Lord
mąθrəm -- noun accusative singular masculine; <maθra-> 'mantra, magic formula' -- magic formula
tašaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative active <tas> 'carve, create, fashion, shape' -- fashioned
ašā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- with Truth
hazaošō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <hazaoša-> 'like-minded' -- allied
mazdå gavōi xšvīdəm-cā hvō urušaēibyō spəntō sāsnayā
mazdå -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <mazdā-> 'wise' -- Wise (One)

xšvīdəm-cā -- noun; accusative singular masculine <xšvid-> 'milk' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and milk
hvō -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- the
urušaēibyō -- adjective; dative plural masculine <uruša-> 'emaciated' -- toward the emaciated (ones)
spəntō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <spənta-> 'bene cent, holy, sacred' -- bene cent
sāsnayā -- noun; instrumental singular feminine <sāsnā-> 'teaching' -- in accordance with the teaching
kastē vohū manaŋhā yə̄ ī dāyāṯ ə̄əāvā marətaēibyō
kastē -- interrogative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ka-> 'who, what' -- who
vohū -- adjective; instrumental singular neuter <vohu-> 'good' -- good
manaŋhā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- by Mind
ī -- enclitic demonstrative pronoun; 3rd person accusative plural masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- he
dāyāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- might set down
ə̄əāvā -- preposition; <ə̄əāvā> 'down' -- down
marətaēibyō -- noun; dative plural masculine <marəta-> 'mortal' -- for mortal men
8 - aēm mōi idā vistō yə̄ nə̄ aēvā sāsnå gūšatā
aēm -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- this
mōi -- enclitic pronoun; 1st person dative singular <azəm-> 'I' -- for me
idā -- particle; <idā> 'here' -- here
vistō -- past participle passive; nominative singular masculine <vis> ' nd' -- found
nə̄ -- enclitic pronoun; 1st person genitive plural <azəm-> 'I' -- our
aēvā -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <aēva-> 'one, alone' -- alone
sāsnå -- noun; accusative plural feminine <sāsnā-> 'teaching' -- teachings
gūšatā -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <guš> 'hear' -- hears
Zaraθuštrō Spitāmō hvō nə̄ mazdā vaštī ašāi-cā
Zaraθuštrō -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Zaraθuštra-> 'Zarathustra' -- Zarathustra

Spitāmō -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Spitāma-> 'Spitama' (clan name of Zarathustra) --
Spitama
nə̄ -- enclitic pronoun; 1st person dative plural <azəm-> 'I' -- for us
mazdā -- adjective; vocative singular masculine <mazdā-> 'wise' -- O Wise One
vaštī -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <vas> 'desire, wish' -- wishes
ašāi-cā -- noun; dative singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and for Truth
carəkərəθrā srāvayeŋ́hē hyaṯ hōi hudəmə̄m dyāi vaxəδrahyā
carəkərəθrā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <carəkərəθra-> '(hymns of) praise' -- praise
srāvayeŋ́hē -- causative in nitive; dative <srāvay-> 'cause to be heard' -- to recite
hyaṯ -- conjunction; <hyaṯ> 'if, so, when' -- if
hōi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- to him
hudəmə̄m -- noun; accusative singular masculine <hudəma-> 'sweetness' -- sweetness
dyāi -- verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive passive <dā-> 'give, put' -- should be given
vaxəδrahyā -- noun; genitive singular neuter <vaxəδra-> 'speech organ' -- of voice
9 - aṯ-cā gə̄uš urvā raostā yə̄ anaēšəm xšanmə̄nē rādəm
aṯ-cā -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and so
gə̄uš -- noun; genitive singular feminine <gao-> 'cow' -- of the cow
urvā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <urvan-> 'soul, self' -- the soul
raostā -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative middle <rud> 'howl, cry out, lament' -- laments
yə̄ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- (I) who (am)
anaēšəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <anaēša-> 'powerless' -- powerless
xšanmə̄nē -- in nitive; dative <xšam> 'accept' -- to accept
rādəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <rāda-> 'provider' -- provider
vācim nərəš asūrahyā yə̄m ā vasəmī īšā-xšaθrīm
vācim -- noun; accusative singular feminine <vāc-> 'voice' -- voice

nərəš -- noun; genitive singular masculine <nar-> 'man' -- man's
asūrahyā -- adjective; genitive singular masculine <asura-> 'weak' -- weak
yə̄m -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
vasəmī -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <vas> 'desire, wish' -- I wish
īšā-xšaθrīm -- adjective; accusative singular feminine <īšā-xšaθri> 'powerful' -- strong
kadā yavā hvō aŋhaṯ yə̄ hōi dadāṯ zastavaṯ avō
kadā -- adverb; <kadā> 'when' -- when

yavā -- adjective; instrumental singular masculine <yavan-> 'during life' -- in (my) lifetime
aŋhaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah-> 'be, become' -- will emerge
hōi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- to him
dadāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- lends
zastavaṯ -- possessive adjective; accusative singular neuter <zasta-> 'hand' + possessive su x; <-vat-> '...' --
hand
avō -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <avah-> 'help, helping' -- helping
10 - yūžə̄m aēibyō ahurā aogō dātā ašā xšaθrəm-cā
yūžə̄m -- pronoun; 2nd person nominative singular <yūžəm-> 'you' -- you

aēibyō -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- to them
ahurā -- noun; vocative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- O Lord
aogō -- noun; accusative singular neuter <aogah-> 'power, strength' -- strength
dātā -- verb; 2nd person plural aorist imperative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- may you give
ašā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- through Truth
xšaθrəm-cā -- noun; accusative singular neuter <xšaθra-> 'power' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and power
avaṯ vohū manaŋhā yā hušəitīš rāmąm-cā dāṯ
avaṯ -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- that
manaŋhā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- through Mind
yā -- relative pronoun; instrumental singular neuter <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- by which
hušəitīš -- noun; accusative plural feminine <hušiti-> 'good dwelling, comfort, safety' -- comfort
rāmąm-cā -- noun; accusative singular neuter <rāman-> 'peace, tranquility' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
peace
dāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active <dā-> 'give, put' -- one may receive
azə̄m-cīṯ ahyā mazdā θwąm mə̄ŋ́hī paourvīm vaēdəm
azə̄m-cīṯ -- pronoun; 1st person nominative singular <azəm-> 'I' + emphatic particle; <cīṯ> 'indeed, verily, etc.'
-- For I myself
ahyā -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- of that
mazdā -- adjective; vocative singular masculine <mazdā-> 'wise' -- O Wise (One)
θwąm -- pronoun; 2nd person accusative singular <θwa> 'you' -- you
mə̄ŋ́hī -- verb; 1st person singular aorist indicative middle <man> 'know, think' -- I know
paourvīm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <paouruya-> ' rst, original' -- primordial
vaēdəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <vaēda-> 'provider' -- provider
11 - kudā ašəm vohu-cā manō xšaθrəm-cā aṯ mā mašā
kudā -- adverb; <kudā> 'where' -- where

vohu-cā -- adjective; nominative singular neuter <vohu-> 'good' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- good
manō -- noun; nominative singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- Mind
xšaθrəm-cā -- noun; nominative singular neuter <xšaθra-> 'power' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and power
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- ...
mašā -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <mašya-> 'human being' -- mortal
yūžə̄m mazdā frāxšnənē mazōi magāi-ā paitī-zānatā
yūžə̄m -- pronoun; 2nd person nominative singular <yūžəm-> 'you' -- you

mazdā -- adjective; vocative singular masculine <mazdā-> 'wise' -- O Wise (One)
frāxšnənē -- noun; locative singular masculine <frāxšnəna-> 'concern' -- in (Your) concern
mazōi -- adjective; dative singular masculine <maz-> 'large, great' -- great
magāi-ā -- noun; dative singular masculine <maga-> 'gift' + preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' -- for (the)
offering
paitī-zānatā -- verbal pre x; <paiti> 'near, toward, with respect to' + verb; 2nd person plural present imperative
active <xšnā> 'know' -- know
ahurā nū nå avarə̄ ə̄hmā-rātōiš yūšmāvatąm
ahurā -- noun; vocative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- O Lord

nū -- adverb; <nū> 'now' -- now
nå -- enclitic pronoun; 1st person dative singular <azəm-> 'I' -- to us
avarə̄ -- adverb; <avar> 'down' -- down
ə̄hmā-rātōiš -- pronoun; compound stem form <azəm-> 'I' + noun; genitive singular masculine <rāta-> 'gift' --
on account of our gift
yūšmāvatąm -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine <yūžəm-> 'you' + possessive su x; <vat-> 'like' -- for
(those) like you
Lesson Text
6 - aṯ ə̄ vaocaṯ ahurō mazdå vīdvå vafūš vyānayā

nōiṯ aēvā ahū vistō naēdā ratuš ašāṯ-cīṯ hacā
aṯ zī θwā fšuyantaē-cā vāstryāi-cā θwōrəštā tatašā
7 - tə̄m āzūtōiš ahurō mąθrəm tašaṯ ašā hazaošō

mazdå gavōi xšvīdəm-cā hvō urušaēibyō spəntō sāsnayā
kastē vohū manaŋhā yə̄ ī dāyāṯ ə̄əāvā marətaēibyō
8 - aēm mōi idā vistō yə̄ nə̄ aēvā sāsnå gūšatā
Zaraθuštrō Spitāmō hvō nə̄ mazdā vaštī ašāi-cā
carəkərəθrā srāvayeŋ́hē hyaṯ hōi hudəmə̄m dyāi vaxəδrahyā
9 - aṯ-cā gə̄uš urvā raostā yə̄ anaēšəm xšanmə̄nē rādəm

vācim nərəš asūrahyā yə̄m ā vasəmī īšā-xšaθrīm
kadā yavā hvō aŋhaṯ yə̄ hōi dadāṯ zastavaṯ avō
10 - yūžə̄m aēibyō ahurā aogō dātā ašā xšaθrəm-cā

avaṯ vohū manaŋhā yā hušəitīš rāmąm-cā dāṯ
azə̄m-cīṯ ahyā mazdā θwąm mə̄ŋ́hī paourvīm vaēdəm
11 - kudā ašəm vohu-cā manō xšaθrəm-cā aṯ mā mašā

yūžə̄m mazdā frāxšnənē mazōi magāi-ā paitī-zānatā
ahurā nū nå avarə̄ ə̄hmā-rātōiš yūšmāvatąm
Translation
6 So the Wise Lord, the Knowing One, speaks the solemn words [inspired] by [his] insight:
"There is no lord found by even one [among us], nor a paragon in accordance with any Truth.
Alas, the Fashioner has fashioned you for the bene t of the cattle breeder and the herdsman.

7 "The Lord [who is] allied with Truth fashioned the magic formula
for [procuring] butter and milk for the cow.1
This Wise (One) is bene cent towards the emaciated in accordance with the teaching.
Who is there for you who might set these [things] down for mortals by Good Mind?"

8 [Good Mind?: There is] this [one] found here for me who alone hears our [holy] teachings --
Zarathustra Spitama: he wishes to recite [praises] for us and for Truth, O Wise One,
If I shall give to him sweetness of voice."

9 And so the soul of the cow laments: "I who am to accept a powerless provider,
A weak man's voice which I wish [to be] strong --
When during my lifetime will he emerge, [the one] who lends to him a helping hand?"

10 [Zarathustra:] "O Lord, may you give strength to them2 through Truth,
And that power, [which comes] through Good Mind, by which one may receive
comfort and peace.
For I myself, O Wise One, know You as the Primordial Provider of that."

11 [The Cow:] "Where are Truth, Good Mind, and [their] power? Know me,
through the mortal one,3
You, O Wise One, in Your concern for the great offering.
Come down to us now, O Lord, on account of our gift for those like you."
Grammar
6 Short and Long i- and u-Stem Nouns
Nominal stems in short i and u take identical in ections in all cases of the masculine and feminine, and in the oblique
cases of the neuter. Long ī- and ū-stems appear primarily in the feminine, with accusative singular raθī- 'chariot' and
instrumental singular and plural and genitive singular hizū- 'tongue' attested in the masculine.
6.1 i- and u-Stem Nouns, Masculine
Singular: gairi- 'mountain' mainyu- 'spirit'

Nom. gairiš mainyuš
Acc. gairim mainyuš
Instr. gairī mainyū
Dat. gairayāi mainyavē, mainyavāi
Abl. gairoīṯ mainyoīṯ
Gen. gairoiš mainyə̄uš
Loc. gairā mainyāu
Voc. gairiai mainyō
Dual:
Nom. gairī mainyū

Acc. gairī mainyū
Instr/Dat/Abl. gairibyā mainyubya
Gen. unattested mainivāh
Loc. unattested mainivau
Plural:
Nom. gairayah, agairayō mainavah, mainavō

Acc. gairiš mainyuš
Instr. aspāiš unattested
Dat/Abl. gairibyō mainyubyah, mainyubyō

Gen. gairinąm mainyunąm
Loc. unattested mainyušu
6.2 ī- and ū-Stem Nouns, Feminine
Singular: vahvī- 'good' tanū- 'body'

(from msc. vohu-)
Nom. vaŋuhī tanuš

Acc. vaŋhīm tanvə̄m
Instr. vaŋhuyā tanvā
Dat. vaŋhuyāi tanūvāi
Gen. vaŋhuyå tanuvah, tanuvō

Voc. *vaŋhvī unattested
Dual:
Nom. *vaŋhvišī unattested
Instr/Dat/Abl. vaŋhubyā unattested
Plural:
Nom. *vaŋhvīš tanuvah, tanuvō

Acc. *vaŋhvīš *tanuvah, *tanuvō
Dat. *vaŋhubyō *tanuubyō
Gen. *vaŋhunąm *tanuunąm
Loc. unattested tanušu
6.3 i- and u-Stem Nouns, Neuter
buiri- 'richness' vohu- 'good'

Nom.Acc.Voc. sg.pl. buiri vohu
7 Personal Pronouns
Pronominal forms abound in the Avestan language. The rst and second person are unique, while the third person
uses primarily the rst of three third person pronominal stems. Both full and enclitic forms appear (on the use of
clitics, cf. Section 15). The oblique cases of all personal pronouns form a suppletive system, i.e., they are based on a
stem different than that of the nominative case.
7.1 First and Second Person Pronouns

The rst and second person pronouns have no inherent gender, and no locative or vocative forms appear. Dual forms
are rare. The azem- 'I' and tvə̄m- 'you' paradigms are given here, with enclitic forms in parentheses.
Singular: First Person Second Person
Nom. azə̄m tvə̄m, tūm4 (tū)

Acc. (mā) θąm (θvā)
Instr. unattested θvā4
Dat. mabya, mabyah (mai) tabya, tabyah (tai)
Abl. mat θat
Gen. mana tava (tai)
Plural:
Nom. vayam yūžam

Acc. ahma (vāh)
Instr. unattested šmā

Dat. ahmabya (nah) šmabhya, yušmabya (vah)
Abl. ahmat šmat, yušmat
Gen. (nah) (vah)
7.2 Third Person/Demonstrative Pronouns

The unique third person pronoun stems hi- and YAv. di- 'he, she, it' are found only as enclitic forms. The demonstrative
pronoun ha- 'this', suppletive ta-, doubles as the standard third person pronoun 'he, she, it'.
Singular: Masculine Neuter Feminine
Nom. hō tat hā
Acc. tə̄m, (hīm), YAv. (dim) tat tąm, tām
Instr. tā unattested unattested
Dat/Gen. OAv. (hoi), YAv.(he) unattested unattested
Dual:
Nom/Acc/Voc. tā, (hī) unattested unattested
Plural:
Nom. tōi, taē unattested unattested
Acc. tə̄ng, OAv. (hīš) tā tå

Instr. tāiš unattested unattested
Dat/Abl. taēibyō
8 Athematic Presents and Ablaut

As noted in Lesson 1, verbs of the present system are based on various stems; thematic stems were discussed there.
Five classes of athematic stems are attested, with grades that depend upon ablaut.
8.1 Athematic Classes

The root class stems add an ending directly to the verbal root, e.g. ahmi 'I am', rst person singular present indicative
active of ah 'be'. The root may appear in its strong or weak grade, depending on the verb's ablaut pattern, on which see
Section 8.2 below.
The reduplicating class forms its stem by adding a reduplicated syllable to the beginning of a verbal root. For roots
beginning in a consonant, the reduplication usually consists of that consonant plus a, a̱, i, or u. But if the initial
consonant is velar, it is reduplicated with a corresponding palatal (cf. Lesson 1, Section 2 for lists of velars and
palatals). For example, jigərəz- > gərəz. Further, when an original Proto-Indo-Iranian (PII) stop or s has changed in the
Avestan, as e.g. *p > f and *s > h, the PII stop and the s are preserved in the root but changed in the reduplication.
Thus, hišay- > ši, šay-.
The na̱- class and nu- class add a form of -na̱-/-na- or -nau-/-nu- to the root, according to ablaut pattern. A third nasal
category, the in x class, has -na- inside the root.
Athematic Present Paradigms: ah 'be' and mrū 'speak, say'
1 sg. ahmi mruyai

2 sg. ahi *mrušai
3 sg. asti5 mrūitai, mruyai

1 pl. mahi mrūmaide

2 pl. stā unattested
3 pl. hənti *mruvan̨te

Imperative
2 sg. zdi mrūidi

3 sg. astu mraotū

2 pl. unattested mraota

3 pl. hantu mravątu

Subjunctive
1 sg. aŋhā, *anhāni *mravāi, mravāne
3 sg. aŋhaṯ unattested

1 pl. åŋhāmā unattested
3 pl. aŋhən mravaire

Optative
2 sg. hyə̄m mruviša
3 sg. hyāṯ mruvītā
8.2 Vowel Gradation

The Avestan verbal system exhibits evidence of vowel gradation, or ablaut, which occurred earlier in Proto-Indo-
European. The vowel in either the root or su x of a verbal stem may change depending on whether or not that syllable
was stressed. When the vowel was stressed, its grade is strong or full. This strong grade is formed by adding a short -
a- to the vowel. For example, the third person singular middle imperative of mru is mraotū 'let him speak!', where u > o
under the in uence of added a. If the vowel was unstressed, the grade is weak and the vowel remains unchanged, as in
the rst person singular middle indicative mruyai 'I say', or it is reduced, as in the third person plural active frinənti
'they satisfy' from the stem frinā-. (Here, the nal ā of the stem is reduced to ə before the ending is added.) Another
example, from the nasal-in x class, may be even more clear: the third person singular active indicative vinasti 'he
nds', from the root vid, vs. the third person singlar middle *vindatai 'they nd.'
Verbs of the root class also fall into two sub-categories according to their ablaut pattern. Roots of this class having a
static ablaut pattern always have the accent on the root, so the verb always appears with the root in the strong grade;
roots having a changing, i.e., dynamic ablaut pattern appear in the strong grade in the singular indicative and injunctive
active, in the active and middle subjunctive, and in the third person singular imperative active.
9 Causatives and Denominatives

A causative stem is formed by strengthening a root and adding the su x -aya- to it. The endings of the present system
are then added to complete the verb. As its name implies, the causative form changes a verb's meaning to convey the
sense of causativity: e.g., vat, vatahi 'you understand' vs. vātayahi 'you cause to understand' = 'you explain'.
A denominative is a verbal stem formed by adding the su x -ye- to a noun stem. Like the causative, it takes the
endings of the present system: vāra- msc. 'rain' > vārayemi 'I rain down'.
10 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Preverbs

Avestan adverbs can be analyzed into two types: those that are clearly derivative from in ectional forms, and those
that are not.
10.1 Derived Adverbial Forms

The derivation of adverbs from adjectives or other parts of speech was not systematic in Avestan. Some are frozen
in ectional forms.
Adverbs based on a-stems, h-stems, and t-stems may be accusative; e.g., arəm 'correctly, properly', ākāh 'certainly' (?),
and θaṯ 'then, again'.
Adverbs derived from a-stems and t-stems may be instrumental; e.g., tā 'thus, in this way, therefore' and yavatā
'insomuch as'.
Adverbs with ablative endings are based only on a-stems; e.g., asnāṯ 'nearby'.
There is one locative adverb, durai 'far', with the ablative durāṯ having similar meaning.
Derivative adverbs usually stand after the object of the verb that they modify; in a standard Subject-Object-Verb
sentence, between the object and the main verb. This rule is not hard and fast, however.
10.2 Non-derivative Adverbs, including Prepositions and Preverbs

A number of adverbial forms do not appear to be derived from other parts of speech. These may be classed as to
whether they function independently, or as prepositions and verbal pre xes.
Some examples of independent non-derivative adverbs include:
āviš visible, manifest

azdā certain
kū where
nū, nūrə̄m now
Some adverbs function as prepositions and verbal pre xes. The most common examples are as follows:
Preposition or Verbal Pre x Verbal Pre x Preposition
antar between apa away parā before

api toward ni down
ava down niš out
ā near, back fra forth, toward
upa up to vi apart
pati toward, against ham together
pairi around
parā away
Non-derivative adverbs follow the word order of their derivative counterparts. Those functioning as prepositions and
preverbs usually precede the word they modify. Preverbs may commonly be used as postpositions.
Footnotes
1 'Butter and milk' is a metaphor for 'strength and prosperity' often employed by Zarathustra.
2 Insler renders this 'to these mortals' and Humbach 'to those present,' suggesting a request on behalf of all men or just
Zarathustra's audience, respectively. I leave the pronoun's reference open.
3 Zarathustra.
4 Young Avestan form.
5 The PII /s/ > Av. /h/ in most environments, but not in consonant clusters. Note here that the /m/ in rst person ahmi is
considered a resonant -- i.e. a sound that functions as a consonant when in a vocalic environment or a vowel when in a
consonantal environment.
Old Iranian Online

A stark contrast between good and evil forms the backbone of Zarathustra's teaching, permeating every aspect of
existence, both human and divine. The continuous war between Ahuras and Daevas parallels the continuous war
between the old religion and the new, the struggle between the followers of the Truth and the followers of the Lie, and
every individual's personal dilemma in choosing 'good thoughts, words, and deeds' over bad. Victory turns most
poignantly on the last: every right choice on the part of a single individual increases the quantity, strength, and power
of good in the entire world; every wrong choice, the magnitude of bad.

Yasna 53, the 'Wedding Hymn', is relatively short but densely packed. It continues the thematic link already seen in
Yasna 29 between fertility and prosperity on the one hand, and morality and faith on the other, by likening both the
social and physical union of the earthly bride and groom to the 'mythic' union of Wisdom and Truth, an event that lays
'the rm foundation of Good Mind'.
Zarathustra opens the hymn by announcing the conditions that would prove it is his sacri cial practice -- and by
extension his doctrine -- that should be taken as the model for all others. Perhaps, too, he is even subtly invoking Ahura
Mazda to create these very conditions in exchange for the people's support: "If you make a good existence for me, your
sacri cer and voice among men," Zarathustra seems to say, "and for those who follow me as well, many more will
adopt the practice you have laid out for humankind." In verse two, the audience is formally introduced to the fathers of
the bride and groom, Kavi Vishtaspa and Frahaostra, respectively. In verses three and four, Zarathustra then turns to
the matter at hand -- the marriage of Vishtaspa's daughter to Frahaostra's son -- and enunciates the merits thus
brought to the community.
Verse ve seems to be more generally directed, addressing everyone who is married or soon to be married, or perhaps
others who are getting married alongside Spitami and Frahaostra's son. In verse six, Zarathustra waxes didactic,
explaining how marriage remains 'the rm foundation of Good Mind' only insomuch as the spousal pair remain faithful
to each other and not give in to the super cial pleasures that immoral actions may bring. Prosperity that comes by
means of Deceit, by means of the Lie, will ultimately, Zarathustra insists, bring only weakness and death, while in verse
seven he promises that delity, moral purity, and quite persistent 'exertion' will bear fruit. He clearly puts the brunt of
the ethical burden, however, on the wife, for it is only she, he says, whose sexual purity will keep 'the spirit of the
Possessor of the Lie' at bay. If all these conditions are maintained, Zarathustra promises in verse eight, the wealth and
vitality of the unfaithful will be redirected to Ahura Mazda's ock. The poet closes the hymn with further
encouragement to choose right over deceit and a last invocation to Ahura Mazda.
1 - vahištā īštiš srāvī Zaraθuštrahē
vahištā -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <vohu-> 'good' + superlative su x; <-ista-> indicates
superlative -- best
īštiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <īšti-> 'sacri ce' -- sacri ce
srāvī -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative passive <sru> 'give' -- is feted
Zaraθuštrahē -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Zaraθuštra-> 'Zarathustra' -- Zarathustra
Spitāmahyā yezī hōi dāṯ āyaptā
Spitāmahyā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Spitāma-> 'Spitama' (clan name of Zarathustra) --
Spitama
yezī -- conjunction; <yezī> 'as, because, when' -- when
hōi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- for him
dāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active <dā-> 'give, put' -- would give
āyaptā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <āyapta-> 'riches, bounty, boon, spoils' -- rewards
ašāṯ hacā ahurō mazdå yavōi vīspāi-ā hvaŋhəvīm
ašāṯ -- noun; ablative singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- truth

hacā -- adposition; <hacā> 'from, out of' -- in accordance with
mazdå -- noun; nominative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- Wise One
yavōi -- noun; dative singular neuter <yav-> 'duration, period, time of life' -- lifetime
vīspāi-ā -- adjective; dative singular neuter <vīspa-> 'all, every' + postposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' --
thoughout
hvaŋhəvīm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <hvaŋhaoya-> 'good existence' -- good existence
yaē-cā hōi dabən saškən-cā daēnayå vaŋhuyå uxδā šyaoθanā-cā
yaē-cā -- relative pronoun; dative plural masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and so
hōi -- personal pronoun; dative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- to him
dabən -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist indicative active <dab> ' t together' (?) -- determine
saškən-cā -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist indicative active <sac> 'learn, understand' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' --
and understand
daēnayå -- noun; genitive singular feminine <daēnā-> 'attitude, intention, insight' -- of vision
vaŋhuyå -- adjective; genitive singular feminine <vohu-> 'good' -- good
uxδā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <uxδa-> 'word, saying' -- words
šyaoθanā-cā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <šyaoθana-> 'act, deed' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and deeds
2 - aṯ-cā hōi scantū manaŋhā uxδāiš šyaoθanāiš-cā
hōi -- personal pronoun; dative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- his
scantū -- verb; 3rd person plural present imperative active <haca-> 'follow, accompany' (?) -- let them pursue
manaŋhā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- with (good) mind
uxδāiš -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <uxδa-> 'word, saying' -- with words
šyaoθanāiš-cā -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <šyaoθana-> 'act, deed' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
(with) deeds
xšnə̄m mazdå vahmāi-ā fraorəṯ yasnąs-cā
xšnə̄m -- noun; accusative singular feminine <xšnā-> 'recognition' (?) -- succor

mazdå -- noun; genitive singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- of the Wise One
vahmāi-ā -- noun; dative singular masculine <vahma-> 'glori cation, praise' + adverbial postposition; <ā> '(up)
to, toward, etc.' -- adulation
fraorəṯ -- adverb; <fraorəṯ> 'readily' -- readily
yasnąs-cā -- noun; accusative plural masculine <yasna-> 'sacri ce, offering, hymn' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' --
and paeans
kava-cā Vīštāspō zaraθuštriš Spitāmō Fərašaoštras-cā
kava-cā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <kəvi-> 'title: adherent to the daevic religion' (?) + conjunction;
<ca> 'and' -- Kavi
Vīštāspō -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Vīštāspa-> 'Vishtaspa' -- Vishtaspa
zaraθuštriš -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <zaraθuštri-> 'descendent of Zarathustra' (?) -- son of
Zarathustra
Spitāmō -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Spitāma-> 'Spitama' (clan name of Zarathustra) --
Spitama
Fərašaoštras-cā -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Ferašaoštra-> 'Frashaostra' + conjunction;
<ca> 'and' -- and Frashaostra
dåŋhō ərəzūš paθō yąm daēnąm ahurō saošyantō dadāṯ
dåŋhō -- noun; genitive singular neuter <dah-> 'gift' -- of the gift

ərəzūš -- adjective; accusative plural masculine <erezu-> 'straight, just' -- straight
paθō -- noun; accusative plural masculine <paθ-> 'path, road' -- paths
yąm -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- whose
daēnąm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <daēnā-> 'attitude, intention, insight' -- inspiration
saošyantō -- noun; ablative singular masculine <saošyant-> 'giving power; savior (?)' -- out of (his) power to
give
dadāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- gives
3 - tə̄m-cā tū Pourucistā Haēcaṯ-aspānā
tə̄m-cā -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' --
and now
tū -- emphatic particle; <tū> '...' -- ...
Pourucistā -- proper name; vocative singular feminine <Pourucistā-> 'Pouruchista' (?) -- Pouruchista
Haēcaṯ-aspānā -- compound proper name; vocative singular feminine <haēcaṯ-> '...' + ; <aspāna->
patronymic form of aspa- 'horse' -- descendent of Haecataspa
Spitāmī yezivī dugədrąm Zaraθuštrahē
Spitāmī -- proper name; vocative singular feminine <Spitāma-> 'Spitama' (clan name of Zarathustra) -- Spitama
yezivī -- adjective; vocative singular feminine <yazu-> 'youngest' -- youngest
dugədrąm -- noun; genitive plural feminine <dugədar-> 'daughter' -- of the daughters
Zaraθuštrahē -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Zaraθuštra-> 'Zarathustra' -- of Zarathustra
vaŋhə̄uš paityāstīm manaŋhō ašahyā mazdås-cā taibyō dāṯ sarəm
vaŋhə̄uš -- adjective; genitive singular neuter <vohu-> 'good' -- good

paityāstīm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <paityāstī-> ' rm foundation' -- rm foundation
manaŋhō -- noun; genitive singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- of mind
ašahyā -- noun; genitive singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- of Truth
mazdås-cā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and (of)
Wisdom
taibyō -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural masculine <tvə̄m-> 'you' -- to you
dāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- gives
sarəm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <sar-> 'protection, alliance' -- alliance
aθā hə̄m ferašvā θwā xraθwā spə̄ništā Ārmatōiš hudānvarəšvā
aθā -- adverb; <aθā> 'so, thus, likewise' -- therefore

hə̄m -- preposition; <hə̄m> 'together, with' -- with
ferašvā -- verb; 2nd person singular s-aorist imperative middle <fras> 'inquire, discuss' -- consult
θwā -- possessive pronoun; instrumental singular masculine <θwa> 'you' -- your
xraθwā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <xraθwa-> 'power, will, insight' -- inner strength
spə̄ništā -- adjective; instrumental singular neuter <spənta-> 'bene cent, holy, sacred' + superlative su x;
<-ista-> indicates superlative -- with the most sacred (deeds)
Ārmatōiš -- proper name; genitive singular feminine <Armaiti-> name of a goddess = 'righteousness, devotion,
piety' -- of Armaiti
hudānvarəšvā -- adverb (?); adjective stem <hudānu-> 'blessed' + verb; 2nd person singular aorist imperative
middle <varəz-> 'work, perform' -- blessedly engage
4 - tə̄m zī və̄ spərədā nivarānī yā feδrōi vīdāṯ
tə̄m -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- him
zī -- emphatic particle; <zi> 'for, indeed' -- indeed
və̄ -- enclitic personal pronoun; dative plural <yūžəm-> 'you' -- on behalf of (all of) you
spərədā -- noun; instrumental singular feminine <spərəd-> 'zeal' -- with zeal
nivarānī -- preposition; <nī> '...' + verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive active <var> 'choose' -- wed
yā -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
feδrōi -- noun; dative singular masculine <pitar-> 'father' -- for (her) father
vīdāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active <vid> 'see, know, obtain' -- tends to
paiθyaē-cā vāstryaēibyō aṯ-cā xvaētaovē
paiθyaē-cā -- noun; dative singular masculine <paiti-> 'husband, master' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and to
(her) husband
vāstryaēibyō -- noun; dative plural masculine <vāstrya-> 'herdsman; pasture' -- to the herdsman
aṯ-cā -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and also
xvaētaovē -- adjective; dative singular masculine <xvaētu-> 'belonging to the family' -- family possessions
ašāunī ašavabyō manaŋhō vaŋhə̄uš xvə̄nvaṯ haŋhuš mə̄m-bə̄əduš
ašāunī -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <ašavan-> '(in accordance with) Truth' -- truthful
ašavabyō -- noun; dative singular masculine <ašavan-> '(in accordance with) Truth' -- to the truthful one
xvə̄nvaṯ -- noun; stem <hvar-> 'sun' + possessive su x; <-vat-> '...' -- like the sun
haŋhuš -- noun; accusative singular neuter <haŋhuš-> 'pro t, harvest' -- fruition
mə̄m-bə̄əduš -- compound stem (?); accusative singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' + perfect participle;
accusative singular neuter <band-> 'shine' (?) -- illuminating thought
mazdå dadāṯ ahurō daēnayāi vaŋhuyāi yavōi vīspāi-ā
daēnayāi -- noun; dative singular feminine <daēnā-> 'attitude, intention, insight' -- for (the sake of) vision
vaŋhuyāi -- adjective; dative singular neuter <vohu-> 'good' -- good
yavōi -- noun; dative singular neuter <yav-> 'duration, period, time of life' -- (her) lifetime
vīspāi-ā -- adjective; dative singular neuter <vīspa-> 'all, every' + postposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' --
throughout
5 - sāxvə̄nī vazyamnābyō kainibyō mraomī
sāxvə̄nī -- noun; accusative plural neuter <sāxvan-> 'doctrine, teaching, instruction' -- commandments
vazyamnābyō -- present participle middle; dative plural feminine <vaz> 'marry' -- being married
kainibyō -- noun; dative plural feminine <kainya-> 'maiden, girl' -- to (you) young women
mraomī -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <mrū> 'speak, say' -- I pronounce
xšmaibyā-cā vadəmnō mə̄n-cā ī mąz dazdūm
xšmaibyā-cā -- personal pronoun; dative plural <yūžəm-> 'you' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and to you (men)
vadəmnō -- noun; genitive singular masculine <vadman-> (?) 'possessed of speech' -- of one possessed of
(good) speech
mə̄n-cā -- abbreviated noun (?); accusative singular masculine <manah-> 'mind' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- in
mind
ī -- enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- them
mąz -- abbreviated noun (?); accusative singular masculine (?) <manah-> 'mind' -- ...
dazdūm -- verb; 2nd person plural present imperative middle <dā-> 'give, put' -- bear
vaēdōdūm daēnābīš abyas-cā ahūm yə̄ vaŋhə̄uš manaŋhō
vaēdōdūm -- verb; 2nd person plural present imperative middle <vid> 'see, know, obtain' -- nd for yourselves
daēnābīš -- noun; instrumental plural feminine <daēnā-> 'attitude, intention, insight' -- by means of good vision
abyas-cā -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural feminine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
for them
ahūm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <aŋhu-> 'existence, life' -- a life
yə̄ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
ašā və̄ anyō ainīm vīvə̄nghatū taṯ zī hōi hušə̄nem aŋhaṯ
ašā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- by means of Truth

və̄ -- enclitic personal pronoun; genitive masculine <yūžəm-> 'you' -- of you
anyō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <anya-> 'other' -- each
ainīm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <anya-> 'other' -- the other
vīvə̄nghatū -- verb; 2nd person singular present imperative active desiderative <van> 'surpass, overcome' -- win
over
taṯ -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <ta-> 'he, that, this' -- that
zī -- emphatic particle; <zi> 'for, indeed' -- for
hōi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine / feminine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- each one
hušə̄nem -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <hušə̄na-> 'pro table' -- fruitful
aŋhaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah-> 'be, become' -- would be
6 - iθā ī haiθyā narō aθā jə̄nayō
iθā -- adverb; <iθā> 'thus' -- in this way

ī -- enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- these
haiθyā -- noun; nominative plural masculine <haiθya-> 'true, real' -- true
narō -- noun; vocative plural masculine <nar-> 'man' -- o men
aθā -- adverb; <aθā> 'so, thus, likewise' -- in that way
jə̄nayō -- noun; vocative plural feminine <jə̄naya-> 'woman' -- o wives
drūjō hacā rāthəmō yə̄mə spašuθā frāidīm
drūjō -- noun; ablative singular feminine <druj-> 'deceit' -- deceit

hacā -- adposition; <hacā> 'from, out of' -- out of
rāthəmō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <rāthəma-> 'adhering to' -- adherent
yə̄mə -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- whom
spašuθā -- verb; 2nd person plural present indicative active <spas-̨ spašu-> (?) 'perceive' -- all of you see
frāidīm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <frāidi-> 'growth, prosperity' -- prosperity
drūjō āyesē hōiš piθā tanvō parā vayū-bərədubyō duš-xvarəthə̄m nąsaṯ xvāθrəm
drūjō -- noun; ablative singular feminine <druj-> 'deceit' -- of deceit

āyesē -- verbal pre x; <ā> (conveys sense of reversal with verbs of motion) + verb; 1st person singular present
indicative middle <yam> 'offer' -- I take away
hōiš -- contracted form (?); demonstrative pronoun <ha-> '(s)he, this' + demonstrative pronoun; accusative
plural neuter (?) <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- his + these
piθā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <piθa-> 'defense' -- defenses
tanvō -- noun; genitive singular feminine <tanu-> 'body' -- of (his) person
parā -- adverb; <parā> 'before, beyond, away' -- away
vayū-bərədubyō -- compound noun; dative plural masculine <vayu-> 'air, wind' (?) + verb; <bərət> 'cry' (?) --
(for them,) sighing
duš-xvarəthə̄m -- compound noun; accusative singular neuter <duš-> 'bad, evil' + ; <xvarətha-> 'food' -- poor
nourishment
nąsaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative active <ans> 'attain' + 3rd person singular aorist indicative
active; <nas> 'be lost, disappear' -- results
xvāθrəm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <xvathra-> 'good breathing, ease, comfort' -- breathing easy
drəgvōdəbyō də̄jīṯ-arətaēibyō anāiš ā manahīm ahūm mərəngəduyē
drəgvōdəbyō -- noun; dative plural masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- for Advocates of the Lie
də̄jīṯ-arətaēibyō -- compound noun; dative plural masculine <dəjit-> 'violation' (?) + noun; <aša-> 'truth' -- for
Violators of the Truth
anāiš -- demonstrative pronoun; instrumental singular masculine <ana-> 'him' -- them
ā -- postposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' -- with
manahīm -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <manahya-> 'spiritual' -- spiritual
ahūm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <ahu-> 'existence, life, breath' -- life
mərəngəduyē -- verb; 2nd person plural present subjunctive middle <mrc> 'destroy' -- you will destroy
7 - aṯ-cā və̄ mīždəm aŋhaṯ ahyā magahyā
və̄ -- enclitic personal pronoun; dative plural masculine <yūžəm-> 'you' -- for all of you
mīždəm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <mīzda-> 'wages, prize' -- fruit
aŋhaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah-> 'be, become' -- will arise
ahyā -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- from this
magahyā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <maga-> 'gift' -- ritual exchange
yavaṯ āžuš zrazdištō būnōi haxtayå
yavaṯ -- adverb; <yavaṯ> 'how long, as long as' -- as long as

āžuš -- noun; accusative singular neuter <āzhuš-> 'propulsion implement' -- impeller
zrazdištō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <zrazdišta-> 'most believing' -- full of zeal
būnōi -- noun; locative singular masculine <būna-> 'ground, base' -- at the base
haxtayå -- noun; genitive dual neuter <haxti-> 'thigh' -- of (her) thighs
para-cā mraocąs aorā-cā yaθrā mainyuš drəgvatō anąsaṯ parā
para-cā -- adverbial pre x; <parā> 'before, beyond, away' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and deep
mraocąs -- present participle active; nominative singular masculine <mru> 'drive, plunge, beat' -- driving
aorā-cā -- adverbial pre x; <aorā> 'down' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and down
yaθrā -- adverb; <yaθra> 'where, in order to' -- from whence
mainyuš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <mainyu-> 'spirit' -- spirit
drəgvatō -- present participle active; genitive singular masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- of the
Possessors of the Lie
anąsaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular augmented aorist indicative active <nas> 'be lost, disappear' -- has
disappeared
parā -- adverb; <parā> 'before, beyond, away' -- already
ivīzayathā magə̄m tə̄m aṯ və̄ vayōi aŋhaitī apə̄mem vacō
ivīzayathā -- verbal pre x; <vi> 'wide, apart' + verb; 2nd person plural present indicative active <zā> 'abandon,
relinquish' -- abandon
magə̄m -- noun; accusative singular masculine <maga-> 'gift' -- ritual exchange
tə̄m -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ta-> 'he, that, this' -- this
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- and
və̄ -- enclitic personal pronoun; dative plural masculine <yūžəm-> 'you' -- your
vayōi -- interjection; <vayoi> 'woe' -- woe
aŋhaitī -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah-> 'be, become' -- will be
apə̄mem -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <apə̄məm> 'last' -- last
vacō -- noun; accusative singular neuter <vacah-> 'speech, word' -- word
8 - anāiš ā dužvarəšnaŋhō dafšnyā hə̄ntū
anāiš -- demonstrative pronoun; instrumental singular masculine <ana-> 'him' -- by them

dužvarəšnaŋhō -- noun; nominative plural masculine <dužvarešnah-> 'wrong-doers' -- wrong-doers
dafšnyā -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <dafšnya-> 'powerless' -- impotent
hə̄ntū -- verb; 3rd person plural present imperative active <ah-> 'be, become' -- let become
zah́yā-cā vīspåŋhō xraosəntąm upā
zah́yā-cā -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <zahya-> 'weakened' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
weakened
vīspåŋhō -- nominative plural masculine; <vispa-> 'everyone/thing, all' -- all
xraosəntąm -- verb; 3rd person plural present imperative middle <xruš> 'scream, howl' -- let them cry
upā -- adverbial postposition; <upa> 'near, up on/to, etc.' -- out
huxšaθrāiš jə̄nerąm xrūnerąm-cā rāmąm-cā āiš dadātū šyeitibyō vīžibyō
huxšaθrāiš -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <huxšaθra-> 'good rule' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
by means of a good rule
jə̄nerąm -- adjective; genitive plural masculine <jə̄nar-> 'man-killing' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- over the man-
killing
xrūnerąm-cā -- adjective; genitive plural masculine <xrūnar-> 'man-de ling' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
over the man-de ling
rāmąm-cā -- noun; accusative plural masculine <rāman-> 'peace, tranquility' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- peace
āiš -- demonstrative pronoun; instrumental singular masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- with them
dadātū -- verb; 3rd person singular present imperative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- let him grant
šyeitibyō -- present participle active; dative plural feminine <ši> 'dwell' -- settled
vīžibyō -- noun; dative plural feminine <viž-> 'clan' -- to the clans
īratū īš dvafšō hvō dərəzā mərəiθyaoš mazištō mošu-cā astū
īratū -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <ar> 'rise' -- let arise
īš -- enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- on them
dvafšō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <dvafša-> 'distress, ruin, pain, anguish' -- pain
hvō -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- that
dərəzā -- noun; instrumental singular feminine <dərəz-> 'shackle' -- shackle
mərəiθyaoš -- noun; genitive singular masculine <mərəthyu-> 'death' -- of death
mazištō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <maz-> 'large, great' + superlative su x; <-ista->
indicates superlative -- greatest
mošu-cā -- adverb; <mošu> 'soon' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- soon
astū -- verb; 3rd person singular present imperative active <ah-> 'be, become' -- and let it be
9 - dužvarənāiš vaēšō rāstī tōi narəpīš rajīš
dužvarənāiš -- noun; instrumental plural masculine <dužvarena-> 'choosing badly' -- on account of those
making bad choices
vaēšō -- noun; nominative singular neuter <vaēšah-> 'poison' -- poison
rāstī -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <rāθ> 'adhere' -- adheres
tōi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular <ta-> 'he, that, this' -- to him
narəpīš -- noun; nominative singular neuter <narəpi-> 'reduction, absence' -- lack
rajīš -- noun; nominative singular neuter <rajī-> 'darkness' -- darkness
aēšasā də̄jīṯ-arətā pəšō-tanvō
aēšasā -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <aēšasa-> 'wild' -- wild

də̄jīṯ-arətā -- compound noun; nominative plural masculine <dəjit-> 'violation' (?) + noun; <aša-> 'truth' --
violators of Truth
pəšō-tanvō -- compound noun; nominative plural masculine <peša-> 'brought to an end' + ; <tanu-> 'body' --
whose bodies are to be brought to an end
kū ašavā ahurō yə̄ īš jyātə̄uš hə̄miθyāṯ vasə̄-itōiš-cā
kū -- adverb; <ku> 'where' -- where

ašavā -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <ašavan-> '(in accordance with) Truth' -- truthful
īš -- enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- them
jyātə̄uš -- noun; genitive singular masculine <jyātu-> 'life' -- of life
hə̄miθyāṯ -- compound verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative active <həm> '...' + ; <miθ> 'rob of' -- would rob
vasə̄-itōiš-cā -- noun; genitive singular feminine <vasəiti-> 'liberty, prosperity' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
of liberty
taṯ mazdā tavā xšaθrəm yā ərəžəjyōi dāhī drəgaovē vahyō
taṯ -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <ta-> 'he, that, this' -- the
mazdā -- noun; vocative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- O wise one
tavā -- personal pronoun; genitive singular <yūžəm-> 'you' -- yours
xšaθrəm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <xšaθra-> 'power' -- power
ərəžəjyōi -- adjective; dative singular masculine <ərəžəji-> 'living justly' -- living rightly
dāhī -- verb; 2nd person singular aorist subjunctive active <dā-> 'give, put' -- you would grant
drəgaovē -- noun; dative singular masculine <drigu-> 'needy, poor' -- (to the) poor (man)
vahyō -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <vahya-> 'better' -- better
Lesson Text
1 - vahištā īštiš srāvī Zaraθuštrahē

Spitāmahyā yezī hōi dāṯ āyaptā
ašāṯ hacā ahurō mazdå yavōi vīspāi-ā hvaŋhəvīm
yaē-cā hōi dabən saškən-cā daēnayå vaŋhuyå uxδā šyaoθanā-cā
2 - aṯ-cā hōi scantū manaŋhā uxδāiš šyaoθanāiš-cā
xšnə̄m mazdå vahmāi-ā fraorəṯ yasnąs-cā
kava-cā Vīštāspō zaraθuštriš Spitāmō Fərašaoštras-cā
dåŋhō ərəzūš paθō yąm daēnąm ahurō saošyantō dadāṯ
3 - tə̄m-cā tū Pourucistā Haēcaṯ-aspānā

Spitāmī yezivī dugədrąm Zaraθuštrahē
vaŋhə̄uš paityāstīm manaŋhō ašahyā mazdås-cā taibyō dāṯ sarəm
aθā hə̄m ferašvā θwā xraθwā spə̄ništā Ārmatōiš hudānvarəšvā
4 - tə̄m zī və̄ spərədā nivarānī yā feδrōi vīdāṯ

paiθyaē-cā vāstryaēibyō aṯ-cā xvaētaovē
ašāunī ašavabyō manaŋhō vaŋhə̄uš xvə̄nvaṯ haŋhuš mə̄m-bə̄əduš
mazdå dadāṯ ahurō daēnayāi vaŋhuyāi yavōi vīspāi-ā
5 - sāxvə̄nī vazyamnābyō kainibyō mraomī

xšmaibyā-cā vadəmnō mə̄n-cā ī mąz dazdūm
vaēdōdūm daēnābīš abyas-cā ahūm yə̄ vaŋhə̄uš manaŋhō
ašā və̄ anyō ainīm vīvə̄nghatū taṯ zī hōi hušə̄nem aŋhaṯ
6 - iθā ī haiθyā narō aθā jə̄nayō

drūjō hacā rāthəmō yə̄mə spašuθā frāidīm
drūjō āyesē hōiš piθā tanvō parā vayū-bərədubyō duš-xvarəthə̄m nąsaṯ xvāθrəm
drəgvōdəbyō də̄jīṯ-arətaēibyō anāiš ā manahīm ahūm mərəngəduyē
7 - aṯ-cā və̄ mīždəm aŋhaṯ ahyā magahyā

yavaṯ āžuš zrazdištō būnōi haxtayå
para-cā mraocąs aorā-cā yaθrā mainyuš drəgvatō anąsaṯ parā
ivīzayathā magə̄m tə̄m aṯ və̄ vayōi aŋhaitī apə̄mem vacō
8 - anāiš ā dužvarəšnaŋhō dafšnyā hə̄ntū

zah́yā-cā vīspåŋhō xraosəntąm upā
huxšaθrāiš jə̄nerąm xrūnerąm-cā rāmąm-cā āiš dadātū šyeitibyō vīžibyō
īratū īš dvafšō hvō dərəzā mərəiθyaoš mazištō mošu-cā astū
9 - dužvarənāiš vaēšō rāstī tōi narəpīš rajīš

aēšasā də̄jīṯ-arətā pəšō-tanvō
kū ašavā ahurō yə̄ īš jyātə̄uš hə̄miθyāṯ vasə̄-itōiš-cā
taṯ mazdā tavā xšaθrəm yā ərəžəjyōi dāhī drəgaovē vahyō
Translation
1 The sacri ce of Zarathustra Spitama is feted as the best
If the Wise Lord would, in accordance with Truth,
give [these] rewards to him throughout all [his] life:
A good existence for him and for those who determine and understand
The words and deeds of [his] good vision.

2 And so let Kavi Vishtaspa -- a Spitama, a son of Zarathustra
-- and Frahaostra readily pursue,
With good thought, with words and deeds,
The succor of the Wise One, and paeans for His adulation,
And [also] the straight path of the gift whose inspiration
the Lord gives out of [his] power to give.

3 And now, Pouruchista Spitami, descendent of Haecataspa,
Youngest of the daughters of Zarathustra,
Gives to all of you the alliance of Truth and Wisdom,
the rm foundation of Good Mind.
Therefore, consult your inner strength and blessedly engage yourself
with the most sacred [deeds] of Armaiti.

4 For on behalf of all of you, I shall eagerly wed to him [the woman]
who tends to [her] father
[Her] husband, the herdsman [of his clan], and [his] family possessions.
Truthful to the truthful ones, Ahura Mazda gives [to her] the sun-like
fruition of Good Mind, illuminating [her] thought
For the sake of good vision, throughout [her] entire life.

5 I pronounce to [you] young women being married,
and [likewise] to you [men],
The commandments of one possessed of [good?] speech:
Bear them in mind.
Through good vision, nd for yourselves -- and for them, [your wives] --
a life which [is] of Good Mind.
[And] through Truth, let each of you desire to win the other over.
For that would be fruitful for each one.

6 In this way these [things are] true, O men; in that way [they are true], O wives.
[There is an] adherent of deceit whom all of you see
[clinging] to the prosperity [arising] out of deceit:
[But] I take away these defenses of [his] person. For Advocates of the Lie,
sighing, poor nourishment results,
[and a life of] 'easy breathing' is lost1
For Violators of Truth. [Allied] with them, you will destroy for yourselves
the spiritual life.

7 And so, for all of you, [good] fruit will come from this ritual exchange
As long as the 'impeller,' full of zeal, [keeps] driving, down and deep,
At the base of [her] two thighs, from whence the spirit
of the Possessor of the Lie has already disappeared.
Abandon this ritual exchange and your last word is 'woe'!

8 Let the wrong-doers be [made] impotent by these [things],
And, weakened, let them all cry out.
And by means of good rule among man-killing and
man-de ling [Possessors of the Lie?]
Let one grant peace with them to the settled clans.
Let that greatest pain arise upon them, [that which comes]
through the shackle of death. And let it be soon!

9 On account of those who choose badly,
poison adheres to him, [the righteous man],
[As do] darkness and lack, those violators of Truth
whose bodies are to be brought to an end.
Where is the truthful Lord who would rob them of life and liberty?
The power is yours, O Wise One, by which you would grant a better (life)
to the poor man living rightly.
Grammar
11 an̨t-, man̨t-, and van̨t-stem Nouns
Nominal stems in an̨t form a simple adjective and the present participle active; man̨t and van̨t mark the possessive
adjective. The in ections for the simple and possessive masculine adjectives are nearly the same, taking the
weakened stem at in the oblique cases. Participles built on thematic verbal stems maintain the full nominal stem in
most instances. Those built on athematic stems decline like other adjectives. Masculine and neuter oblique cases are
identical. The feminine shows the same ablaut pattern, but adds ī to complete the stem and thus declines like long ī-
stem nouns (cf. Section 6.2).
11.1 nt-Stem Nouns, Masculine
Singular: Participle fšuyan̨t- 'raising cattle' Adjective bərəzant- 'great'
Nom. fšuyąs bərəzō

Acc. *fšuyan̨təm bərəzan̨təm
Instr. *fšuyatā bərəzatā
Dat. fšuyan̨te bərəzaite
Abl. fšuyan̨taṯ bərəzataṯ
Gen. fšuyan̨tō bərəzatō
Loc. *fšuyain̨ti, fšuyaiti *bərəzaiti
Voc. *fšuyā bərəzā

Dual:
Nom/Acc/Voc. fšuyan̨tā bərəan̨tā

Instr/Dat/Abl. fšuyan̨bya bərəzan̨bya
Plural:
Nom/Voc. *fšuyan̨tō bərəzan̨tō

Acc. fšuyan̨tō bərəzatō
Instr. *fšuyadbīš bərərzadbīš
Dat/Abl. fšuyan̨byō bərəzadbyō
Gen. *fšuyan̨tąm bərəzatąm
Loc. fšuyašu *bərəzašu
11.2 nt-Stem Nouns, Neuter
Participle fšuyan̨t- 'raising cattle' Adjective bərəzant- 'great'
Nom/Acc/Voc. sg. *fšuyaṯ *bərəzaṯ

Nom/Acc/Voc. sg. *fšuyąn *bərəząn
12 Demonstrative Pronouns
In Section 7, the demonstrative pronoun ha- 'this', suppletive ta-, was given. Two other demonstrative pronouns, hvo-
'this' and a- 'that', appear frequently in masculine, feminine, and neuter declensions.
hvō-declension Masculine Neuter Feminine
Nom. sg. hvō unattested unattested
Acc. sg. unattested avat avām

Instr. sg. avā unattested unattested

Acc. pl unattested unattested avāh

Instr. pl. avāiš unattested unattested
Gen. pl. avaisām unattested unattested

a-declension
Nom. sg. ayam unattested unattested
Acc. sg. im, īm it imām1

Instr. sg. anā unattested ayā (?)
Dat. sg. ahmāi unattested ahyāi
Abl. sg. ahmāt unattested unattested
Gen. sg. ahya unattested unattested
Loc. sg. ahmi unattested unattested

Dat. du unattested unattested ābyā (?)

Gen. du. ayāh, ās unattested unattested

Acc. pl. īš ī, imā1 unattested
Instr. pl. āiš, anāiš unattested abiš1

Dat. pl. aibya unattested ābyas
Gen. pl. aišām unattested unattested
Loc. pl. unattested unattested āhu
13 The Aorist Tense

As already noted in Section 4, a verb's tense is indicated by the formation of its stem. In addition to the present stems
encountered there, Avestan also includes a category of aorist stems that, like those of the present system, are
constructed in various ways. Seven forms of the aorist stem occur: root, reduplicated, thematic, and four forms of
sigmatic. The root aorist adds its termination directly to the root. The reduplicated aorist adds the rst vowel of its
root, and any consonant immediately preceding that vowel, in front of the zero-grade of that root. E.g., vaoc- < vac,
showing the reduplicated syllable va before the zero-grade uc-. Thematic aorists, like thematic presents, add the
theme-vowel -a- to the root, which is usually in middle grade. Sigmatic aorists add -h/š-, -ha/sa-, -ih/iš-, or -hih/šiš-,
with aspirate and sibilant variation according to environment.
The basic structure of an aorist verb is: augment + stem + termination, with the short vowel a- lling the space of the
augment. In practice, however, the augment is rare, and is seen only in the indicative mood. This has led to a further
distinction between the aorist 'injunctive', which exhibits no augment, and the aorist 'indicative', which has the full
formation. Both have indicative sense, but there is a distinction between them. The aorist indicative denotes a
de nitely past sense, as in the form anąsaṯ in verse 7 of the passage above:
... yaθrā mainyuš drəgvatō anąsaṯ parā

... [the place] where the spirit of the Deceitful One disappeared.
Here, the Deceitful One's disappearing has transpired: the action is fully past. The injunctive, by contrast, more often
denotes a more general sense with respect to time -- i.e., something that is just always generally so, as in verse 6:
... nąsaṯ xvathrə̄m / drəgvōdebyō

... [a life of] 'easy breathing' is lost / For Violators of Truth.
Here, given the previously established conditions, the loss of 'easy breathing' necessarily results and therefore the
injunctive form is used. It is important to note, however, that though this distinction always holds for the aorist
indicative, which only gives a fully past sense, Zarathustra used the injunctive in both ways. For this reason, the
distinction has been analyzed in these lessons as one between the 'aorist indicative' and the 'augmented aorist
indicative'. Accordingly, the 'aorist indicative' has been translated to convey either a general or a past tense, according
to context, while the 'augmented aorist indicative' always indicates only past tense.
Root Aorist Paradigm: dā 'give'
Since all aorist forms are similar, only the root aorist paradigm will be presented here.
Injunctive-Indicative Active Middle
2 sg. dāh dāha

3 sg. dāṯ dāta

1 du. unattested dvadi

1 pl. dāmā *dāi
2 pl. dātā *dāša
3 pl. dān data

Imperative
2 sg. dādi, dāidi dāhva

3 sg. dātu dātąm

2 pl. dāta *dadūm

Subjunctive
1 sg. *dā, *dāni *danāi
2 sg. dāhi dāhai

3 sg. dāṯ, dāti *dātai

1 pl. dāma unattested
2 pl. unattested dādvai

3 pl. dān dāntai

Optative
1 sg. dyām dya

2 sg. unattested dīša
3 sg. dyāṯ, dayāṯ *dāta

1 pl. zāima (YA) *dāmaide
3 pl. unattested *dāyur
14 The Present Participle

A participle is a verbal noun, a verb stem that takes a nominal ending. It functions syntactically as either an adjective
to modify a noun, or as a substantive to replace it. Like verbs, participles display an active, middle, or passive voice and
a past, present, or future tense.
An example of the present participle in English can be illustrated by the word 'running'. In each of the sentences, "The
water is running" and "The running water is cold," the verb 'run' is an adjective describing 'water'. In Avestan, the word
may also be used as the subject of the sentence to describe someone or something that is running, as in "The running
(one) is passing by," but this is unusual in English. Keeping in mind that a participle is adjectival, however, the common
slang "The big, the bad, and the ugly..." may illustrate the same principle. Though 'big', 'bad', and 'ugly' are not
participles, they are adjectives standing in for the nouns they modify (e.g., 'The big men', 'the bad men', etc.), a usage
that participles commonly have in Avestan.
The present active participle is formed by adding the ending -ant to a present verbal stem; the paradigm is given above
in Section 12. As noted there, those constructed on thematic verbal stems have less ablaut in declension. The middle
participle adds the ending -amna to the thematic stem, or -āna to the athematic. Both decline as short-a nouns in the
masculine or neuter, and long-ā nouns in the feminine.
15 Conjunctions, Clitics, and a Note on Puns

15.1 Conjunctions, Particles, Interjections, and Clitics
Avestan uses many conjunctions and particles, and occassionally employs interjections. The most common
conjunctions are ca 'and', uta 'and', ca... ca 'both ... and', vā 'or', and tu 'but' (sometimes with emphatic sense). Like
their Sanskrit conterparts, they are enclitic. Of the three, ca is the most variable in meaning: it can sometimes be
translated as 'or', as 'but', or even as an emphatic particle.
Three types of particles -- negative, emphatic, and inde nite -- predominate. The negative particles are three: nōiṯ 'no,
not', naēdā 'and not', and mā, a prohibitive particle employed with a verb in the imperative mood. The emphatic
particles include bā, usually left untranslated, vai 'verily, indeed', and zi 'for, indeed'. The particles cit and cana added to
an interrogative pronoun, and ciθit added to a preposition, produce an inde nite sense; e.g., kah 'who, what' beside
kas-cit 'someone, any one' or pairī 'around, toward, away from' next to pairī-ciθit 'sometime/place before.'
Two interjections occur: avai and vayai. Their translations vary, depending on context.
15.2 Puns
The passage selected for this lesson includes an unusual syntactic construction. In verse 6, line 3, Zarathustra
employs the verb nasaṯ as two words conveyed by one. The third person singular reduplicated aorist of ans and the
third person singular root aorist of nas, both active, are both intended. The objects of the respective verbs ank their
'collapsed' appearance, dušxvarəθəm 'spoiled food' to be taken with ans 'result', and xva̱θrəm 'easy breathing' with
nas 'be lost'.
drūjō āyəsə̄ hōiš piθā tanvō parā

vayū-beredubyō duš-xvarəthə̄m nąsaṯ xvathrə̄m
For Advocates of the Lie, sighing, poor nourishment attains,
[and an existence of] 'breathing easy' is lost.
With the further alliteration and phonetic play between xvarəθəm and xva̱θrəm, the phrase is a prime illustration of
Zarathustra's remarkable poetic skill and innovation.
Footnote
1 The play on the two verbs sharing one aoristic form našaṯ 'attain' and 'is lost' is unfortunately itself lost in its English
rendition, but the reader should try to imagine the poetic elegance of the phrase.
Old Iranian Online

This hymn, Yasna 30, provides an excellent statement of Zarathustra's dualism. While he maintained monotheism with
Ahura Mazda as sole god, he also posited an opposition that existed from the beginning of the world between two
principal spirits, Spenta Mainyu, 'the incremental spirit', and Angra Mainyu, 'the endish spirit' as stated in stanza 3.
They, in turn, re ect a dualism beween Ashu 'Truth' and Angra 'Falsehood'. Human beings choose between these, as
did the Daevas -- god-like beings who chose Falsehood. Their resulting status is in direct opposition to that in Indian
religion, in which the devas make up the accepted pantheon. But the one who accepts Ahura Mazda is strengthened by
Armaiti, 'Devotion'. The rewards or retribution for one's choice are stated graphically in stanzas eight through twelve.
1 - aṯ tā vaxšyā išəntō yā mazdāθā hyaṯ-cīṯ vīdušē

tā -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- those things
vaxšyā -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active <vak> 'say, speak, declare' -- I shall proclaim
išəntō -- present participle active; vocative plural masculine <iš> 'strive, desire, arrive' -- o seekers
yā -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
mazdāθā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <mazdāδa-> 'thing to be considered' -- to be borne in mind
hyaṯ-cīṯ -- conjunction; <hyaṯ> 'if, so, when' + inde nite participle; <cīṯ> '...' -- even
vīdušē -- present participle active; dative singular masculine <vid> 'see, know, obtain' -- for one knowing
staotā-cā ahurāi yesnyā-cā vaŋhə̄uš manaŋhō
staotā-cā -- noun; nominative plural masculine <staota-> 'hymn, song of praise' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' --
and hymns
ahurāi -- noun; dative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- Lord
yesnyā-cā -- noun; accusative plural masculine <yesnya-> 'sacri ce, worship' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
praises
humązdrā ašā ye-cā yā raocə̄bīs darəsatā urvāzā
humązdrā -- adjective; vocative plural masculine <humązdra-> 'careful, good to see' -- attentive ones
ašā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- for Truth
ye-cā -- dative ending; plural masculine <-aya> '...' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and # All known manuscripts
separate this dative case ending from the word aša to which it should be attached. It should not, therefore, be
read as a separate word.
yā -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
raocə̄bīs -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <raocah-> 'light' -- by lights
darəsatā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <darəsata-> 'visible, beautiful to see' -- beautiful to see
urvāzā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <urvāza-> 'joy, bliss' -- joys
2 - sraotā gə̄uš-aiš vahištā a-vaēnatā sūcā manaŋhā
sraotā -- verb; 2nd person plural aorist imperative active <sru> 'hear, listen' -- Listen
gə̄uš-aiš -- noun; instrumental plural masculine <gə̄uša-> 'ear' -- with ears
vahištā -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <vohu-> 'good' + superlative su x; <-ista-> indicates
superlative -- to the best things
a-vaēnatā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' + verb; 2nd person plural present imperative active
<vaēna-> 'see, observe, look' -- observe
sūcā -- adjective; instrumental singular neuter <sūca-> 'light, pure, clear' -- radiant
manaŋhā -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <manah-> 'mind' -- with mind
āvarənå vīciθahyā narə̄m narəm xvah́yāi tanuyē
āvarənå -- noun; accusative dual masculine <āvarəna-> 'invitation, choice' -- two alternatives
vīciθahyā -- noun; genitive singular neuter <vīciδa-> 'decision, judgement' -- choosing
narə̄m -- noun; accusative singular masculine <nar-> 'man' -- each
narəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <nar-> 'man' -- man
xvah́yāi -- re exive pronoun; dative singular feminine <xva-> 'self' -- ...
tanuyē -- noun; dative singular masculine <tanu-> 'body' -- for himself
parā mazə̄ yåŋhō ahmāi nə̄ sazdyāi baodantō paiti
parā -- preposition; <parā> 'before, beyond, away' -- before

mazə̄ -- adjective; genitive singular neuter <maz-> 'large, great' -- great
yåŋhō -- noun; genitive singular neuter <yāh-> 'pilgrimage, retribution' -- retribution
ahmāi -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- to him
nə̄ -- enclitic pronoun; 2nd person accusative plural <vaēm-> 'we' -- us
sazdyāi -- verb; in nitive <saŋh> 'announce, proclaim' -- to announce
baodantō -- present participle active; nominative plural masculine <bud> 'be attentive, aware' -- being careful
paiti -- postposition; <paiti> 'near, toward, with respect to' -- ...
3 - aṯ tā mainyū paouruyē yā yə̄mā xvafnā asrvātəm

tā -- pronoun; nominative dual masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- there are two
mainyū -- noun; nominative dual masculine <mainyu-> 'spirit' -- spirits
paouruyē -- adjective; nominative dual masculine <paouruya-> ' rst, original' -- primeval
yā -- relative pronoun; nominative dual masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
yə̄mā -- noun; nominative dual masculine <yə̄ma-> 'twin' -- twins
xvafnā -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <xvafna-> 'sleep, dream' -- through dream
asrvātəm -- verb; 3rd person dual aorist indicative passive <sru> 'hear, listen' -- are revealed
manahi-cā vacahi-cā šyaoθanōi hī vahyō akəm-cā
manahi-cā -- noun; locative singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- in mind
vacahi-cā -- noun; locative singular neuter <vacah-> 'speech, word' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and speech
šyaoθanōi -- noun; locative singular neuter <šyaoθana-> 'act, deed' -- and deed
hī -- emphatic particle; <hi> 'indeed' -- even
vahyō -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <vahya-> 'better' -- better
akəm-cā -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <aka-> 'bad, evil, wicked' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and bad
ås-cā hudåŋhō ərəš vīšyātā nōiṯ duždåŋhō
ås-cā -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive dual masculine <a-> 'he, this' -- of these two
hudåŋhō -- adjective; nominative plural neuter <hudah-> 'of good gifts, bene cent' -- the bene cent
ərəš -- adverb; <ərəš-> 'right, correct, true' -- rightly
vīšyātā -- pre x; <vi> 'wide, apart' + verb; 3rd person plural aorist indicative active <ci> 'discriminate, tell apart' --
choose
duždåŋhō -- adjective; nominative plural neuter <duždā-> 'of bad gifts, male cent' -- the miserly
4 - aṯ-cā hyaṯ tā hə̄m mainyū jasaētəm paourvīm dazdē
aṯ-cā -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and what is more
hyaṯ -- conjunction; <hyat> 'as, since, because' -- when
tā -- pronoun; nominative dual masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- these two
hə̄m -- preposition; <hə̄m> 'together, with' -- together
mainyū -- noun; nominative dual masculine <mainyu-> 'spirit' -- spirits
jasaētəm -- verb; 3rd person dual imperfect indicative middle <gam> 'go' -- came
paourvīm -- adverb; <paouruya-> ' rst, original' -- at the beginning (of the world)
dazdē -- verb; 3rd person dual imperfect indicative middle <dā-> 'give, put' -- gave
gaēm-cā ajyāitīm-cā yaθā-cā aŋhaṯ apə̄məm aŋhuš
gaēm-cā -- noun; accusative singular masculine <gaya-> 'life' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- both life
ajyāitīm-cā -- noun; accusative singular masculine <ajyaiti-> 'death' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and death
yaθā-cā -- adverb; <yaθa> 'just as, like' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and likewise
apə̄məm -- adverb; <apə̄məm> 'last' -- at the end
aŋhuš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <aŋhu-> 'existence, life' -- a life
acištō drəgvatąm aṯ ašāunē vahištəm manō
acištō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <aka-> 'bad, evil, wicked' + superlative su x; <-ista->
indicates superlative -- most wicked
drəgvatąm -- adjective; genitive plural masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- for followers of the Lie
ašāunē -- noun; dative singular masculine <ašavan-> '(in accordance with) Truth' -- for the followers of Truth
vahištəm -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <vohu-> 'good' + superlative su x; <-ista-> indicates
superlative -- best
manō -- noun; accusative singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- thought
5 - ayå mainivå varatā yə̄ drəgvå acištā vərəzyō
ayå -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive dual masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- these
mainivå -- noun; genitive dual masculine <mainyu-> 'spirit' -- of two spirits
varatā -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative middle <var> 'choose' -- chose
yə̄ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- the one who
drəgvå -- adjective; nominative dual masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- possessed of the Lie
acištā -- adjective; accusative plural masculine <aka-> 'bad, evil, wicked' + superlative su x; <-ista->
indicates superlative -- the most wicked things
vərəzyō -- in nitive; <verəz-> 'perform an action' -- to perform
ašəm mainyuš spə̄ništō yə̄ xraoždištə̄ng asə̄nō vastē

mainyuš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <mainyu-> 'spirit' -- spirit
spə̄ništō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <spənta-> 'bene cent, holy, sacred' + superlative su x;
<-ista-> indicates superlative -- bene cent
yə̄ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
xraoždištə̄ng -- adjective; accusative plural masculine <xrūždra-> 'hard, rm' + superlative su x; <-ista->
indicates superlative -- hardest
asə̄nō -- noun; accusative plural masculine <asan-> 'stone, heaven' -- stones
vastē -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle <vas> 'be clothed, swathed' -- is clothed
yaē-cā xšnaošən ahurəm haiθyāiš šyaoθanāiš fraorəṯ mazdąm
yaē-cā -- relative pronoun; nominative plural <ya-> 'who, what, which' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and who
xšnaošən -- verb; 3rd person plural s-aorist indicative active <xsnu> 'satisfy' -- satisfy
ahurəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- the Lord
haiθyāiš -- adjective; instrumental plural neuter <haiθya-> 'true, real' -- true
šyaoθanāiš -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <šyaoθana-> 'act, deed' -- with actions
fraorəṯ -- adverb; <fraorəṯ> 'readily' -- readily
mazdąm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- Wise One
6 - ayå nōiṯ ərəš vīšyātā daēvā-cinā hyaṯ īš ā-dəbaomā
ayå -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive dual masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- (between) these two
ərəš -- adverb; <ərəš-> 'right, correct, true' -- correctly
vīšyātā -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist indicative active <vi> 'wide, apart' + ; <ci> 'discriminate, tell apart' -- did
choose
daēvā-cinā -- noun; nominative plural masculine <daēva-> 'divine being' + inde nite particle; <cinā> '...' -- the
Daevas... whatsoever
hyaṯ -- conjunction; <hyat> 'as, since, because' -- since
īš -- enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- them
ā-dəbaomā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' + noun; nominative singular masculine <dəbaoman->
'beguilement, deception' -- Deception
pərəsmanəng upā-jasaṯ hyaṯ vərənātā acištəm manō
pərəsmanəng -- present participle middle; accusative plural masculine <pərəs-> 'ask' -- deliberating
upā-jasaṯ -- verbal pre x; <upa> 'near, up on/to, etc.' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active
<gam> 'go' -- approached
hyaṯ -- conjunction; <hyat> 'as, since, because' -- ...
vərənātā -- verb; 3rd person plural present injunctive middle <vərən-> 'choose' -- they chose
acištəm -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <aka-> 'bad, evil, wicked' + superlative su x; <-ista->
indicates superlative -- worst
manō -- noun; accusative singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- thought
aṯ aēšəməm hə̄ndvārəntā yā bąnayən ahūm marətānō
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- thereby

aēšəməm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <aēšəma-> 'anger, fury, wrath' -- wrath
hə̄ndvārəntā -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative middle <həm> '...' + ; <dvar> 'rush together' --
rushed headlong
bąnayən -- verb; 3rd person plural present injunctive active <banaya-> 'poison, make ill' -- poison
ahūm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <aŋhu-> 'existence, life' -- life
marətānō -- noun; genitive singular masculine <marəta-> 'mortal' -- moral men
7 - ahmāi-cā xšaθrā jasaṯ manaŋhā vohū ašā-cā
ahmāi-cā -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' --
yet... unto him
xšaθrā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <xšaθra-> 'power' -- with power
jasaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <gam> 'go' -- he goes
manaŋhā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- with mind
ašā-cā -- adjective; instrumental singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and with Truth
aṯ kəhrpə̄m utayūitiš dadāṯ ārmaitiš ąnmā

kəhrpə̄m -- noun; accusative singular feminine <kəhrp-> 'form, body, outward appearance' -- body
utayūitiš -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <utayūiti-> 'fresh, lasting, enduring' -- youthful
ārmaitiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <ārmaiti-> 'devotion, piety' -- Armaiti
ąnmā -- noun; accusative singular neuter <ąnman-> 'spirit, breath' -- breath
aēšąm tōi ā aŋhaṯ yaθā ayaŋhā ādānāiš paouruyō
aēšąm -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- of these things
tōi -- personal pronoun; dative singular <tvə̄m-> 'you' -- for you
yaθā -- adverb; <yaθa> 'just as, like' -- just as
ayaŋhā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <ayah-> 'metal, iron' -- by molten iron
ādānāiš -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <ādāna-> 'portion, forging together, retaliation' -- through retribution
paouruyō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <paouruya-> ' rst, original' -- the previous
8 - aṯ-cā yadā aēšąm kaēnā jamaitī aēnaŋhąm
aṯ-cā -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and then
yadā -- relative adverb; <yadā> 'when' -- when
aēšąm -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- of these
kaēnā -- noun; nominative singular feminine <kaēnā-> 'atonement, punishment' -- punishment
jamaitī -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active <gam> 'go' -- will arrive
aēnaŋhąm -- noun; genitive plural neuter <aēnah-> 'sin' -- of sins
aṯ mazdā taibyō xšaθrəm vohū manaŋhā vōi-vīdaitī
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- then

mazdā -- noun; vocative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- O Wise One
taibyō -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular <tvə̄m-> 'you' -- for you
xšaθrəm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <xšaθra-> 'power' -- sovereign rule
manaŋhā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- through mind
vōi-vīdaitī -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active intensive <vid> 'see, know, obtain' -- will nally
obtain
aēibyō sastē ahurā yōi ašāi dadən zastayō drujim
aēibyō -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- to those

sastē -- in nitive; <saŋh> 'announce, proclaim' -- to proclaim
ahurā -- noun; vocative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- Lord
yōi -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
ašāi -- noun; dative singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- over to the Truth
dadən -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive active <dā-> 'give, put' -- will give
zastayō -- noun; locative dual masculine <zasta-> 'hand' -- in both hands
drujim -- noun; accusative singular masculine <druj-> 'deceit' -- Deceit
9 - aṯ-cā tōi vaēm h́yāmā yōi īm fərašə̄m kərənaon ahūm
aṯ-cā -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and therefore
tōi -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- the ones
vaēm -- personal pronoun; nominative singular <azəm-> 'I' -- we
h́yāmā -- verb; 3rd person plural present optative middle <ah-> 'be, become' -- may be
yōi -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
īm -- enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ayə̄m-> 'this, that' -- this
fərašə̄m -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <fəraša-> 'shining' -- vibrant
kərənaon -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive active <kar> 'do, make' -- would make
ahūm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <ahu-> 'existence, life, breath' -- existence
mazdås-cā ahuråŋhō ā-mōyastrā-baranā ašā-cā
mazdås-cā -- noun; vocative plural masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- Wise (Lord)
and
ahuråŋhō -- noun; vocative plural masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- Lords
ā-mōyastrā-baranā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' + enclitic pronoun; dative singular <azəm-> 'I' +
privative pre x; <a> 'no, none' + adjective; <stra-> 'spread-out' (?) + noun; instrumental singular masculine
<barana-> 'carriage, support' -- by means of the unbroken support to me
ašā-cā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <aša-> 'truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and the Truth
hyaṯ haθrā manå bavaṯ yaθrā cistiš aŋhaṯ maēθā
hyaṯ -- conjunction; <hyat> 'as, since, because' -- so that

haθrā -- preposition; <haθra> 'together, at the same place/time' -- uni ed
manå -- noun; nominative plural neuter <manah-> 'mind' -- minds
bavaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active <bu> 'be, become' -- may be
yaθrā -- adverb; <yaθra> 'where, in order to' -- whenever
cistiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <cisti-> 'knowledge, thought' -- judgement
aŋhaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah-> 'be, become' -- would be
maēθā -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <maēδa-> 'changing, false' -- in doubt
10 - adā zī avā drūjō avō-bavaitī skəndō spayaθrahyā
adā -- adverb; <adā> 'then, thereupon, thus' -- then

avā -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' -- ...
drūjō -- noun; ablative singular feminine <druj-> 'deceit' -- of deceit
avō-bavaitī -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive active <bu> 'be,
become' -- will descend
skəndō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <skənda-> 'destruction' -- destruction
spayaθrahyā -- noun; genitive singular neuter <spayaθra-> 'atonement, prosperity' -- prosperity
aṯ asištā yaojantē ā hušitōiš vaŋhə̄uš manaŋhō

asištā -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <asišta-> 'fastest' -- the swiftest
yaojantē -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist subjunctive middle <yuj> 'join, unite, yoke' -- will be yoked
ā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' -- to
hušitōiš -- noun; genitive singular feminine <hušiti-> 'good dwelling, comfort, safety' -- dwelling place
mazdå ašah́yā-cā yōi zazəntī vaŋhāu sravahī
mazdå -- noun; genitive singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- of the Wise One
ašah́yā-cā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <aša-> 'truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and of Truth
yōi -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
zazəntī -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive active <zā> 'conquer, win, come in rst' -- will race ahead
vaŋhāu -- adjective; locative singular neuter <vohu-> 'good' -- unto good
sravahī -- noun; locative singular neuter <sravas-> 'fame' -- fame
11 - hyaṯ tā urvātā sašaθā yā mazdå dadāṯ mašyåŋhō
hyaṯ -- conjunction; <hyaṯ> 'if, so, when' -- when

tā -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- those
urvātā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <urvāta-> 'rule, order, commandment' -- rules
sašaθā -- verb; 2nd person plural present indicative active <sac> 'learn, understand' -- you all learn
yā -- relative pronoun; nominative plural neuter <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
dadāṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- has given
mašyåŋhō -- noun; vocative plural masculine <mašya-> 'human being' -- o mortals
xvīti-cā ə̄nəitī hyaṯ-cā darəgə̄m drəgvō-dəbyō rašō
xvīti-cā -- noun; accusative dual feminine <xviti-> 'well-being, freedom of movement' + conjunction; <ca> 'and'
-- freedom and
ə̄nəitī -- noun; accusative dual feminine <ə̄nəiti-> 'ill-being, lack of freedom' -- constraint
hyaṯ-cā -- conjunction; <hyaṯ> 'if, so, when' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and when
darəgə̄m -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <darəga-> 'long' -- long-lasting
drəgvō-dəbyō -- adjective; dative plural masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- for the Possessors of
the Lie
rašō -- noun; accusative singular neuter <rašah-> 'harm, damage' -- destruction
sava-cā ašavabyō aṯ aipī tāiš aŋhaitī uštā
sava-cā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <sava-> 'bene t, salvation' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- but blessings
ašavabyō -- noun; dative plural masculine <ašavant-> 'follower of the Truth' -- for the Truthful
aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- then
aipī -- preposition; <aipi> 'toward, approaching' -- ...
tāiš -- demonstrative pronoun; instrumental plural masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- through these
aŋhaitī -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah-> 'be, become' -- will arise
uštā -- past participle passive; accusative plural masculine <vas> 'desire, wish' -- the things you desire
Lesson Text
1 - aṯ tā vaxšyā išəntō yā mazdāθā hyaṯ-cīṯ vīdušē

staotā-cā ahurāi yesnyā-cā vaŋhə̄uš manaŋhō
humązdrā ašā ye-cā yā raocə̄bīs darəsatā urvāzā
2 - sraotā gə̄uš-aiš vahištā a-vaēnatā sūcā manaŋhā

āvarənå vīciθahyā narə̄m narəm xvah́yāi tanuyē
parā mazə̄ yåŋhō ahmāi nə̄ sazdyāi baodantō paiti
3 - aṯ tā mainyū paouruyē yā yə̄mā xvafnā asrvātəm

manahi-cā vacahi-cā šyaoθanōi hī vahyō akəm-cā
ås-cā hudåŋhō ərəš vīšyātā nōiṯ duždåŋhō
4 - aṯ-cā hyaṯ tā hə̄m mainyū jasaētəm paourvīm dazdē

gaēm-cā ajyāitīm-cā yaθā-cā aŋhaṯ apə̄məm aŋhuš
acištō drəgvatąm aṯ ašāunē vahištəm manō
5 - ayå mainivå varatā yə̄ drəgvå acištā vərəzyō

ašəm mainyuš spə̄ništō yə̄ xraoždištə̄ng asə̄nō vastē
yaē-cā xšnaošən ahurəm haiθyāiš šyaoθanāiš fraorəṯ mazdąm
6 - ayå nōiṯ ərəš vīšyātā daēvā-cinā hyaṯ īš ā-dəbaomā

pərəsmanəng upā-jasaṯ hyaṯ vərənātā acištəm manō
aṯ aēšəməm hə̄ndvārəntā yā bąnayən ahūm marətānō
7 - ahmāi-cā xšaθrā jasaṯ manaŋhā vohū ašā-cā

aṯ kəhrpə̄m utayūitiš dadāṯ ārmaitiš ąnmā
aēšąm tōi ā aŋhaṯ yaθā ayaŋhā ādānāiš paouruyō
8 - aṯ-cā yadā aēšąm kaēnā jamaitī aēnaŋhąm

aṯ mazdā taibyō xšaθrəm vohū manaŋhā vōi-vīdaitī
aēibyō sastē ahurā yōi ašāi dadən zastayō drujim
9 - aṯ-cā tōi vaēm h́yāmā yōi īm fərašə̄m kərənaon ahūm

mazdås-cā ahuråŋhō ā-mōyastrā-baranā ašā-cā
hyaṯ haθrā manå bavaṯ yaθrā cistiš aŋhaṯ maēθā
10 - adā zī avā drūjō avō-bavaitī skəndō spayaθrahyā

aṯ asištā yaojantē ā hušitōiš vaŋhə̄uš manaŋhō
mazdå ašah́yā-cā yōi zazəntī vaŋhāu sravahī
11 - hyaṯ tā urvātā sašaθā yā mazdå dadāṯ mašyåŋhō

xvīti-cā ə̄nəitī hyaṯ-cā darəgə̄m drəgvō-dəbyō rašō
sava-cā ašavabyō aṯ aipī tāiš aŋhaitī uštā
Translation
1 And I shall proclaim, O seekers [of Truth], those things
which [are] to be borne in mind, even for one knowing [them already]:
[Those] praises and hymns of Good Mind [to be sung] for the Lord and,
attentive ones, for Truth,
Which by [their] lights [will bring] joys beautiful to see.

2 Listen with [your] ears to the best things [said]
[And] observe with [your] mind, radiant,
The two alternatives of [your] choosing, each man for himself
Being careful to announce us to Him1 before the great retribution.

3 There are two primeval spirits, twins who are revealed
[to us] through dream.
In mind, in speech, and even in deed they are better and bad:
The good choose between them correctly, not the evil.

4 And what's more, when these two spirits came together
at the beginning of the world,
They bestowed [to it] both life and death. And likewise
At the end, a life most wicked will arise for followers of the Lie,
and the best thought [will arise] for the followers of Truth.

5 Of these two spirits, the one possessed of the Lie chose to execute
the most wicked things, [but] the bene cent spirit,
Who is clothed in the hardest stones, [chose] Truth,
[Just as those men do now] who readily satisfy the Lord, the Wise One,
with true actions.

6 The Daevas did not choose correctly whatsoever between these two,
since Deception approached them [as they were] deliberating [between
them].
[And] since they chose the worst thought,
They thereby rushed headlong unto [that very] wrath by which they [now] poison
the life of mortal men.

7 Yet He1 goes unto him2 with power, Good Mind, and Truth,
And youthful Armaiti gives [him] body [and] breath.
[And each] of these things will arise for you, [too], just as through retribution
by molten iron the former [followers of the Lie (?)
will be punished].

8 And so, when the punishment of these sins will arrive
Then dominion will nally obtain for You, O Wise One,
through Good Thinking.
[In order] to proclaim, O Lord, to those who will
give Deceit over to the Truth in both hands.

9 Therefore, may we be the ones who would make existence vibrant,
O Wise [Lord] and Lords, by means of the unbroken support [you have given?]
to me2 and by means of Truth,
So that our minds will remain uni ed whenever our judgment may be in doubt.

10 For then the destruction of the prosperity of Deceit will descend
And the swiftest [steeds] will be yoked to the dwelling place of Good Mind,
Which will race ahead unto the good fame of the Wise One and of Truth.

11 When you, O mortals, learn those rules which the Wise One has given,
[When you learn that there is] freedom and constraint, and [likewise]
long-lasting destruction for the Possessors of the Lie,
But blessings for the Truthful, then through these things [you have learned]
the things that you desire will arise.
Grammar
16 Noun Stems in Sibilants and Stops
16.1 n-stem Nouns
Avestan has n-stem nouns in an, man, and van, whose declensions vary only by the strength of the stem. Stems in an
generally show ablaut, extending to ān in cases that take a strong stem. This is not, however, consistent: some words
follow this pattern while others do not, perhaps on analogy with man- and van-stems for which ablaut is unattested.
The paradigms given here include the ablaut.
Singular: Masculine manθran- 'poet-priest' Neuter nāman- 'name'
Nom. manθrā nąma

Acc. *manθrā, *manθrānəm nąma
Dat. manθrānai *nāmanai
Abl. *manθraṯ unattested
Gen. manθrānō *nāmnō
Loc.sg *manθrāni *nāmə̄ni, *namən
Plural:
Nom.pl *manθranō, *manθrānō nāmąn, nāmə̄ni

Acc.pl *manθrō nāmąn, nāmə̄ni
Instr.pl. *manθrə̄biš nāmə̄biš, nāmə̄niš
Dat.pl. manθrabyō nāmabyō
Abl.pl *manθrabyō *nāmabyō
Gen.pl *manθranąm nāmanąm
16.2 r/n-stem Nouns

Avestan includes a few stems that end in r or n, depending on the case in which they appear.
Singular: Masculine nar- 'man' Neuter rāzar- 'declaration'
Nom. nā rāzar
Acc. narəm *rāzar
Dat. narai unattested
Gen. nrš rāzanh

Plural:
Nom. narō *rāzār
Acc. nrnš unattested
Gen. *narąm *rāznąm
17 Relative and Interrogative Pronouns

The relative and interrogative pronouns, ya- and ka-, respectively, decline similarly in Avestan. The interrogative also
has a stem ci- that appears only in the nominative singular form ciš. The relative paradigm is given here.
ya-declension Masculine Feminine
Nom. sg. yō yā
Acc. sg. yim, yəm yąm, yām
Instr. sg. yā unattested
Dat. sg. yahmai unattested
Abl. sg. yahmāṯ yen̨hāṯ, yen̨hāda

Gen. sg. yahya, yen̨he yen̨haē
Loc. sg. yahmi yen̨he

Nom. du. yā
Gen. du. yayaē

Nom. pl. yoi yaē

Acc. pl. yąn yaē
Instr. pl. yāiš unattested
Dat.Abl. pl. yaēbyō yābyō

Gen. pl yaēšąm yaēn̨hąm
Loc. pl. yaēšu yāhu, yāhva
The neuter differs from the masculine in only the nominative and accusative cases:
Nom.Acc. sg. yaṯ

Nom. du. yā
Nom.Acc. pl. yā
18 The Perfect Tense
In addition to the present and aorist stems encountered in previous lessons, Avestan also has a perfect stem which is
formed by the reduplication of the root. Generally, this reduplication is created by adding the vowel of the underlying
root and any consonant immediately preceding that vowel to the front of the root. Exceptions to this rule are as
follows:
Diphthongs ending in i or u reduplicate in i or u, respectively.

The initial consonant c changes to k in the root syllable, e.g. cit 'think', cikait-.
Initial k reduplicates as c, e.g. kan 'desire, cakan.
Consonant clusters omit all but the initial consonant, e.g. vraz 'be joyful', vavraz-.
The root vid 'see, know' is not reduplicated.
The root takes full grade in the singular present indicative active and all forms of the subjunctive; zero grade,
elsewhere.
In these lessons, the perfect has been translated with past sense, e.g. ṯaṯašā 'has fashioned'.
Perfect Paradigm
Since no root forms more than one perfect conjugation, the convention of using a single root per paradigm is not
followed here.
1 sg. dadarəša susruye

2 sg. dadāθa unattested
3 sg. cakana dāta

3 du. unattested mamanāite, dazde

1 pl. didvišma unattested
3 pl. caxnar unattested

Subjunctive
2 pl. vavrazaθa unattested

Optative
3 sg. vidyāṯ unattested
19 The Perfect Active Participle

The perfect tense also has active and middle participles. The active form is built by adding the su x vas, weak grade
uš, to the reduplicated stem. Feminines add ī and decline accordingly. Masculines decline thus:
vid/vidvas 'having known'

Nom. sg. vidvå
Dat. sg. vidušai
Gen. sg. vidušō
The present middle participle is formed by adding the ending ana to the perfect stem, which declines according to the
a/ā-paradigms in Section 3.
Perfect participles are translated with the verb 'having', as in vidvå 'having known', nominative singular masculine.
20 Relative-Correlative Syntax
Native English speakers sometimes nd the Indo-Iranian relative clause di cult because it is not usually embedded
within the main clause, as it is in English, but rather precedes the main clause, which 'picks up' the relative pronoun
with a corresponding demonstrative, or correlative, pronoun. The relative pronoun may be placed anywhere within its
own clause, though it is often found at the beginning. The correlative must begin the main clause. The antecedent, or
the word that the relative pronoun represents in the relative clause, also (somewhat counter-intuitively) appears in the
relative clause, usually immediately after the relative pronoun.
The relative clause aēibyō sastē ... yōi ašai dadən ... drujəm, taken from stanza 8 above, provides an illustration:
aēibyō sastē yōi ašai dadən drujəm

to those to proclaim to whom over to Truth will give Deceit
This is translated into English as "to proclaim to those who will give Deceit over to the Truth."
Footnotes
1 Ahura Mazda
2 Zarathustra
Old Iranian Online

Lesson 5: Young Avestan
In the sixth century B.C. the Persians extended their empire greatly, especially under Darius the Great (521-486 B.C.).
Known as the Achaemenian empire, after an earlier Persian ruler, it included the eastern Iranian state, Greater
Chorasmic, which was the center of the Zarathustrian religion. As in that religion, Darius [in an Old Persian text
inscribed at Behistan] proclaimed his adherence to Ahura Mazda, stating "Ahura Mazda is mine, I am Ahura Mazda's."
But he does not refer to Zarathustra, nor to the spirits in that religion. In this way, a modi ed form of Zarathustrian
religion arose, accompanied by other religions practiced by others in the empire. The Magi, priests, fostered it among
other religions such as Mithraism. It underwent modi cations, as did the language, both of which are represented in
the Younger Avesta. Maintaining much of Zarathustra's teaching, it is referred to by the Greek version of his name,
Zoroastrianism. As the rst line of the hymn indicates, Ahura Mazda retains his prestige in the new religion, but he also
acknowledges other gods, like Mithra.
The Hymn to Mithra, dated in the second half of the fth century, provides an extensive account of the god, his cult,
and his attributes. Included in the Rigvedic hymns, he must have been worshipped also a millennium earlier. There, as
Mitra, he is paired with Varuna in many poems to Mitravaruna. In his book, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra (Cambridge
University Press, 1967), Ilya Gershevitch cites Mitra's characteristics as summarized by A. A. Macdonell in A Vedic
Reader for Students (Oxford University Press, 1917). Especially pertinent among these, for the interpretation of the
initial stanzas of the hymn that are included here, is his role as upholder of truth, order, and contracts. The word mithra
means 'contract' in Avestan. As Ahura Mazda informs Zarathustra in the second stanza, one cannot break a contract --
even with a rogue. Mitra's abode with Varuna is "golden and is located in heaven... great, very lofty, rm, with a
thousand columns and a thousand doors" (Macdonell 1917: 118). His realm, described as vouru gaoyaoiti, literally
'having wide cattle-pastures', is in accordance with his role as protector of the cow. Bene ts derived from his worship
are indicated in the remainder of the verses here. These, as well as his worship, make up the 145 stanzas of the hymn.
1 - mraoṯ ahurō mazdå Spitamāi Zaraθuštrāi

āaṯ yaṯ Miθrəm yim vouru-gaoyaoitīm
frādaδąm azəm Spitama āaṯ dim daδąm
avåntəm yesnyata avåntəm vahmyata
yaθa mąmciṯ yim ahurəm mazdąm
mraoṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <mrū> 'speak, say' -- said
ahurō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- the lord
mazdå -- noun; nominative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- wise
Spitamāi -- proper name; dative singular masculine <Spitāma-> 'Spitama' (clan name of Zarathustra) -- to
Spitama
Zaraθuštrāi -- proper name; dative singular masculine <Zaraθuštra-> 'Zarathustra' -- to Zarathustra
āaṯ -- adverb; <āaṯ> 'then, thereupon, therefore, and, but' -- and
yaṯ -- adverb; <yaṯ> 'when' -- when
Miθrəm -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Miθra-> 'Mithra' -- Mithra
yim -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
vouru-gaoyaoitīm -- adjective; <varav-> 'wide, broad' + noun; <gao-> 'cow' + noun; accusative singular
masculine <yaoti-> 'pasture' -- has vast elds
frādaδąm -- verbal pre x; <fra> 'forward, toward' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <dā->
'give, put' -- created
azəm -- personal pronoun; nominative singular <azəm-> 'I' -- I
Spitama -- proper name; vocative singular masculine <Spitāma-> 'Spitama' (clan name of Zarathustra) -- O
Spitama
dim -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- him
daδąm -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- created
avåntəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <avant-> 'as much, so much, so long, such' -- as
yesnyata -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <yesnya-> 'sacri ce, worship' -- worthy of sacri ce
avåntəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <avant-> 'as much, so much, so long, such' -- as
vahmyata -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <vahmaya-> 'worthy of praise' -- worthy of praise
yaθa -- conjunction; <yaθa> 'just as, like' -- as
mąmciṯ -- personal pronoun; accusative singular <azəm-> 'I' + inde nite marker; <ciṯ> gives inde nite or
emphatic sense -- I myself
yim -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
ahurəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- the lord
mazdąm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- wise
2 - mərəncaite vīspąm daiŋ́haom

mairyō miθrō-druxš Spitama
yaθa satəm kayaδanąm
avavaṯ ašava-jaciṯ
miθrəm mā janyå Spitama
mā yim drvataṯ pərəsåŋhe
mā yim xvādaēnāṯ ašaonaṯ
vayå zī asti miθrō
drvataēca ašaonaēca
mərəncaite -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle <marək-> 'kill, destroy, bring ruin' -- brings
vīspąm -- adjective; accusative singular feminine <vīspa-> 'all, every' -- entire
daiŋ́haom -- noun; accusative singular feminine <dahyav-> 'country, region, realm' -- upon the country
mairyō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <mairya-> 'false, malicious' -- rogue
miθrō-druxš -- noun; <miθra-> 'contract, agreement, pact' + adjective; nominative singular masculine
<drug-> 'false' -- unfaithful to a contract
Spitama
yaθa -- conjunction; <yaθa> 'just as, like' -- as
satəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <sata-> 'hundred' -- one hundred
kayaδanąm -- noun; genitive plural masculine <kayaδa-> category of evil deed -- of evil-doers
avavaṯ -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <avant-> 'as much, so much, so long, such' -- as much
ašava-jaciṯ -- noun; <ašavant-> 'follower of the Truth' + root noun; <gan-> 'slayer' + inde nite marker; <ciṯ>
gives inde nite or emphatic sense -- some... slayers of Truthful men
miθrəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <miθra-> 'contract, agreement, pact' -- a covenant
mā -- prohibitive participle; <mā> used to express prohibition -- do not
janyå -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active <jan> 'smite, slay, destroy' -- break
Spitama
mā -- prohibitive participle; <mā> used to express prohibition -- do not
yim -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
drvataṯ -- noun; ablative singular masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' -- with a follower of the Lie
pərəsåŋhe -- verb; 2nd person singular s-aorist subjunctive middle <fras> 'inquire, discuss' -- you would
negotiate
mā -- prohibitive participle; <mā> used to express prohibition -- nor
yim -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- ...
xvādaēnāṯ -- pre x; <xva> 'good, worthy' + noun; ablative singular masculine <daēnā-> 'attitude, intention,
insight' -- who has found the good religion
ašaonaṯ -- noun; ablative singular masculine <ašavant-> 'follower of the Truth' -- with a follower of the Truth
vayå -- adjective; ablative dual masculine <uvaya-> 'both' -- to both
asti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <ah-> 'be, become' -- is valid
miθrō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <miθra-> 'contract, agreement, pact' -- a covenant
drvataēca -- noun; dative singular masculine <drəgvant-> 'possessor of the Lie' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- for
the follower of the Lie
ašaonaēca -- noun; dative singular masculine <ašavant-> 'follower of the Truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
the follower of the Lie alike
3 - āsu-aspīm daδāiti
Miθrō yō vouru-gaoyaoitiš
yōi miθrəm nōiṯ aiβi-družinti
razištəm pantąm daδāiti
ātarš mazdå ahurahe
ašaonąm vaŋuhīš sūrå
spəntå fravašayō daδāiti
āsnąm frazaintīm
āsu-aspīm -- adjective; <āsu-> 'swift' + noun; accusative singular feminine <aspi-> 'mare' -- swift horses
daδāiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- gives
Miθrō -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Miθra-> 'Mithra' -- Mithra
yō -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
vouru-gaoyaoitiš -- adjective; <varav-> 'wide, broad' + noun; <gao-> 'cow' + noun; nominative singular
masculine <yaoti-> 'pasture' -- has vast elds
yōi -- relative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- to those who
nōiṯ -- negative particle; <nōiṯ> 'no, none' -- do not
aiβi-družinti -- verbal pre x; <aiwi> 'toward, with respect to' + verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active
<draoga-> 'lie, deceive' -- break
razištəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <ərəzu-> 'straight' + superlative su x; <-ista-> indicates
superlative -- the straightest
pantąm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <paθ-> 'path, road' -- path # The stem appears in Young Avestan
in both masculine and feminine forms; here the ending is the accusative singular of the feminine stem though the
modifying adjective razištəm declines as masculine.
daδāiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- gives
ātarš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <ātar-> ' re' -- re
mazdå -- noun; genitive singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- wise
ahurahe -- noun; genitive singular masculine <ahura-> 'lord' -- of the lord
yōi -- relative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- to who
ašaonąm -- adjective; genitive plural masculine <ašavant-> 'follower of the Truth' -- of the followers of the Truth
vaŋuhīš -- adjective; nominative plural feminine <vohu-> 'good' -- good
sūrå -- adjective; nominative plural feminine <sūra-> 'strong, powerful' -- mighty
spəntå -- adjective; nominative plural feminine <spənta-> 'bene cent, holy, sacred' -- bene cent
fravašayō -- noun; nominative plural feminine <fravaši-> the immortal element in a person, personi ed as a
class of deity -- Fravashis
daδāiti -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' -- give
āsnąm -- adjective; accusative singular feminine <āsna-> 'successful, effective' -- virtuous
frazaintīm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <frazanti-> 'progeny, offspring' -- progeny
yōi -- relative pronoun; dative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- to who
4 - ahe raya xvarənaŋhaca

təm yazāi surunvata yasna
Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm zaoθrābyō ...
ahe -- particle; <ahe> 'indeed, certainly' -- indeed

raya -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <rai-> 'radiance, wealth, splendor' -- because of radiance
xvarənaŋhaca -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <xvarənah-> 'glory' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
glory
təm -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- this
yazāi -- verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive middle <yaz> 'sacri ce, offer' -- I shall offer
surunvata -- future participle passive; accusative singular masculine <sru> 'hear, listen' -- worthy of being heard
yasna -- noun; accusative singular masculine <yasna-> 'sacri ce, offering, hymn' -- song of praise
Miθrəm -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Miθra-> 'Mithra' -- to Mithra
masculine <yaoti-> 'pasture' -- who has vast elds
zaoθrābyō -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <zaoθra-> 'libations' -- together with libations
6 - təm amavantəm yazatəm

sūrəm dāmōhu səvištəm
Miθrəm yazāi zaoθrābyō
təm pairi-jasāi vantaca nəmaŋhaca
Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm zaoθrābyō
Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm yazamaide
haomayō gava barəsmana
hizvō daŋhaŋha mąθraca
vacaca šyaoθnaca zaoθrābyasca
aršuxδaēibyasca vāγžibyō ...
təm -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- this
amavantəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <amavant-> 'strong, powerful, vigorous' -- strong
yazatəm -- future participle passive; accusative singular masculine <yaz> 'sacri ce, offer' -- worthy of the
sacri ce
sūrəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <sūra-> 'strong, powerful' -- mighty
dāmōhu -- noun; locative plural neuter <dāman-> 'dwelling, creation, creatures (pl.)' -- of all creatures
səvištəm -- adjective; <sūra-> 'strong, powerful' + superlative su x; <-ista-> indicates superlative -- most
powerful
yazāi -- verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive middle <yaz> 'sacri ce, offer' -- I shall worship
zaoθrābyō -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <zaoθra-> 'libations' -- with libations
təm -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- him
pairi-jasāi -- verbal pre x; <pairi> 'around, among' + verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive middle
<gam> 'go' -- I shall approach
vantaca -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vanta-> 'praise, homage' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- with
honor
nəmaŋhaca -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <naman-> 'reverence' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
reverence
təm -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- him
yazāi -- verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive middle <yaz> 'sacri ce, offer' -- I shall offer
surunvata -- future participle passive; accusative singular masculine <sru> 'hear, listen' -- worthy of being heard
yasna -- noun; accusative singular masculine <yasna-> 'sacri ce, offering, hymn' -- song of praise
Miθrəm -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Miθra-> 'Mithra' -- up to Mithra
zaoθrābyō -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <zaoθra-> 'libations' -- with libations
Miθrəm -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Miθra-> 'Mithra' -- to Mithra
yazamaide -- verb; 1st person plural present indicative middle <yaz> 'sacri ce, offer' -- we sacri ce
haomayō -- noun; locative dual masculine <haoma-> plant whose juice was used as a ritual intoxicant --
between two haoma stalks
gava -- noun; instrumental singular feminine <gao-> 'cow' -- with a meat offering
barəsmana -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <barəsman-> grass bundle used in the Indo-Iranian sacri ce --
with sacri cial grass
hizvō -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <hizu-> 'tongue' -- with tongue
daŋhaŋha -- adjective; instrumental singular masculine <dan̨hah-> 'skillful' -- fervid
mąθraca -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <mąθra-> 'formulaic verse, spell, poetic intention' +
conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- with thought
vacaca -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vacah-> 'speech, word' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and
speech
šyaoθnaca -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <šyaoθana-> 'act, deed' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and deed
zaoθrābyasca -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <zaoθra-> 'libations' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and with
libations
aršuxδaēibyasca -- adjective; <ərəš-> 'right, correct, true' + past participle passive; instrumental singular
feminine <vak> 'say, speak, declare' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and rightly-spoken
vāγžibyō -- noun; instrumental plural feminine <vacah-> 'speech, word' -- words
7 - Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm yazamaide

arš-vacaŋhəm vyāxanəm
hazaŋra-gaošəm hutāštəm
baēvarə-cašmanəm bərəzantəm
pərəθu-vaēδayanəm sūrəm
axvafnəm jaγaurvåŋhəm ...

yazamaide -- verb; 1st person plural present indicative middle <yaz> 'sacri ce, offer' -- we worship
arš-vacaŋhəm -- adjective; <ərəš-> 'right, correct, true' + noun; accusative singular masculine <vacah->
'speech, word' -- whose speech is true
vyāxanəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <vaȳxana-> 'assembly-speaking, rhetorically skilled' --
eloquent
hazaŋra-gaošəm -- adjective; <hazara-> 'thousand' + noun; accusative singular masculine <gaoša-> 'ear' --
with a thousand ears
hutāštəm -- pre x; <hu> 'well, good, beautiful' + past participle passive; accusative singular masculine <tas>
'carve, create, fashion, shape' -- well-fashioned
baēvarə-cašmanəm -- adjective; <baēvara-> 'ten-thousand' + noun; accusative singular masculine
<cašman-> 'eye' -- with ten-thousand eyes
bərəzantəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <bərəzant-> 'high, elevated, lofty, big, great, clear' -- great
pərəθu-vaēδayanəm -- adjective; <pərəθu-> 'wide, broad' + noun; accusative singular masculine
<vaēδayana-> 'attainment, discovery, acquisition' -- well-procured
sūrəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <sūra-> 'strong, powerful' -- strong
axvafnəm -- privative pre x; <a> 'no, none' + noun; accusative singular masculine <xvafna-> 'sleep, dream' --
sleepless
jaγaurvåŋhəm -- perfect participle; accusative singular masculine <gar> 'be awake' -- continuously awake
11 - yim yazənte raθaēštārō

barəšaēšu paiti aspanąm
zāvarə jaiδyantō hitaēibyō
drvatātəm tanubyō
pouru-spaxštīm ṯbišyantąm
paiti-jaitīm dušmainyunąm
haθrā-nivāitīm hamərəθanąm
aurvaθanąm ṯbišyantąm ...
yim -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- whom
yazənte -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative middle <yaz> 'sacri ce, offer' -- worship
raθaēštārō -- noun; <raθa-> 'chariot' + agent root noun; <stā> 'stand, stay, remain' -- warrior
barəšaēšu -- noun; locative singular plural <barəša-> 'neck, back' -- on the backs
paiti -- preposition; <paiti> 'near, toward, with respect to' -- ...
aspanąm -- noun; genitive singular masculine <aspa-> 'horse' -- of horses
zāvarə -- noun; accusative singular neuter <zāvar-> 'strength, vitality, vigor' -- vigor
jaiδyantō -- present participle passive; nominative plural masculine <gad> 'ask, entreat, supplicate' -- asking
hitaēibyō -- noun; dative plural masculine <hita-> 'team of horses' -- teams
drvatātəm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <drvatāt-> 'health, vitality' -- vitality
tanubyō -- noun; dative plural neuter <tanu-> 'body' -- for bodies
pouru-spaxštīm -- adjective; <pouru-> 'wide' + noun; accusative singular feminine <spaxšti-> 'vision' -- far-
sightedness
ṯbišyantąm -- present participle passive; genitive plural masculine <ṯbiš> 'hate, despise' -- with respect to those
whom they hate
paiti-jaitīm -- preposition; <paiti> 'near, toward, with respect to' + active noun; accusative singular feminine
<jaiti-> 'going' -- the overcoming
dušmainyunąm -- pre x; <duš-> 'bad, evil' + noun; genitive plural masculine <mainyu-> 'spirit' -- of the
malevalent
haθrā-nivāitīm -- adverb; <haθra> 'together, at the same place/time' + agent noun; accusative singular
feminine <nivāiti-> 'striking down' -- the striking down with a single blow
hamərəθanąm -- noun; genitive plural masculine <hamərəθa> 'enemy' -- of enemies
aurvaθanąm -- noun; genitive plural masculine <aurvaθana-> 'adversary' -- adversaries
ṯbišyantąm -- present participle passive; genitive plural masculine <ṯbiš> 'hate, despise' -- those whom they
hate
Lesson Text
1 - mraoṯ ahurō mazdå Spitamāi Zaraθuštrāi

āaṯ yaṯ Miθrəm yim vouru-gaoyaoitīm
frādaδąm azəm Spitama āaṯ dim daδąm
avåntəm yesnyata avåntəm vahmyata
yaθa mąmciṯ yim ahurəm mazdąm
2 - mərəncaite vīspąm daiŋ́haom
mairyō miθrō-druxš Spitama
yaθa satəm kayaδanąm
avavaṯ ašava-jaciṯ
miθrəm mā janyå Spitama
mā yim drvataṯ pərəsåŋhe
mā yim xvādaēnāṯ ašaonaṯ
vayå zī asti miθrō
drvataēca ašaonaēca
3 - āsu-aspīm daδāiti
Miθrō yō vouru-gaoyaoitiš
razištəm pantąm daδāiti
ātarš mazdå ahurahe
ašaonąm vaŋuhīš sūrå
spəntå fravašayō daδāiti
āsnąm frazaintīm
4 - ahe raya xvarənaŋhaca
Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm zaoθrābyō ...
6 - təm amavantəm yazatəm
sūrəm dāmōhu səvištəm
Miθrəm yazāi zaoθrābyō
təm pairi-jasāi vantaca nəmaŋhaca
Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm zaoθrābyō
Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm yazamaide
haomayō gava barəsmana
hizvō daŋhaŋha mąθraca
vacaca šyaoθnaca zaoθrābyasca
aršuxδaēibyasca vāγžibyō ...
7 - Miθrəm vouru-gaoyaoitīm yazamaide
arš-vacaŋhəm vyāxanəm
hazaŋra-gaošəm hutāštəm
baēvarə-cašmanəm bərəzantəm
pərəθu-vaēδayanəm sūrəm
axvafnəm jaγaurvåŋhəm ...
11 - yim yazənte raθaēštārō
barəšaēšu paiti aspanąm

zāvarə jaiδyantō hitaēibyō
drvatātəm tanubyō
pouru-spaxštīm ṯbišyantąm
paiti-jaitīm dušmainyunąm
haθrā-nivāitīm hamərəθanąm
aurvaθanąm ṯbišyantąm ...
Translation
1 Ahura Mazda said unto Zarathustra Spitama: And when I created Mithra, who has vast elds, I created him [to
be] as worthy of sacri ce, as worthy of praise, as I, Ahura Mazda [am] my very self. 2 A [single] rogue, unfaithful
to a contract, brings ruin upon the entire country, O Spitama -- as much [ruin] as some one hundred evil-doers,
slayers of Truthful men. Do not break a covenant, O Spitama, which you would negotiate with a follower of the
Lie, nor with a follower of the Truth who has found the good religion, for a convenant is valid for both the follower
of the Lie and the follower of the Truth alike. 3 Mithra, who has vast elds, gives swift horses to [those] who do
not break a covenant. Fire, [the servant?] of Ahura Mazda, gives the straightest path to [those] who do not break a
covenant. The good, strong, [and] bene cent Fravashis of the followers of Truth give virtuous progeny to [those]
who do not break a covenant. 4 Indeed, because of his radiance and glory, I shall offer to this Mithra, who has
vast elds, a song of praise worthy of being heard, together with libations ... 6 I shall worship with libations this
Mithra [who is] strong, worthy of sacri ce, mighty, [and] the most powerful of all creatures. I shall approach him
with honor and reverence. I shall offer to this Mithra, who has vast elds, a song of praise worthy of being heard,
together with libations. We sacri ce to Mithra, who has vast elds, with a meat offering [placed] between two
haoma stalks, with sacri cial grass, with thought and word and deed, and with libations and rightly-spoken words
... 7 We worship Mithra, who has vast elds, whose speech is true, [who is] eloquent, with a thousand ears, [who
is] well fashioned, with ten thousand eyes, [who is] great, well-procured, sleepless, [and] continuously awake ... 11
whom warriors worship on the backs of [their] horses, asking [for] vigor for [their] teams, vitality for [their] bodies,
far-sightedness with respect to those whom they hate, the overcoming of the malevolent, [and] the striking down
with a single blow of [their] enemies, adversaries, and those whom they hate.
Grammar
21 r- and r/n-stem Nouns
21.1 tar-stems
Avestan nouns ending in the su x tar function either as agent nouns designating the performers of actions -- e.g.,
θvastar- 'fashioner' -- or as relational nouns describing familial ties -- e.g., ptar- (pitar-) 'father'. The two types are
differentiated by the grade of their strong stem formations in the nominative and accusative: agent nouns show
extended grade; relation nouns, full grade. All other cases form weak grade stems. Masculine and feminine decline
similarly.
Masculine dātar- 'creator' ptar- (pitar-) 'father'

Nom. sg. dātā ptā
Acc. sg. dātārəm ptarəm
Instr. sg. *dātrā *ptrā
Dat. sg. *dāθrāi piθrai/fəδrai

Gen. sg. *dāθr̥š *piθr̥š

Nom. pl. dātārah unattested
Acc. pl. *dātr̥nš ptr̥nš

Gen. pl. *dātrąm ptrąm
Voc. pl. unattested *pitarah
21.2 r/n-stems
Masculine nouns in ar -- e.g., nar 'man' -- decline much like relational nouns in tar, except for the stem ātar ' re', root āt
+ su x ar, with nominative singular masculine ātarš in Young Avestan and accusative singular ātr̥m alongside the
more regular ātarəm. It is supposed that this form was originally a neuter. Feminines do not appear.
Masculine nar- 'creator'

Nom. sg. nā
Acc. sg. narəm
Dat. sg. *niθrai
Gen. sg. nr̥š

Nom. pl. narah, unattested

Acc. pl. nr̥nš
Gen. pl. *nrąm
Neuter stems in ar have r/n alternation in the formation of the genitive case, except for the singular audr̥š > audar
'cold', followed by enclitic ca 'and'.
Neuter rāzar- 'declaration'

Nom. sg. rāzar
Gen. sg. rāzanh

Nom. pl. *rāzār
Gen. pl. rāšnąm
22 Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns based on personal pronouns appear in Old Avestan with adjectivival function. They are formed in
the singular by adding the su x a to the m-, tu-, and hu-stems of the rst, second, and third person pronouns,
respectively, with second person tu- > θu. Plural attestations are found only in the rst and second person and are built
by adding āka to the stems az- and yu-. Third person and neuter forms of all genders appear rarely and in only a small
number of cases. They are therefore not included here.
Masculine First Person Second Person
Nom. sg. mah θvah

Instr. sg. mā θvā
Dat. sg. mahmāi θvahmāi
Abl. sg. unattested θvahmāṯ
Gen. sg. mahya θvahya
Loc. sg. mahmi θvahmi

Acc. pl. ahmākanh yušmakam

Instr. pl. ahmākaiš šmakā
Dat. pl. unattested yušmakāi
Gen. pl. unattested yušmakahya

Feminine
Nom. sg. unattested θvai

Gen. sg. mahyāh θvahyāh
Loc. sg. unattested θvāhu

Acc. pl. unattested šmākām
23 The Imperfect
Avestan includes the use of a simple preterite, or past tense called the imperfect. It is part of the present system,
because it is made by adding characteristic endings to the present stem. It conveys past action and may be translated
with either a simple or continuous sense, e.g., baraṯ from bar 'bear, support, carry', as 'he carried' or 'he was carrying'.
Imperfect Active Middle
1 sg. barəm baire

2 sg. *barō *baran̨ha
3 sg. baraṯ barata

1 du. *barāva unattested
3 du. baratəm *baraētəm, barōiδe

1 pl. barāma, barama unattested
2 pl. *barata *baradvəm
3 pl. barən *barən̨ta
24 Passive Constructions
Passive stems include nite verbal formations in both the present and aorist systems. The present passive stem is
formed by adding the su x -ya to the root in its full grade, to which a middle ending is added; e.g., baryate < bar 'it
was borne'. The aorist passive occurs only in the third person singular. It is formed by adding the ending -ī to the full
grade of root; e.g., mraoī < mru 'it was told'.
A past participle passive is also found in Avestan. It is formed by adding either the su x -ta or, more rarely, -na to the
root, which usually appears in its weak grade; e.g., gušta- < guš 'hear', uxta- < vak 'speak'. A small number of roots add
i before the su x, e.g. zairita- < zar 'be/make angry.
As noted in Section 14, a participle is a verbal adjective and thus has adjectival in ection. Since the past participle
passive ends in a, it declines accordingly (cf. Section 3).
25 Zarathustrianism and Zoroastrianism, Gathic Avestan and Younger Avestan

As noted in the Introduction, there is a considerable difference in doctrine between the Gathas, which are exempli ed in
lessons 1-4, and the Yasts or hymns, such as to Mithra herein and to Haoma in lesson 6. The Gathas present the
doctrines preached by Zarathustra, whose dates are disputed, though roughly from 630-553 B.C. But the texts
themselves, composed in an archaic dialect of Avestan, may be much older. The Yasts and other texts are dated from
the second half of the fth century B.C. To distinguish the differences in doctrine between the two sets of texts, the
terms Zarathustrianism and Zoroastrianism have been introduced. Zarathustrianism is considered to represent the
teaching of the prophet; it is monotheistic, featuring dualism between Truth and Falsehood, and between the
Incremental Spirit and the Fiendish Spirit. The one god, Ahura Mazda, has created seven spiritual aspects of himself --
Amesha Spentas, who are representatives of man, cattle, re, metal, earth, water, and plants.
The later religion is mixed, re ecting the expansion of the Achaemenian Empire under Darius I, who was king of Persia
from 521-486 B.C. He apparently came to know the religion when its territory was conquered by the Persians and,
recognizing Ahura Mazda as their chief god, took him over. But the Persians did not mention Zarathustra, and their
priests were open to allowing worshippers to pay their reverence to Mithra, Anahita and the chief gods of other cults as
well as to Ahura Mazda. This mixed religion spread widely; to distinguish it from the older religion, it was given the
name Zorastrianism based on the Greek version of the name.
The language of the two periods also varies in details. The Later or Younger Avestan exhibits grammatical changes
such as the use of the relative particle ya- also as an article. On the whole these changes are minor, with the basic
grammars being the same.
Old Iranian Online

Lesson 6: Young Avestan
This hymn glori es Haoma -- on the one hand a yellow, milky liquid, on the other a priest serving Mithra. Highly
prominent in the Rigveda as Soma, he is described in stanzas 88 to 90 of the Hymn to Mithra as a "healer, beautiful,
majestic and golden-eyed, worshipped on the highest peak of Hara the high, ...whom Ahura Mazda installed as
promptly-sacri cing, loud-chanting priest. He was the rst mortar-priest to elevate the star-decked, supernaturally
fashioned Haoma-stalks on the high Hara" (Gershevich 1967: 115-117). This hymn praises the liquid, its source in the
mountains, and its effects. The Rigvedic hymn to Soma, 8:48, is laudatory, as in the rst stanza followed by fourteen
more: "I have partaken wisely of the sweet food that stirs good thoughts, best banisher or care, to which all gods and
mortals, calling it honey, come together" (Macdonell 1917:155). Presumably created as stated here by a god, it may
have been a center of worship already in Indo-Iranian, possibly even in Indo-European, times. Many attempts have been
made to identify its source. According to some it was the juice of the rhubarb whose leaves turn yellow; to others, it
was some kind of honey mead. But neither identi cation seems to accord with the description in this hymn, where it is
a liquid that is derived from a plant pressed between two stones, and neither suggestion is likely for an intoxicating
liquid with healing properties. With no historical record of its role in either Indian or Iranian worship, we can do little but
interpret the words of the hymns.
2 - fratarəmcit tē havanəm vaca upa-staomi huxratvō yō ąsuš han̨eurvayeiti uparəmcit tē havanəm vaca
upa-staomi huxratvō yahmi niγne narš aojan̨ha
fratarəmcit -- adverb; <fratarəm> 'opposite' + inde nite marker; <ciṯ> gives inde nite or emphatic sense --
lower
tē -- enclitic pronoun; genitive singular <tvə̄m-> 'you' -- your
havanəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <havana-> 'pressing stone' -- pressing stone
vaca -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vacah-> 'speech, word' -- with speech
upa-staomi -- verbal pre x; <upa> 'near, up on/to, etc.' + verb; 1st person singular present indicative active
<stu> 'praise, laud, extol, celebrate' -- I praise
huxratvō -- pre x; <hu> 'well, good, beautiful' + noun; vocative singular masculine <xratu-> 'will, intention,
vision' -- O you who are lled with inspiration
yō -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
ąsuš -- noun; accusative plural masculine <ahu-> 'existence, life, breath' -- forces of life
han̨eurvayeiti -- verbal pre x; <ham> 'together' + 3rd person singular present indicative active causative; <ru>
' ow' -- presses together
uparəmcit -- adverb; <uparəm> 'above' + inde nite marker; <ciṯ> gives inde nite or emphatic sense -- upper
havanəm -- noun; accusative singular masculine <havana-> 'pressing stone' -- pressing stone
vaca -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vacah-> 'speech, word' -- with speech
upa-staomi -- verbal pre x; <upa> 'near, up on/to, etc.' + verb; 1st person singular present indicative active
<stu> 'praise, laud, extol, celebrate' -- I praise
huxratvō -- pre x; <hu> 'well, good, beautiful' + noun; vocative singular masculine <xratu-> 'will, intention,
vision' -- O you who are lled with inspiration
yahmi -- relative pronoun; locative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- with which
niγne -- verbal pre x; <ni> 'down' + verb; 1st person singular present indicative middle <gan> 'smite, strike' --
pound
narš -- noun; nominative singular masculine <nar-> 'man' -- a man
aojan̨ha -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <aogah-> 'power, strength' -- forcefully
3 - staomi maēγəmca vārəmca yā-tē kəhrpəm vaxšayatō baršnuš paiti gairinąm staomi garayō bərəzantō
yaθra haoma urūruδuša
staomi -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <stu> 'praise, laud, extol, celebrate' -- I praise
maēγəmca -- noun; accusative singular masculine <maēγa-> 'cloud' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- both the cloud
vārəmca -- noun; accusative singular masculine <vāra-> 'rain' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and the rain
yā-tē -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' + enclitic pronoun; genitive
singular <tvə̄m-> 'you' -- by which you acquire
kəhrpəm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <kəhrp-> 'form, body, outward appearance' -- bodily form
vaxšayatō -- present participle active; accusative plural masculine <vaxšaya-> 'cause to grow' -- causing
growth
baršnuš -- noun; accusative plural masculine <baršnu-> 'high point, peak' -- the peaks
paiti -- preposition; <paiti> 'near, toward, with respect to' -- around
gairinąm -- noun; genitive plural masculine <gairi-> 'mountain' -- of mountains
garayō -- noun; accusative plural masculine <gairi-> 'mountain' -- the mountains
bərəzantō -- present participle active; accusative plural masculine <bərəz-> 'be high, elevated' -- high
yaθra -- adverb; <yaθra> 'where, in order to' -- where
haoma -- noun; vocative singular masculine ' <haoma-> plant whose juice was used as a ritual intoxicant -- O
Haoma
urūruδuša -- perfect active participle; instrumental singular masculine <raod> 'grow, sprout' -- with growth
4 - staomi ząm pərəθvīm paθanąm vərəzyan̨xvąm xvāparąm barəθrīm tē haoma ašāum staomi zemō yaθra
raoδahe hubaoiδiš aurvō carānəm uta mazdå huruθma haoma raose gara paiti ...
ząm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <zam-> 'earth, ground' -- the earth
pərəθvīm -- adjective; accusative singular feminine <pərəθu-> 'wide, broad' -- broad
paθanąm -- adjective; accusative singular feminine <paθana-> 'spacious' -- vast
vərəzyan̨xvąm -- adjective; accusative singular feminine <vərəzyah-> 'working, productive' -- fertile
xvāparąm -- pre x; <hu> 'well, good, beautiful' + adverb; <param> 'far, away, opposite, across' -- far and wide
barəθrīm -- noun; accusative singular feminine <barəθri-> 'mother, womb' -- womb
haoma -- noun; vocative singular masculine <haoma-> plant whose juice was used as a ritual intoxicant -- O
Haoma
ašāum -- noun; accusative singular feminine <ašavan-> '(in accordance with) Truth' -- noble
zemō -- noun; genitive singular feminine <zam-> 'earth, ground' -- of the earth
yaθra -- adverb; <yaθra> 'where, in order to' -- where
raoδahe -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative middle <raod> 'grow, sprout' -- you grow
hubaoiδiš -- pre x; <hu> 'well, good, beautiful' + noun; nominative singular masculine <baoiδi-> 'smell' --
fragrant
aurvō -- noun; vocative singular masculine <aurvant-> 'swift, runner, steed' -- O swift
carānəm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <carana-> 'moving, feet, support' -- mountain
uta -- conjunction; <uta> 'and' -- and
mazdå -- noun; genitive singular masculine <mazda-> 'wise one' -- wisdom
huruθma -- pre x; <hu> 'well, good, beautiful' + noun; nominative singular masculine <ruθma-> 'growth,
increase' -- increase
Haoma
raose -- verb; 2nd person singular aorist subjunctive middle <raod> 'grow, sprout' -- may you grow
gara -- noun; locative singular masculine <gairi-> 'mountain' -- upon that mountain
5 - vareδayan̨uha mana vaca vīspēsca paiti varšajīš vīspēsca paiti frasparəγē vīspēsca paiti fravāxšē
vareδayan̨uha -- verb; 2nd person singular present imperative middle <vərəz> 'do, make, perform' -- may you
grow
mana -- personal pronoun; instrumental singular masculine <azəm-> 'I' -- my
vaca -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vacah-> 'speech, word' -- through words
vīspēsca -- adjective; locative singular masculine <vīspa-> 'all, every' + conjunction; <ca> 'and' -- and every
varšajīš -- noun; locative singular masculine <varšak-> 'root, tree' -- in root
frasparəγē -- noun; locative singular masculine <frasparak-> 'sprout' -- in sprout
fravāxšē -- noun; locative singular masculine <fravāxš-> 'stalk, branch, penis' -- branch
6 - haomō uxšyeiti stavanō aθā nā yō dim staoiti vərəθrająstarō bavaiti nitəmacit haoma hūitiš nitəmacit
haoma stūitiš nitəmacit haoma xvareitiš hazan̨raγnyāi asti daēvanąm
haomō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <haoma-> plant whose juice was used as a ritual intoxicant --
Haoma
uxšyeiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive <vaxš> 'grow' -- grows
stavanō -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <stavana-> 'praising, being praised' -- when praised
aθā -- adverb; <aθā> 'so, thus, likewise' -- so
nā -- enclitic personal pronoun; instrumental singular masculine <azəm-> 'I' -- we
yō -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
dim -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- him
staoiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <stu> 'praise, laud, extol, celebrate' -- would praise
vərəθrająstarō -- noun; <vərəθra-> 'attack, victory' + root noun; <gan-> 'slayer' + comparative su x;
nominative singular masculine <-tara-> 'more, better' -- more victorious ghters
bavaiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <bu> 'be, become' -- become
nitəmacit -- adjective; <nitəma-> 'lowest' + inde nite marker; <ciṯ> gives inde nite or emphatic sense -- even
the lightest
Haoma
hūitiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <hūiti-> 'pressure' -- touch
the faintest
Haoma
stūitiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <stūiti-> 'song of praise, prayer' -- praise
the smallest
Haoma
xvareitiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <xvareiti-> 'nourishment' -- sip
hazan̨raγnyāi -- adjective; <hazara-> 'thousand' + noun; <ganya-> 'slaying, killing, destroying' -- for the sake
of death by the thousands
asti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <ah-> 'be, become' -- is
daēvanąm -- noun; genitive plural masculine <daēva-> 'divine being' -- of daevas
7 - nasyeiti haθra frākərəsta ahmaṯ hacā nmānāṯ āhitiš yaθra bāδa upāzaiti yaθra bāδa upāstaoiti haomahe
baēšazyehe ciθrəm baēšazəm
nasyeiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <nas> 'be lost, disappear' -- disappears
haθra -- adverb; <haθra> 'together, at the same place/time' -- straight away
frākərəsta -- verbal pre x; <fra> 'forward, toward' + past participle passive; instrumental singular masculine
<kar> 'do, make' -- by means of the prepared
ahmaṯ -- adverb; <ahmaṯ> 'henceforth' -- forever
hacā -- adposition; <hacā> 'from, out of' -- from
nmānāṯ -- noun; ablative singular neuter <nmāna-> 'abode, house' -- the house
āhitiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <āhiti-> 'de lement, pollution -- corruption
yaθra -- conjunction; <yaθra> 'where, in order to' -- wherein
bāδa -- adverb; <bāδa> 'true, reliable' -- always
upāzaiti -- verbal pre x; <upa> 'near, up on/to, etc.' + verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active
<zan> 'bear, give birth' -- one would bear up
yaθra -- conjunction; <yaθra> 'where, in order to' -- wherein
bāδa -- adverb; <bāδa> 'true, reliable' -- always
upāstaoiti -- verbal pre x; <upa> 'near, up on/to, etc.' + verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active
<stu> 'praise, laud, extol, celebrate' -- one would extol
haomahe -- noun; genitive singular masculine <haoma-> plant whose juice was used as a ritual intoxicant -- of
Haoma
baēšazyehe -- adjective; genitive singular masculine <baēšazya-> 'generative, curative' -- restorative
ciθrəm -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <ciθrəm> 'manifest, clear, visible, plain' -- manifest
baēšazəm -- noun; accusative singular neuter <baēšaza-> 'remedy, poison' -- healing property
8 - vīspe zī anyē maiδyån̨hō aēšma hacinte xrvīm-drvō āaṯ hō yō haomahe maδō aša hacaite ...
vīspe -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <vīspa-> 'all, every' -- all

anyē -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <anya-> 'other' -- other
maiδyån̨hō -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <maiδyah-> 'madness-inducing' -- intoxicants
aēšma -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <aēšma-> 'anger, fury, wrath' -- madness
hacinte -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative middle <hak> 'instigate, strive for' -- with instrumental 'go
after, follow, partake of' -- brings on
xrvīm-drvō -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <xrvi-> 'bloody' + noun; genitive singular masculine
<drav-> 'wood' -- of the bloody club # The compound is formulaic; the accusative singular declension of the
rst member is clearly a grammatical error.
āaṯ -- adverb; <āaṯ> 'then, thereupon, therefore, and, but' -- but
hō -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- that
yō -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ya-> 'who, what, which' -- which
haomahe -- noun; genitive singular masculine <haoma-> plant whose juice was used as a ritual intoxicant --
belongs to Haoma
maδō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <maδa-> 'intoxication' -- intoxication
aša -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <aša-> 'truth' -- Truth
hacaite -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle <hak> 'instigate, strive for' -- with instrumental 'go
after, follow, partake of' -- bring about
10 - aurvantəm θwā dāmiδātəm baγō tatašaṯ xvāpå aurvantəm θwā dāmiδātəm baγō nidaθaṯ xvāpå haraiθyō
paiti barəzayå
aurvantəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <aurvant-> 'swift, runner, steed' -- swift steed
θwā -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <tvə̄m-> 'you' -- you
dāmiδātəm -- noun; <dāmi-> 'creation' + past participle passive; accusative singular masculine <dā-> 'give,
put' -- given to creation
baγō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <baγa-> 'god, deity' -- the god
tatašaṯ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <tas> 'carve, create, fashion, shape' -- created
xvāpå -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <xvapah-> 'dream-like' -- inspired
aurvantəm -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <aurvant-> 'swift, runner, steed' -- swift steed
dāmiδātəm -- noun; <dāmi-> 'creation' + past participle passive; accusative singular masculine <dā-> 'give,
put' -- given to creation
baγō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <baγa-> 'god, deity' -- the god
nidaθaṯ -- verbal pre x; <ni> 'down' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <dā-> 'give, put' --
set down
xvāpå -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <xvapah-> 'dream-like' -- inspired
haraiθyō -- noun; genitive singular feminine <haraitī-> name of a mountain -- on Haraiti
barəzayå -- adjective; genitive singular feminine <barəz> 'high, exalted, loud' -- high
11 - āaṯ θwā aθra spenta fradaxšta mərəγa vīzxvanca vībarən ...
āaṯ -- adverb; <āaṯ> 'then, thereupon, therefore, and, but' -- then

aθra -- indeclinable; <aθra> 'here, there' -- there
spenta -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <spənta-> 'bene cent, holy, sacred' -- bene cent
fradaxšta -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <fradaxštā-> 'guiding, instructive' -- tutelary
mərəγa -- noun; nominative plural masculine <mərəγa-> 'forest animal, bird' -- birds
vīzxvanca -- adverb; <vīzxvanca> 'in every direction' (?) -- in every direction
vībarən -- verbal pre x; <vi> 'wide, apart' + verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative <bar> 'bear, carry' --
carried off
12- āaṯ āxva paurvatāxva pouru-sareδō vīraoδahe haomō gaoma zairi-gaonō ā-tē baēšaza irīraθarə
vaŋhēuš manaŋhō ...

āxva -- indeclinable; <aθra> 'here, there' -- there
paurvatāxva -- noun; accusative plural neuter (?) <paurvat-> 'mountain' + demonstrative pronoun; accusative
plural neuter (?) <hva-> 'this' -- on those mountains
pouru-sareδō -- adjective; <pouru-> 'many' + noun; nominative singular masculine <sareδa-> 'kind, sort,
species' -- have many varieties
vīraoδahe -- verbal pre x; <vi> 'wide, apart' + verb; 2nd person singular present indicative middle <raod> 'grow,
sprout' -- you spread out
haomō -- noun; nominative singular masculine <haoma-> plant whose juice was used as a ritual intoxicant --
Haoma
gaoma -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <gaoman-> 'possessed of milk' -- milky
zairi-gaonō -- adjective; <zairi-> 'yellow' + noun; nominative singular masculine <gaona-> 'hair' -- yellow-
haired
ā-tē -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' + enclitic pronoun; <tvə̄m-> 'you' -- your
baēšaza -- noun; accusative plural neuter <baēšaza-> 'remedy, poison' -- invigorating juices
irīraθarə -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect indicative active <raēθa-> 'rush upon, mix with' -- over ow
vaŋhēuš -- adjective; genitive singular masculine <vohu-> 'good' -- good
manaŋhō -- noun; genitive singular masculine <manah-> 'mind' -- (for those) of mind
Lesson Text
2 - fratarəmcit tē havanəm vaca upa-staomi huxratvō yō ąsuš han̨eurvayeiti uparəmcit tē havanəm

vaca upa-staomi huxratvō yahmi niγne narš aojan̨ha 3 - staomi maēγəmca vārəmca yā-tē kəhrpəm
vaxšayatō baršnuš paiti gairinąm staomi garayō bərəzantō yaθra haoma urūruδuša 4 - staomi ząm
pərəθvīm paθanąm vərəzyan̨xvąm xvāparąm barəθrīm tē haoma ašāum staomi zemō yaθra raoδahe
hubaoiδiš aurvō carānəm uta mazdå huruθma haoma raose gara paiti ... 5 - vareδayan̨uha mana vaca
vīspēsca paiti varšajīš vīspēsca paiti frasparəγē vīspēsca paiti fravāxšē 6 - haomō uxšyeiti stavanō aθā
nā yō dim staoiti vərəθrająstarō bavaiti nitəmacit haoma hūitiš nitəmacit haoma stūitiš nitəmacit
haoma xvareitiš hazan̨raγnyāi asti daēvanąm 7 - nasyeiti haθra frākərəsta ahmaṯ hacā nmānāṯ āhitiš
yaθra bāδa upāzaiti yaθra bāδa upāstaoiti haomahe baēšazyehe ciθrəm baēšazəm 8 - vīspe zī anyē
maiδyån̨hō aēšma hacinte xrvīm-drvō āaṯ hō yō haomahe maδō aša hacaite ... 10 - aurvantəm θwā
dāmiδātəm baγō tatašaṯ xvāpå aurvantəm θwā dāmiδātəm baγō nidaθaṯ xvāpå haraiθyō paiti barəzayå
11 - āaṯ θwā aθra spenta fradaxšta mərəγa vīzxvanca vībarən ... 12 - āaṯ āxva paurvatāxva pouru-
sareδō vīraoδahe haomō gaoma zairi-gaonō ā-tē baēšaza irīraθarə vaŋhēuš manaŋhō ...
Translation
2 I praise with speech, O you who are lled with inspiration, your lower pressing stone, which presses together the
forces of life. I praise with speech, O you who are lled with inspiration, your upper pressing stone, with which I, a
man, pound forcefully.
3 I praise both the cloud and the rain by which you acquire bodily form, causing [your] growth around the peaks of
mountains. I praise the high mountains where, O Haoma, [you are infused] with growth.
4 Far and wide I praise the earth -- broad, vast, fertile -- [that is] your noble womb, O Haoma. I praise the earth's
mountain where, O swift [intoxicant?], you grow fragrant. And [thus] may you grow upon that mountain, O Haoma,
[bringing] the increase of wisdom...
5 Through my words may you grow in every root, every sprout, and every branch.
6 When praised, Haoma grows, so we who would praise Him become more victorious ghters. Even the lightest
touch, O Haoma, even the faintest praise, O Haoma, even the smallest sip, O Haoma, is [carried out] for the sake
of deaths by the thousands of daevas.
7 By means of the prepared [stalk], corruption disappears forever from the house wherein one would always bear
up, wherein one would always extol, the manifest healing property of restorative Haoma.
8 For all other intoxicants bring on the madness of a bloody club, but that intoxication which belongs to Haoma
brings about the Truth...
10 Inspired, the god created you, a swift steed given to creation. Inspired, the god set you down on high Haraiti, a
swift steed given to creation.
11 Then the tutelary birds there carried you off in every direction...
12 And there on those mountains you, the milky, yellow-haired Haoma, are spread out. Your invigorating juices
over ow for those of good mind.
Grammar
26 Root Nouns and Sibilant-Stems
Avestan exhibits a class of root nouns to whose endings an in ection is added directly. Root nouns appear in all three
genders, with masculine and neuter declensions that vary only slightly. The feminine stem adds the nal vowel ī and
declines accordingly.
Neuter nouns in h are also found, deriving from Proto-Indo-Iranian s-stems, which some phonological contexts
preserve (e.g., manah nominative singular 'mind', but manas ca 'and mind'). Such nouns are commonly, though not
necessarily, root nouns, and thus decline similarly, but nasalizing the stem's nal syllable in strong cases. Adjectival
forms appear, as do perfect active participles in vah and comparatives in yah. These decline in all three genders
according to the root noun paradigm, excepting the nominative singular which lengthens the vowel in the nal syllable
(e.g., sumanāh 'having a good mind').
26.1 Root Nouns, Masculine and Feminine
Singular: druj- 'deceit'

Nom. druxš
Acc. drujəm
Instr. *drujā
Dat. *drujāi
Gen. drujah, drujō

Loc. *druji
Plural:
Nom. *drujah, *drujō
Acc. *drujah, *drujō
Instr. *drugbiš
Dat/Abl. *drugbyah
Gen. *drująm
Loc. *druju
26.2 h-Stem Nouns, Neuter
Singular: manah- 'mind'

Nom. manah, manå
Acc. manan̨həm
Instr. manan̨hā
Dat. manan̨hai
Abl. manan̨haṯ
Gen. manan̨hah, manan̨hō
Loc. manahi
Dual:
Nom/Acc/Voc. manan̨ha, manan̨hā

Gen. manan̨hå
Plural:
Nom/Voc. manan̨hah, manan̨hō

Acc. manan̨hah, manan̨hō
Instr. manahə̄biš
Dat/Abl. manahə̄bbyah, manahə̄byō
Gen. manahąm
Loc. manahu, manahva
27 The Future Passive Particple and the In nitive

27.1 Avestan builds a future passive participle, or gerundive, by adding the su x -tva or -ya directly to the root and
declining accordingly. The form may be translated as 'to be done' (e.g., varya- 'the thing to be chosen' or 'the right
choice'), or more uidly (e.g., aujya- 'praiseworthy').
27.2 An in nitive is a verbal noun expressing tenseless action as an abstract concept. For example, in the English
sentence "I want to read Avestan texts," the in nitive 'to read' -- a generalized action that takes place at no particular
time -- is the object of the verb. Avestan forms its in nitive by adding one of a number of consonantal or syllabic
endings to a present or aorist stem, and occasionally to a desiderative (see Section 28); this new stem is then declined
as a dative singular masculine. Since the dative form is consistent, it may be easier to think of in nitive endings as a
set of su xes added to a verbal stem: -dyai, -ai, -tai, -hai, -sai, manai, and vai.
Some examples:
dar 'hold, support' drdyai present stem
pā 'protect' pai present stem
gam 'go' gatai present stem
vac 'speak, say' vaucahai thematic aorist stem
dəbąz 'support' dibzadyai desiderative stem
A rare nominative singular in nitive form in -h is also found; e.g., ava 'help', avah 'to help'.
28 The Future Tense and Derivative Conjugations

28.1 Future Tense as Action
The future tense conveys action that will occur some time after the speaker verbalizes it. As with the present tense, it
may be translated using either a general sense, as in "Very soon Zarathustra will sing," or with a continuous sense, "At
noon, Zarathustra will be singing."
Though rare in Old Avestan, which typically uses a subjunctive form to express future time, the future tense becomes
somewhat more frequent in the younger language. Stems of the future system are built very simply by adding either -
hya- or -sya- to a verbal root, which is usually found in its middle grade. The stems take primary endings.
Future Paradigms: vac- 'speak, say'
Active Middle
1 sg. vaxš̨āmi, vaxš̨ā (Gathic only) unattested
3 sg. unattested vaxš̨ete

3 pl. unattested vaxš̨ən̨te
28.2 Future Active and Middle Participles

Future active and middle participles are formed by adding -ant- and -amna- or -ana-, respectively, to the future stem.
The form is relatively rare, though found based on several roots. E.g., saušyant- '(the one who) will be saving', or
'savior', from sū 'save'.
28.3 Causatives, Desideratives, and Intensives

Several verbal forms that can appear in any tense are derived by augmenting a stem to form a distinctive base.
Causatives, desideratives, and intensives are seen.
The causative is formed by adding the su x -aya- to the stem in its strongest grade: tap 'be hot', present stem tāpaya-
'cause to be hot', 'heat'; var 'believe', aorist stem vauraya- 'cause to believe', 'convince'.
The desiderative is formed by reduplicating the root and adding the su x -sa: ji 'conquer', jijiša- 'desires to conquer'.
With a few exceptions, the form is con ned to the present stem, appearing in various roots in the indicative, imperative,
and subjunctive moods, as well as the participle.
The intensive is formed differently for thematic and athematic roots. Both are reduplicated. Thematic roots and their
reduplication take their strongest grade; athematic roots appear in the weak grade, with the reduplicated syllable in the
middle: thematic dis 'show', daidais- and athematic kar 'do, make', karkər. As the name suggests, the form is
translated to convey an intensi ed or urgent sense.
29 Avestan Texts, Grammars, and Dictionaries

A compact survey of handbooks on the texts and other works on the Iranian languages is "The Iranian Languages," by
Nicholas Sims-Williams, in The Indo-European Languages, ed. by Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (London and
New York: Routledge, 1998), pp. 125-153. It includes numerous references. Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, ed. by
Rüdiger Schmitt (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1989) provides a fuller survey of the eld, including essays by Manfred
Mayrhofer on the pre-history of the Iranian languages (pp. 4-24, in German), by Jean Kellens on Avestan (pp. 32-55, in
French), and by Schmitt on Old Persian (pp. 56-85, in German), among many others. And the Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie, vols. I and II, ed. by Wilhelm Geiger and Ernst Kuhn (Strassburg: Trübner, 1895-1904) is still worth
consulting.
Among works on the texts, The Gathas of Zarathustra by Stanley Insler (Leiden: Brill, 1975) provides translations as well
as commentary. The Gathas of Zarathushtra and Other Old Avestan Texts, by Helmut Humbach (2 vols., Heidelberg:
Winter), is more inclusive. See also The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, by Ilya Gershevitch (Cambridge University Press,
1967); and Avesta: The Sacred Books of the Parsis by Karl F. Geldner (3 vols., Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1886-1896), with
the text in the original script, is still considered the standard edition. The standard grammar, if limited to phonology and
morphology, is An Avestan grammar in comparison with Old Indian. Part I, Phonology, In ection, Word-formation, with an
introduction to the Avesta by A. V. Williams Jackson (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1892). Jackson also published A Short
Grammar of Old Persian (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1936). More recent works are A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan,
by Robert S. P. Beekes (Leiden: Brill, 1988) and Avestische Laut- und Flexionslehre, by Karl Hoffmann and Bernhard
Forssman (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck, 1996).
The standard dictionary is Altiranisches Wörterbuch, by Christian Bartholomae (Strassburg: Trübner, 1904).
30 The Avestan Legacy

The Old Persian materials, which will be taken up in the next lesson, are of primary interest for their historical and
linguistic information. By contrast, the Avestan texts, which provide the works of Zoroaster, have given rise to a
massive set of publications; they are also the basis of the present-day Parsee religion. A work devoted to the gure
himself is A. V. Williams Jackson's Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (New York, 1899). A broader work is The Dawn
and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, by R. C. Zachner (1961).
Old Iranian Online

Lesson 7: Old Persian
Behistan -- Modern Bistin, Old Persian Bagastana, or 'place of the gods' -- lies in a gorge about sixty- ve miles to the
west of Hamadan, Iran, along the ancient caravan route between Baghdad and Tehran. A trilingual inscription (Elamite,
Akkadian, and Old Persian), narrating the defeat of ten rebel kings, is carved near the ancient settlement on the face of
the northern cliff, about 225 feet above the ground. Accompanying sculptural reliefs depict the same events with the
Emperor Darius I (ca. 521 - 486 BC), anked by two attendants, standing before a line of nine captives. His right foot is
planted rmly on the prostrate gure of Gaumata, the tenth rebel king, while the god Ahura Mazda looks on from
above. The Old Persian inscription consists of ve columns surrounded by minor reliefs depicting the persons and
events described in each column.

In column four, Darius wraps up his narration of events and turns to address future emperors of the Persian realm.
Though the modern reader may be struck by his excessive bravado ("Among those [who] were earlier kings, not as
much was done thus by them as was done by me..."), it is likely that he was primarily concerned with establishing
and/or legitimating Persian claims on subjected lands. Several times in as many lines he makes the point that his
deeds were done "by the will of Ahura Mazda" and that future kings must do as he has done if they are to retain
sovereignty. He also insists on the truth of his words, that he did indeed do all that he claimed, with a rhetoric that
places his deeds on a par with the "cosmic truths" of Zoroastrian religion. Like the latter, the conquests of Darius are to
be both imitated and declared to all, and if any successor does not do so, Darius warns, he will be likened to a follower
of the Lie and abandoned by Ahura Mazda.
36 - ... θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya
θātiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <θah> 'speak, say, declare' -- declares
Dārayavauš -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Dārayavahu-> 'Darius' -- Darius
xšāyaθiya -- noun; nominative singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- the King
37 - tuvam kā xšāyaθiya hya aparam āhy hacā draugā daršam
tuvam -- personal pronoun; nominative singular masculine <tuvam-> 'you' -- you

kā -- particle; <kā> (denotes generalization) -- ...
xšāyaθiya -- noun; nominative singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- king
hya -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <hya-> 'who, what, which' -- who
aparam -- adverb; <aparam> 'after' -- hereafter
āhy -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active <ah> 'be' -- will be
hacā -- adposition; <hacā> 'from, out of' -- ...
draugā -- noun; ablative singular masculine <drauga-> 'deceit, the Lie' -- from the Lie
daršam -- adverb; <daršam> 'greatly, mightily, steadfastly' -- steadfastly
38 - patipayauvā martiya hya draujana ahatiy avam ufraštam parsā yadiy
patipayauvā -- pre x; <patiy> 'against, during, with respect to' + verb; 2nd person singular present imperative
middle <pā> 'protect' -- protect yourself
martiya -- noun; nominative singular masculine <martiya-> 'mortal, man, human being' -- the man
draujana -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <draujana-> 'deceitful, follower of the Lie' -- follower of
the Lie
ahatiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah> 'be' -- would be
avam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ava-> 'this, that' -- him
ufraštam -- adverb; 'well, good' + past participle passive; accusative singular masculine <fraθ> 'ask,
inquire, investigate, indict' -- well
parsā -- verb; 2nd person singular present imperative <fraθ> 'ask, inquire, investigate, indict' -- punish
yadiy -- adverb; <yadiy> 'if, when' -- if
39 - avaθā maniyāhaiy dahyāušmaiy duruvā ahatiy
avaθā -- adverb; <avaθa> 'thus, then' -- thus

maniyāhaiy -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active <man> 'think' -- you would think
dahyāušmaiy -- noun; nominative singular feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' + personal pronoun;
genitive singular masculine <adam> 'I' -- my realm
duruvā -- adjective; nominative singular feminine <duruva-> 'durable, stable, rm, secure' -- secure
ahatiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <ah> 'be' -- let be
40 - θātiy Dārayavauš xsāyaθiya ima tya adam akunavam
θātiy -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <θah> 'speak, say, declare' -- declares
xsāyaθiya -- noun; nominative singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- the King
ima -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <ima-> 'he, this' -- this
tya -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- what
adam -- personal pronoun; nominative singular <adam> 'I' -- I
akunavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- did
41 - vašnā Auramazdāha hamahyāyā θarda akunavam tuvam kā hya
vašnā -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vašna-> 'will, favor' -- by the will
Auramazdāha -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' -- of Ahura Mazda
hamahyāyā -- adjective; genitive singular masculine <hama-> 'same' + demonstrative pronoun; locative singular
feminine <a-> 'this' -- in this very
θarda -- noun; genitive singular feminine <θard-> 'autumn, year' -- of (one) year
42 - aparam imām dipim patiparsāhy tya manā kartam varnavatām

imām -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine <ima-> 'he, this' -- this
dipim -- noun; accusative singular feminine <dipi-> 'inscription' -- inscription
patiparsāhy -- pre x; <patiy> 'against, during, with respect to' + verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive
active <parsa-> 'examine, read' -- read
tya -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- what
manā -- personal pronoun; genitive singular <adam> 'I' -- by me
kartam -- past participle passive; nominative singular neuter <kar> 'do, make' -- was done
varnavatām -- verb; 3rd person singular present imperative middle <var> active 'cover', middle 'choose,
convince' -- persuade
43 - θuvām mātya draugam maniyāhay θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya
θuvām -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <tuvam-> 'you' -- you

mātya -- injunctive particle; <mā> (expresses prohibition) + relative conjunction; <tya-> '(so/in order) that' --
lest
draugam -- noun; accusative singular masculine <drauga-> 'deceit, the Lie' -- deceit
maniyāhay -- verb; 2nd person singular present imperative middle <man> 'think' -- you would think
44 - Auramazdāha ragam vartaiyaiy yaθā ima hašiyam naiy duruxtam
Auramazdāha -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' -- to Ahura Mazda
ragam -- adverb; <ranga-> 'speed, haste' -- quickly
vartaiyaiy -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative causative middle <vart> 'turn' -- I turn myself
yaθā -- adverbial conjunction; <yaθā> 'as, when, because' -- as
hašiyam -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <hašiya-> 'true' -- true
naiy -- negative particle; <naiy> 'not' -- not
duruxtam -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <duruxta-> 'false' -- false
45 - adam akunavam hamahyāyā θarda ...

feminine <a-> 'this' -- in the very
50 - ... θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya tyaiy
tyaiy -- demonstrative pronoun; instrumental plural masculine <tya-> 'he, this, that' -- by those
51 - paruvā xšāyaθiyā yātā āha avaišām avā naiy astiy kartam
paruvā -- adjective; instrumental singular masculine <paruva-> 'before, previous' -- earlier

xšāyaθiyā -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- kings
yātā -- adverbial conjunction; <yātā> 'until, while, as long as' -- as much
āha -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active <ah> 'be' -- were
avaišām -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine <ava-> 'this, that' -- among those
avā -- adverb; <avā> 'thus, as' -- thus
astiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- was
kartam -- past participle passive; nominative singular neuter <kar> 'do, make' -- done
52 - yaθā manā vašnā Auramazdāha hamahyāyā θarda kartam θātiy

53 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya nūram θuvām varnavatām tya manā

nūram -- adverb; <nūram> 'now' -- now
varnavatām -- verb; 3rd person singular present imperative middle <var> active 'cover', middle 'choose,
convince' -- persuade
54 - kartam avaθā kārahyā rādiy mā apagaudaya yadiy imām
kārahyā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' -- of the people
rādiy -- adverb; <rādiy> 'on account of' -- on account of
mā -- injunctive particle; <mā> (expresses prohibition) -- ...
apagaudaya -- preposition; <apa> 'away' + verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active <gud> 'hide' --
conceal
55 - hadugām naiy apagaudayāhy kārahyā θāhy Auramazdā θuvām
hadugām -- noun; accusative singular feminine <hadugā-> 'record, statute' -- record

apagaudayāhy -- preposition; <apa> 'away' + verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive causative active
<gud> 'hide' -- do conceal
kārahyā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' -- among the people
θāhy -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative active <θah> 'speak, say, declare' -- declare
Auramazdā -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' -- Ahura Mazda
56 - dauštā biyā utātaiy taumā vasiy biyā utā dargam jīvā
dauštā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <dauštar-> 'friend' -- friend

biyā -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative active <bu> 'be, become' -- will become
utātaiy -- conjunctive particle; <utā> 'and' + personal pronoun; genitive singular <tuvam-> 'you' -- your... and
taumā -- noun; nominative singular feminine <taumā-> 'family' -- a family
vasiy -- adverb; <vasiy> 'greatly, utterly' -- large
biyā -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative active <bu> 'be, become' -- will be
utā -- conjunction; <utā> 'and' -- and
dargam -- adverb; <dargam> 'long' -- long
jīvā -- noun; nominative singular feminine <jīvā-> 'life' -- life
57 - θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya yadiy imām hadugām apagaudayāhy
hadugām -- noun; accusative singular feminine <hadugā-> 'record, statute' -- record
apagaudayāhy -- preposition; <apa> 'away' + verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive causative active
<gud> 'hide' -- do conceal
58 - naiy θāhy kārahyā Auramazdātay jatā biyā utātaiy taumā

θāhy -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative active <θah> 'speak, say, declare' -- declare
Auramazdātay -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' + personal
pronoun; genitive singular <tuvam-> 'you' -- Ahura Mazda... your
jatā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <jatar-> 'smiter' -- smiter
biyā -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative active <bu> 'be, become' -- may... become
utātaiy -- conjunctive particle; <utā> 'and' + personal pronoun; genitive singular <tuvam-> 'you' -- your... and
taumā -- noun; nominative singular feminine <taumā-> 'family' -- a (large) family
59 - mā biyā θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya ima tya adam akunavam
mā -- injunctive particle; <mā> (expresses prohibition) -- may not

biyā -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative active <bu> 'be, become' -- be born
tya -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- what
60 - hamahyāya θarda vašnā Auramazdāha akunavam Auramazdāmaiy upastām
hamahyāya -- adjective; genitive singular masculine <hama-> 'same' + demonstrative pronoun; locative singular
Auramazdāmaiy -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' + enclitic
personal pronoun; accusative singular <adam> 'I' -- Ahura Mazda... me
upastām -- noun; accusative singular feminine <upastā-> 'aid, support' -- aid
61 - abara utā aniyāha bagāha tyaiy hatiy θātiy Dārayavauš
abara -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active <bar> 'bear, carry' -- bore
utā -- conjunction; <utā> 'and' -- as did
aniyāha -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <aniya-> 'other' -- the other
bagāha -- noun; nominative plural masculine <baga-> 'god' -- gods
tyaiy -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- who
hatiy -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- are
62 - xšāyaθiya avahyarādiy Auramazdā upastām abara utā aniyāha
avahyarādiy -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular masculine <ava-> 'this, that' + adverb; <rādiy> 'on
account of' -- on account of that
utā -- conjunction; <utā> 'and' -- as did
aniyāha -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <aniya-> 'other' -- the other
63 - bagāha tyaiy hatiy yaθā naiy arika āham naiy draujana āham naiy
bagāha -- noun; nominative plural masculine <baga-> 'god' -- gods

tyaiy -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- who
hatiy -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- are
yaθā -- adverbial conjunction; <yaθā> 'as, when, because' -- because
arika -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <arika-> 'treacherous, evil, hostile' -- hostile
āham -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <ah> 'be' -- I was
draujana -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <draujana-> 'deceitful, follower of the Lie' -- follower of
the Lie
64 - zūrakara āham naiy adam naimaiy taumā upariy arštām upariyāyam
zūrakara -- noun; nominative singular masculine <zūrakara-> 'evil-doer' -- an evil man

naimaiy -- negative particle; <naiy> 'not' + enclitic personal pronoun; genitive singular <adam> 'I' -- not (any) of
my
taumā -- noun; nominative singular feminine <taumā-> 'family' -- family
upariy -- adverb; <upariy> 'over, above, in accordance with' -- in accordance with
arštām -- noun; accusative singular feminine <arštā-> 'righteousness, Truth' -- Truth
upariyāyam -- adverb; <upariy> 'over, above, in accordance with' + verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative
active 'go' -- did I behave
65 - naiy škaurim naiy tunuvatam zūra akunavam martiya hya hamataxšatā
naiy -- negative particle; <naiy> 'not' -- neither

škaurim -- noun; accusative singular masculine <škauri-> 'weak' -- to the weak
naiy -- negative particle; <naiy> 'not' -- nor
tunuvatam -- noun; accusative singular masculine <tunuvat-> 'possessing power' -- to the powerful
zūra -- noun; <zūra-> 'evil' -- harm
akunavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- did I do
martiya -- noun; nominative singular masculine <martiya-> 'mortal, man, human being' -- man
hamataxšatā -- pre x; <ham> 'together' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <taxš> 'be
active, build, carve, make' -- collaborated
66 - manā viθiyā avam ubartam abaram hya viyanāθaya avam ufraštam
manā -- personal pronoun; genitive singular masculine <adam> 'I' -- my

viθiyā -- noun; instrumental singular feminine <viθ-> 'house(hold), clan, royal court' -- court
ubartam -- pre x; 'well, good' + adverb; <bartam> 'well-born' -- well
abaram -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <bar> 'bear, carry' -- I bore
viyanāθaya -- verbal pre x; <vi> 'wide, apart' + verb; <nāθ> 'injure, rend' -- did damage
ufraštam -- adverb; 'well, good' + past participle passive; accusative singular masculine <fraθ> 'ask,
inquire, investigate, indict' -- severely
67 - aparsam θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya tuvam kā xšāyaθiya
aparsam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <fraθ> 'ask, inquire, investigate, indict' -- I
punished
68 - hya aparam āhy martiya hya draujana ahatiy hyavā zūrakara ahatiy
āhy -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active <ah> 'be' -- will be
draujana -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <draujana-> 'deceitful, follower of the Lie' -- a follower of
the Lie
hyavā -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <hya-> 'who, what, which' + conjunctive particle; <vā>
'or' -- or who
zūrakara -- noun; nominative singular masculine <zūrakara-> 'evil-doer' -- an evil man
69 - avaiy mā dauštā biyā ufraštādiy parsā ...
avaiy -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine <ava-> 'this, that' -- to them
mā -- injunctive particle; <mā> (expresses prohibition) -- must not
dauštā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <dauštar-> 'friend' -- a friend
biyā -- verb; 2nd person singular present optative active <bu> 'be, become' -- you become
ufraštādiy -- adverb; 'well, good' + past participle passive; accusative singular masculine <fraθ> 'ask,
inquire, investigate, indict' + emphatic particle; <diy> (used for emphasis) -- most severely
parsā -- verb; 2nd person singular present optative active <fraθ> 'ask, inquire, investigate, indict' -- you must
punish
Lesson Text
36 - ... θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya 37 - tuvam kā xšāyaθiya hya aparam āhy hacā draugā daršam 38 -
patipayauvā martiya hya draujana ahatiy avam ufraštam parsā yadiy 39 - avaθā maniyāhaiy
dahyāušmaiy duruvā ahatiy 40 - θātiy Dārayavauš xsāyaθiya ima tya adam akunavam 41 - vašnā
Auramazdāha hamahyāyā θarda akunavam tuvam kā hya 42 - aparam imām dipim patiparsāhy tya
manā kartam varnavatām 43 - θuvām mātya draugam maniyāhay θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya 44 -
Auramazdāha ragam vartaiyaiy yaθā ima hašiyam naiy duruxtam 45 - adam akunavam hamahyāyā
θarda ...
50 - ... θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya tyaiy 51 - paruvā xšāyaθiyā yātā āha avaišām avā naiy astiy kartam
52 - yaθā manā vašnā Auramazdāha hamahyāyā θarda kartam θātiy 53 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya nūram
θuvām varnavatām tya manā 54 - kartam avaθā kārahyā rādiy mā apagaudaya yadiy imām 55 -
hadugām naiy apagaudayāhy kārahyā θāhy Auramazdā θuvām 56 - dauštā biyā utātaiy taumā vasiy
biyā utā dargam jīvā 57 - θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya yadiy imām hadugām apagaudayāhy 58 - naiy
θāhy kārahyā Auramazdātay jatā biyā utātaiy taumā 59 - mā biyā θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya ima tya
adam akunavam 60 - hamahyāya θarda vašnā Auramazdāha akunavam Auramazdāmaiy upastām 61 -
abara utā aniyāha bagāha tyaiy hatiy θātiy Dārayavauš 62 - xšāyaθiya avahyarādiy Auramazdā
upastām abara utā aniyāha 63 - bagāha tyaiy hatiy yaθā naiy arika āham naiy draujana āham naiy 64 -
zūrakara āham naiy adam naimaiy taumā upariy arštām upariyāyam 65 - naiy škaurim naiy tunuvatam
zūra akunavam martiya hya hamataxšatā 66 - manā viθiyā avam ubartam abaram hya viyanāθaya
avam ufraštam 67 - aparsam θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya tuvam kā xšāyaθiya 68 - hya aparam āhy
martiya hya draujana ahatiy hyavā zūrakara ahatiy 69 - avaiy mā dauštā biyā ufraštādiy parsā ...
Translation
36 Darius the King declares: 37 You who will be king hereafter, protect yourself from the Lie steadfastly. 38 The
man who would be a follower of the Lie, punish him well if 39 you would think thus: 'Let my realm be secure.' 40
Darius the King declares: This is what I did, 41 [and] by the will of Ahura Mazda I did [it] in this very [time frame] of
[one] year. You who will 42 hereafter read this inscription, may what was done by me persuade 43 you lest you
think it deceit. Darius the King declares: 44 I turn myself quickly to Ahura Mazda, as this [is] true, not false, 45 [this
that] I did in the very [time frame] of [one] year ...
50 ... Darius the King declares: Among those 51 [who] were earlier kings, not as much was done thus by them 52
as was done by me in the very [time frame] of [one] year by the will of Ahura Mazda. 53 Now, let what was done
by me persuade you. 54 [And] thus, on account of the people, do not conceal [the deeds carved here]. If 55 you do
not conceal this record [but] declare [it] among the people, Ahura Mazda 56 will become your friend, a large family
will be [yours], and [your] life will be long. 57 Darius the King declares: [And] if you do conceal this record 58 [and]
declare [it] not among the people, may Ahura Mazda become your smiter and may your family 59 not be born.
Darius the King declares: This is what I did, 60 [and] by the will of Ahura Mazda I did [it] in this very [time frame] of
[one] year. Ahura Mazda bore me aid 61 as did the other gods who exist. Darius 62 the King declares: [And] on
account of this Ahura Mazda bore [me] aid as did the other 63 gods who are: because I was not hostile, I was not
a follower of the Lie, 64 I was not an evil man -- not I, not [any] of my family. In accordance with Truth did I behave.
65 Neither to the weak nor to the powerful did I do harm. The man who collaborated 66 with my court, him I bore
well; [and the man] who did damage, him 67 I punished severely. Darius the King declared: You who will be king 68
hereafter, the man who would be a follower of the Lie, or who would be an evil man, 69 to them you must not
become a friend; you must punish [them] most severely.
Grammar
1 The Old Persian Alphabet
The Old Persian inscriptions are recorded in cuneiform, or 'wedge-shaped' characters based on those of the Akkadian
syllabary invented in ancient Mesopotamia. Their relative simplicity suggests that they were quite deliberately modi ed
for representing the Old Persian, and were perhaps even speci cally developed for the royal inscriptions on which they
are found. Each of thirty-six syllabic characters represents either a vowel or a consonant plus a vowel -- i.e., a complete
syllable. In addition, there are ve ideograms, or single characters that represent entire words. The script is read from
left to right.
The syllabary is presented here in Roman transliteration. Each character appears in its standardized order and has
been given alphabetic rather than syllabic form. Thus, distinct characters sharing the same initial consonantal
phoneme but having different following vowels are transliterated by a common single consonant and the appropriate
vowel (e.g., da, di, and du are seen as da, di, and du, respectively). The number of distinct characters is thereby
reduced. Each character's approximate pronunciation is illustrated by a word articulated according to standard
American English, unless otherwise noted.
Letter Sound Letter Sound Letter Sound
a gutter k kipper y youth
ā father x Ger. Loch r room
i sit, Ger. bitte c It. ciao l lump
ī me j jest; medially azure v vice; medially, werewolf
u book t time
ū choose θ theater s sound
ç tse tse y š shout
d dime z zoo
n never
p pour h horse
f fair
b boar
m moot
The length of initial vowels is not indicated in the original inscriptions but has been determined, for the most part,
through etymological comparison and morphological reconstruction. It is represented throughout these lessons
accordingly. The inherent vowels of consonantal syllables in the inscriptions are transcribed here by a short vowel; long
medial vowels and diphthongs show an original consonantal syllable plus following vowel.
2 The Old Persian Sound System

2.1 Phonology
The phonemic system of Old Persian is considerably less complex than that of the older sister dialects Old and
Younger Avestan. Middle vowels and aspirated stops have dropped from the language entirely; the number of nasals
and sibilants has been reduced. The following chart represents the phonemes of Old Persian in their totality.
Vowels: Front Central Back
High i, ī u, ū
Low a, ā

Consonants:
Unvoiced Voiced Nasals Unvoiced Unvoiced Voiced
Stops Stops Fricatives Sibilants Sibilants
Velars: k g x
Palatals: c j š medial-z
Cerebrals: ç
Dentals: t d n θ s initial-z
Labials: p b m f
Labial-Dental:
Semivowels: y, r, l, v
Aspirates: h
2.2 Ablaut
Vowel gradation, or ablaut, occurs in three degrees of length: strong, middle, and weak. The weak grade preserves the
pure vowel alone. Middle grade adds an a and full grade adds an ā to the weak vowel. The functional distinctions that
this generates are discussed in Section 4, below.
2.3 Sandhi
Orthography suggests that a simple system of sandhi, or rules for a change in pronunciation resulting from the
combination of two sounds, was recognized. Thus, for example, doubled phonemes between words -- e.g., āpiš + šim
= āpišim and vašnā + apiy = vašnāpiy -- seem to have been merged in pronunciation. Thus, two consonants were
'shortened' in speech and two vowels lengthened. Of course, such combinations may represent a graphic simpli cation
only, but abundant examples of vowel shortening and/or the reversion of semi-vowels to vowels suggest otherwise. In
these lessons, words combined through sandhi are written together in the text according to convention but analyzed
separately in the analysis sections.
3 Noun In ection
Like Avestan and most other ancient IE languages, Old Persian is highly in ected. This means that, unlike English in
which syntax is primarily governed by word order and the use of prepositions, the functional relationships among the
various words in a sentence are expressed by in ections, or endings, added to the stem, or base form, of a noun or
adjective.
Old Persian has all the in ectional forms, or cases, of Avestan except the dative, whose function has been taken up by
the genitive case. In addition to syntactic function, these in ections each also express the number -- singular or plural -
- of the noun to which they adhere. The dual number found in the Avestan dialects seems to have fallen into disuse by
Old Persian times, except instances of natural pairs, e.g., gaušā accusative singular masculine 'ears'. Each noun also
has an inherent gender -- masculine, feminine, or neuter.
The cases are described as follows:
Case Primary Function English Translation
Nominative Grammatical Subject (subject)
Accusative Direct Object (object)
Instrumental Object of Means by, with
Ablative Object of Origin from, out of, on account of
Genitive Subject of Possession/Indirect Object of/to, toward
Locative Object of Location in, on, upon, over, under, at, etc.
Vocative Object of Address ('you', or name of person being addressed)
These functions, however, are not all as distinctive as in the Avestan dialects. This is especially true with regard to the
ablative case, whose singular forms have become identical to the instrumental or locative forms of various stems,
either through the phonetic development of the language or by analogy with the ablative plural in ection being identical
to the instrumental plural in ection. Such morphological and phonetic changes led to a similar con ation on the
syntactic level, though the 'object of origin' function is primary.
The nominal in ections applied to nouns and adjectives are classi ed according to the nal letter of the noun's stem.
Each stem type takes its own set of in ections, for which paradigms are given through the course of these lessons. For
each paradigm, a single word is used to ll-out the paradigm in order to aid memorization. Where no attestation of a
particular case exists for the word selected, but is found for other words of the stem type, a reconstructed form is
given, marked by a preceding asterisk. Where no attestation of a particular case occurs for any word of the stem type,
the form is labelled 'unattested'.
3.1 a-Stem Nouns, Masculine and Neuter
Singular: Masculine martiya- 'man'
Nom. martiya
Acc. martiyam
Instr. *martiyā
Abl. *martiyā
Gen. martiyahyā
Loc. *martiyaiy
Voc. martiyā
Plural:
Nom/Acc. martiyā
Instr. martiyaibiš
Gen. martiyānām
Loc. *martiyaisuvā
The neuter a-stem nouns decline identitically to the masculine in the oblique cases. The nominative and accusative
declensions differ as follows:
Neuter dāta- 'law'
Nom/Acc. sg. dātam

Nom/Acc. pl. dātā
3.2 ā-Stem Nouns, Feminine
Singular: yauviyā- 'insight'

Nom. yauviyā
Acc. yauviyām
Instr. yauviyāyā
Abl/Gen. yauviyāyā
Loc. yauviyāyā
Plural:
Nom. yauviyā
Gen. yauviyānām
Loc. *yauviyāhuvā
4 Verb In ection
Like case endings, verbal in ections or conjugations are added to a stem, whose form then conveys the tense of a
verb. These endings express person, number, mood, and voice.
The persons are three ( rst, second, and third), as are the numbers (singular, dual, and plural).
'Mood' refers to the attitude of the speaker towards an action. The indicative mood conveys a merely descriptive sense
and is translated with the simple verb. The imperative mood indicates a command. Old Persian also includes two
potential moods, a subjunctive and an optative, both conveying a sense of probability. The former suggests either
future or volitional meaning, the latter conditional. An injunctive form also remains. Its exclusive function, always in
combination with a preceding particle mā, is prohibitive.
'Voice' refers to the nature of the action with respect to the logical subject of a sentence. The active voice indicates
direct action in the world. The middle voice signals that a self-re exive purpose or bene t to the subject motivates the
action expressed. The passive is used when the agent of a sentence is not the grammatical subject. This last
construction will be taken up in Lesson 9.
The four tenses -- present, aorist, perfect, and future -- are classi ed by the formation of the stem, to which various
sets of endings are added. Each pattern of stem formation creates a system, named for the tense it expresses. The
present system is divided into two types, thematic and athematic. The thematic classes are presented below. The
athematic classes and the other tense systems will be treated in subsequent lessons.
4.1 The Present Tense

The present tense conveys action that occurs at the time of speaking. It may be translated with either a general sense,
as in "Darius the King says," or with a continuous sense, "Darius the King is speaking."
Stems of the present system are built in various ways. Those ending with the theme-vowel -a- are called thematic. This
-a- may be added directly to a verbal root or it may be a part of the fuller su xes -ya- or -aya-. To this stem, a set of
primary endings are added.
Thematic Present Paradigms: bara- 'carry, bear'
1 sg. *baramiy *baraiy
3 sg. ā-baratiy unattested
3 pl. barantiy unattested

Imperative
2 sg. pari-barā *barahuvā
3 sg. baratuv unattested

Subjunctive
2 sg. *barāhy unattested
3 sg. *barātiy unattested

Optative
2 sg. baraiš unattested
4.2 The Imperfect

The present system also includes a preterite, or past tense, which can be misleading given the name of the system.
The tense is called imperfect, and is categorized as part of the present system since it is built to a present stem.
Nevertheless, it does convey a past meaning. It is formed by augmenting the stem with a preceding a and adding a set
of secondary endings. It may be translated with either a general or continuous sense, as with the examples above:
"Darius the King said," or "Darius the King was saying."
Imperfect Active Middle
1 sg. abaram *abaraiy
3 sg. abarat unattested
3 pl. abaran, abarahan unattested
5 Word Order
The standard word order of Old Persian is Subject-Object-Verb, with the genitive and ablative cases preceding the
words that they characterize, as in lines 58-59, above:
auramazdā tay jatā biyā utā taiy taumā mā biyā

Ahura Mazda your smiter may become and your family let not be born.
Relative clauses are usually inserted between the object and verb; for example, from line 37:
tuvam kā xšāyaθiya hya aparam āhy

You ... king who hereafter will be.
When there are two or more subjects or objects, the primary subject or object appears in the expected position and the
secondary subject or object follows the verb. An example is found in line 60:
auramazdā maiy upastām abara utā aniyāha bagāha tyaiy hatiy

Ahura me aid bore as the gods who exist.
Mazda did other
In reality, however, this pattern is not rigidly upheld. Frequently, the words that an author wished to emphasize
appeared in the order that he wished to emphasize them, as the common refrain:
θātiy dārayavauš xšāyaθiya

[Thus] declares Darius the king
Old Iranian Online

The inscriptions that bequeath to us the Old Persian language were commissioned by the Achaemenid kings, or those
of the regnal line descended from Achaemenes, a minor ruler in the region of present-day southwestern Iran. From
Achaemenes the line follows through Teispes to Cyrus the Great, who founded the Persian Empire by conquering the
Median king Astyages sometime between 559 and 549 B.C. Upon Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses usurped the throne
after secretly killing his older brother Smerdis. Cambyses then left the realm to invade Egypt, and nine vassal kings
revolted in his absence. The inscription at Behistan records each of these rebellions and the subsequent reconquest by
Darius, rst cousin to Cambyses, ninth in the line of Achaemenid kings.

The narrative of revolts in the inscription at Behistan, structured by their geographic distance from the imperial center,
begins with conquest of the capital by the warrior-priest Gaumata, who won support by claiming to be Smerdis. Upon
hearing of this dissidence, Cambyses took his own life and Darius stepped in to restore the kingdom with the aid of a
few loyal men (and Ahura Mazda!). Column one records Gaumata's rise to power and Darius' progress over the course
of several months, ending with Gaumata's nal defeat at the 'fortress' of Sikayauvati in Media.
26 - ... θātiy
27 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya ima tya manā kartam pasāva yaθā xšāyaθiya

kartam -- past participle passive; nominative singular neuter <kar> 'do, make' -- was done
pasāva -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' -- then
yaθā -- adverbial conjunction; <yaθā> 'as, when, because' -- when
28 - abavam Kabūjiya nāma Kūrauš puça amāxam taumāyā
abavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <bu> 'be, become' -- did become
Kabūjiya -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Kambūjiya-> 'Cambyses' -- Cambyses
nāma -- adverb; <nāma> 'by name, named, called' -- by name
Kūrauš -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Kūru-> 'Cyrus' -- of Cyrus
puça -- noun; nominative singular masculine <puça-> 'son' -- the son
amāxam -- personal pronoun; genitive plural <adam> 'I' -- our
taumāyā -- noun; genitive singular feminine <taumā-> 'family' -- family
29 - hauvam idā xšāyaθiya āha avahyā Kabūjiyahyā brātā
hauvam -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <hauv-> 'he, this' -- he

idā -- adverb; <idā> 'here' -- here
xšāyaθiya -- noun; nominative singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- the king
āha -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <ah> 'be' -- was
avahyā -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular masculine <ava-> 'this, that' -- that
Kabūjiyahyā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Kambūjiya-> 'Cambyses' -- of Cambyses
brātā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <brātar-> 'brother' -- brother
30 - Bardiya nāma āha hamātā hamapitā Kabūjiyahyā pasāva Kabūjiya
Bardiya -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Bardiya-> 'Bardiya', known from Greek sources as
Smerdis -- Smerdis
hamātā -- adverb; <hama-> 'same' + noun; feminine singular nominative <mātar-> 'mother' -- having the same
mother
hamapitā -- adverb; <hama-> 'same' + noun; masculine singular nominative <pītar-> 'father' -- having the
same father
Kabūjiyahyā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Kambūjiya-> 'Cambyses' -- as Cambyses
pasāva -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' -- and then
31 - avam Bardiyam avāja yaθā Kabūjiya Bardiyam avāja kārahyā
avam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ava-> 'this, that' -- that
Bardiyam -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Bardiya-> 'Bardiya', known from Greek sources as
Smerdis -- Smerdis
avāja -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <jan> 'smite,
strike, slay' -- struck down
Smerdis -- Smerdis
avāja -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <jan> 'smite,
strike, slay' -- struck down
32 - naiy azdā abava tya Bardiya avajata pasāva Kabūjiya Mudrāyam

azdā -- adverb; <azdā> 'known' -- known
abava -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <bu> 'be, become' -- did become
tya -- relative conjunction; accusative singular neuter <tya-> '(so/in order) that' -- that
Bardiya -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Bardiya-> 'Bardiya', known from Greek sources as
Smerdis -- Smerdis
avajata -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <jan> 'smite,
strike, slay' -- had struck down
Mudrāyam -- geographic name; accusative singular masculine <Mudrāya-> 'Egypt' -- to Egypt
33 - ašiyava yaθā Kabūjiya Mudrāyam ašiyava pasāva kāra arika abava
ašiyava -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <šiyu> 'set out, go' -- set out
Mudrāyam -- geographic name; accusative singular masculine <Mudrāya-> 'Egypt' -- to Egypt
ašiyava -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <šiyu> 'set out, go' -- set out
kāra -- noun; nominative singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' -- the people
arika -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <arika-> 'treacherous, evil, hostile' -- treacherous
abava -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <bu> 'be, become' -- grew
34 - pasāva drauga dahyauvā vasiy abava utā Pārsaiy utā Mādaiy utā
pasāva -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' -- and thus

drauga -- noun; nominative singular masculine <drauga-> 'deceit, the Lie' -- deceit
dahyauvā -- noun; locative singular feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- throughout the land
vasiy -- adverb; <vasiy> 'greatly, utterly' -- rampantly
abava -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <bu> 'be, become' -- rose
utā -- conjunction; <utā> 'and' -- both
Pārsaiy -- geographic name; locative singular masculine <Pārsa-> 'Persia' -- in Persia
Mādaiy -- geographic name; locative singular masculine <Māda-> 'Media' -- in Media
35 - aniyāuvā dahyušuvā θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya pasāva
aniyāuvā -- adjective; locative plural feminine <aniya-> 'other' -- other

dahyušuvā -- noun; locative plural feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- in the lands
pasāva -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' -- later
36 - I martiya maguš āha Gaumāta nāma hauv udapatatā hacā Paišiyāuvādāyā
I -- Roman numeral; 'one' -- one

maguš -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <magu-> 'Magian' -- Magian
Gaumāta -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Gaumāta-> 'Gaumata' -- Gaumata
hauv -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <hauv-> 'he, this' -- he
udapatatā -- verbal pre x; <ud> 'up' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <pat> ' y, fall' --
rose up
Paišiyāuvādāyā -- geographic name; ablative singular feminine <Paišiyāuvādā-> 'Paishiyauvada' -- from
Paishiyauvada
37 - Arakadriš nāma kaufa hacā avadaša Viyaxnahya māhyā
Arakadriš -- geographic name; nominative singular masculine <Arakadri-> a mountain in Persia -- Arakadri
nāma -- adverb; <nāma> 'by name, named, called' -- named
kaufa -- noun; nominative singular masculine <kaufa-> 'mountain' -- mountain
avadaša -- adverb; <avadā> 'then, there' + enclitic demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular masculine <ša->
'he, this' -- there
Viyaxnahya -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Viyaxna-> twelfth month of the Persian calendar,
February - March -- of Viyakhna
māhyā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <māha-> 'month' -- of the month
38 - XIV raucabiš θakatā āha yadiy udapatatā hauv kārahyā avaθā
XIV -- Roman numeral; <XIV> 'fourteen' -- fourteen

raucabiš -- noun; instrumental plural neuter <raucah-> 'day' -- days
θakatā -- adjective; nominative plural neuter <θakatay-> 'past' -- completed
yadiy -- adverb; <yadiy> 'if, when' -- when
udapatatā -- verbal pre x; <ud> 'up' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <pat> ' y, fall' --
rose up
kārahyā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' -- to the people
39 - adurujiya adam Bardiya amiy hya Kūrauš puça Kabūjiyahyā brātā
adurujiya -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative middle <drug-> 'lie, deceive' -- he deceived
Smerdis -- Smerdis
amiy -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- I am
Kabūjiyahyā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Kambūjiya-> 'Cambyses' -- of Cambyses
brātā -- noun; nominative singular masculine <brātar-> 'brother' -- brother
40 - pasāva kāra haruva hamiçiya abava hacā Kabūjiyā abiy avam
pasāva -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' -- thereupon

kāra -- noun; nominative singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' -- the people
haruva -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <haruva-> 'all' -- all
hamiçiya -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <hamiçiya-> 'rebellious' -- rebellious
abava -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <bu> 'be, become' -- grew
hacā -- adposition; <hacā> 'from, out of' -- against
Kabūjiyā -- proper name; ablative singular masculine <Kambūjiya-> 'Cambyses' -- Cambyses
abiy -- preposition; <abiy> 'to, toward, against' -- to
41 - ašiyava utā Pārsa utā Māda utā aniyā dahyāva xšaçam hauv
ašiyava -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <šiyu> 'set out, go' -- went over
Pārsa -- geographic name; nominative singular masculine <Pārsa-> 'Persia' -- Persia
Māda -- geographic name; nominative singular masculine <Māda-> 'Media' -- Media
aniyā -- adjective; nominative plural feminine <aniya-> 'other' -- the other
dahyāva -- noun; nominative plural feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- lands
xšaçam -- noun; accusative singular neuter <xšaça-> 'kingship, sovereignty, kingdom' -- kingdom
42 - agarbāyatā Garmapadahya māhyā IX raucabiš θakatā āha avaθā xšaçam
agarbāyatā -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative causative middle <grab> 'seize, grab' -- seized
Garmapadahya -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Garmapada-> fourth month of the Persian
calendar, June - July -- of Garmapada
IX -- Roman numeral; <IX> 'nine' -- nine
43 - agarbāyatā pasāva Kabūjiya uvāmaršiyuš amariyatā ...
agarbāyatā -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative causative middle <grab> 'seize, grab' -- seized
uvāmaršiyuš -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <uvāmaršiyu-> 'self-in icted death' -- by his own hand
amariyatā -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <mar> 'die' -- died
48 - ... θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya naiy āha martiya
naiy -- negative particle; <naiy> 'not' -- no
49 - naiy Pārsa naiy Māda naiy amāxam taumāyā kašciy hya avam Gaumātam

Pārsa -- geographic name; nominative singular masculine <Pārsa-> 'Persia' -- Persia
Māda -- geographic name; nominative singular masculine <Māda-> 'Media' -- Media
amāxam -- personal pronoun; genitive plural <adam> 'I' -- our
taumāyā -- noun; genitive singular feminine <taumā-> 'family' -- family
kašciy -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine <kašciy-> 'any, anyone, anything' -- any
Gaumātam -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Gaumāta-> 'Gaumata' -- Gaumata
50 - tyam magum xšaçam dītam caxriyā kārašim hacā daršam atarsa
tyam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <tya-> 'he, this, that' -- the
magum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <magu-> 'Magian' -- Magian
dītam -- past participle passive; accusative singular neuter <dā> 'give, take' -- deprived
caxriyā -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect optative causative active <kar> 'do, make' -- could render
kārašim -- noun; nominative singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' + enclitic demonstrative
pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ša-> 'he, this' -- the people... him
hacā -- adposition; <hacā> 'from, out of' -- ...
daršam -- adverb; <daršam> 'greatly, mightily, steadfastly' -- greatly
atarsa -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <tars> 'fear, be afraid' -- feared
51 - kāram vasiy avājaniyā hya paranam Bardiyam adānā avahyarādiy
kāram -- noun; accusative singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' -- the people
vasiy -- adverb; <vasiy> 'greatly, utterly' -- the numerous
avājaniyā -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 3rd person singular present optative active <jan> 'smite,
strike, slay' -- lest he would strike down
paranam -- adverb; <paranam> 'before' -- previously
Smerdis -- Smerdis
adānā -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle <xšnā> 'learn, know' -- knew
avahyarādiy -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular masculine <ava-> 'this, that' + adverb; <rādiy> 'on
account of' -- on account of this
52 - kāram avājaniyā mātyamām xšnāsātiy tya adam naiy Bardiya
kāram -- noun; accusative singular masculine <kāra-> 'man, person; the people' -- the people
avājaniyā -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 3rd person singular present optative active <jan> 'smite,
strike, slay' -- lest he would strike down
mātyamām -- injunctive particle; <mā> (expresses prohibition) + relative conjunction; accusative singular neuter
<tya-> '(so/in order) that' + personal pronoun; accusative singular <adam> 'I' -- lest... me
xšnāsātiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <xšnā> 'learn, know' -- he would know
tya -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- who
Smerdis -- Smerdis
53 - amiy hya Kūrauš puça kašciy naiy adaršnauš cišciy θastanaiy
amiy -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- am
kašciy -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine <kašciy-> 'any, anyone, anything' -- one
naiy -- negative particle; <naiy> 'not' -- no
adaršnauš -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <dars> 'dare' -- dared
cišciy -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular masculine <kašciy-> 'any, anyone, anything' -- anything
θastanaiy -- in nitive; <θah> 'speak, say, declare' -- to say
54 - pariy Gaumātam tyam magum yātā adam arasam pasāva adam Auramazdām
pariy -- adverb; <pariy> 'toward, with respect to' -- against

yātā -- adverbial conjunction; <yātā> 'until, while, as long as' -- until
arasam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <ar> 'move toward' -- came
pasāva -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' -- after that
Auramazdām -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' -- Ahura Mazda
55 - patiyāvahyaiy Auramazdāmaiy upastām abara Bāgayādaiš
patiyāvahyaiy -- preposition; <patiy> 'against, during, with respect to' + denominative; 1st person singular
imperfect middle <avahya-> 'ask for help' -- asked for help
Bāgayādaiš -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Bāgayādi-> seventh month of the Persian calendar,
September - October -- of Bagayadi
56 - māhyā X raucabiš θakatā āha avaθā adam hadā kamnaibiš martiyaibiš

X -- Roman numeral; <X> 'ten' -- ten
avaθā -- adverb; <avaθa> 'thus, then' -- when
hadā -- preposition; <hadā> 'with, together with' -- together with
kamnaibiš -- adjective; instrumental plural masculine <kamna-> 'few' -- a small number of
martiyaibiš -- noun; instrumental plural masculine <martiya-> 'mortal, man, human being' -- with men
57 - avam Gaumātam tyam magum avājanam utā tyaišaiy fratamā martiyā
avājanam -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <jan>
'smite, strike, slay' -- I struck down
tyaišaiy -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine <tya-> 'who, which; that' + enclitic pronoun; genitive
singular masculine <sa-> 'he, this' -- those who... his
fratamā -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <fratama-> ' rst, foremost' -- leading
martiyā -- noun; nominative plural masculine <martiya-> 'mortal, man, human being' -- men
58 - anušiyā āhatā Sikayauvatiš nāmā didā Nisāya nāmā
anušiyā -- noun; nominative plural masculine <anušiya-> 'follower, ally' -- allies

āhatā -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative middle <ah> 'be' -- were
Sikayauvatiš -- geographic name; nominative singular masculine <Sikayauvati-> 'Sikayauvati' -- Sikayauvati
nāmā -- adverb; <nāma> 'by name, named, called' -- called
didā -- noun; nominative singular feminine <didā-> 'fortress, wall' -- stronghold
Nisāya -- geographic name; nominative singular masculine <Nisāya-> 'Nisaya' -- Nisaya
nāmā -- adverb; <nāma> 'by name, named, called' -- called
59 - dahyāuš Mādaiy avadašim avājanam xšaçamšim adam adīnam vašnā
dahyāuš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- land
Mādaiy -- geographic name; locative singular masculine <Māda-> 'Media' -- in Media
avadašim -- adverb; <avadā> 'then, there' + enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine
<ša-> 'he, this' -- there... him
avājanam -- verbal pre x; <ava> 'away, down' + verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <jan>
'smite, strike, slay' -- I struck down
xšaçamšim -- noun; accusative singular neuter <xšaça-> 'kingship, sovereignty, kingdom' + enclitic
demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ša-> 'he, this' -- kingdom... him
adīnam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <dī> 'take, seize' -- seized
60 - Auramazdāha adam xšāyaθiya abavam Auramazdā xšaçam manā frābara ...
abavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <bu> 'be, become' -- became
xšaçam -- noun; accusative singular neuter <xšaça-> 'kingship, sovereignty, kingdom' -- the kingdom
manā -- personal pronoun; genitive singular <adam> 'I' -- upon me
frābara -- verbal pre x; <fra> 'to, toward, forth' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <bar>
'bear, carry' -- bestowed
Lesson Text
26 - ... θātiy 27 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya ima tya manā kartam pasāva yaθā xšāyaθiya 28 - abavam
Kabūjiya nāma Kūrauš puça amāxam taumāyā 29 - hauvam idā xšāyaθiya āha avahyā Kabūjiyahyā
brātā 30 - Bardiya nāma āha hamātā hamapitā Kabūjiyahyā pasāva Kabūjiya 31 - avam Bardiyam avāja
yaθā Kabūjiya Bardiyam avāja kārahyā 32 - naiy azdā abava tya Bardiya avajata pasāva Kabūjiya
Mudrāyam 33 - ašiyava yaθā Kabūjiya Mudrāyam ašiyava pasāva kāra arika abava 34 - pasāva drauga
dahyauvā vasiy abava utā Pārsaiy utā Mādaiy utā 35 - aniyāuvā dahyušuvā θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya
pasāva 36 - I martiya maguš āha Gaumāta nāma hauv udapatatā hacā Paišiyāuvādāyā 37 - Arakadriš
nāma kaufa hacā avadaša Viyaxnahya māhyā 38 - XIV raucabiš θakatā āha yadiy udapatatā hauv
kārahyā avaθā 39 - adurujiya adam Bardiya amiy hya Kūrauš puça Kabūjiyahyā brātā 40 - pasāva kāra
haruva hamiçiya abava hacā Kabūjiyā abiy avam 41 - ašiyava utā Pārsa utā Māda utā aniyā dahyāva
xšaçam hauv 42 - agarbāyatā Garmapadahya māhyā IX raucabiš θakatā āha avaθā xšaçam 43 -
agarbāyatā pasāva Kabūjiya uvāmaršiyuš amariyatā ... 48 - ... θātiy Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya naiy āha
martiya 49 - naiy Pārsa naiy Māda naiy amāxam taumāyā kašciy hya avam Gaumātam 50 - tyam
magum xšaçam dītam caxriyā kārašim hacā daršam atarsa 51 - kāram vasiy avājaniyā hya paranam
Bardiyam adānā avahyarādiy 52 - kāram avājaniyā mātyamām xšnāsātiy tya adam naiy Bardiya 53 -
amiy hya Kūrauš puça kašciy naiy adaršnauš cišciy θastanaiy 54 - pariy Gaumātam tyam magum yātā
adam arasam pasāva adam Auramazdām 55 - patiyāvahyaiy Auramazdāmaiy upastām abara
Bāgayādaiš 56 - māhyā X raucabiš θakatā āha avaθā adam hadā kamnaibiš martiyaibiš 57 - avam
Gaumātam tyam magum avājanam utā tyaišaiy fratamā martiyā 58 - anušiyā āhatā Sikayauvatiš nāmā
didā Nisāya nāmā 59 - dahyāuš Mādaiy avadašim avājanam xšaçamšim adam adīnam vašnā 60 -
Auramazdāha adam xšāyaθiya abavam Auramazdā xšaçam manā frābara ...
Translation
26 Darius the King 27 declares: This is what was done by me when the king 28 I did become. The son of Cyrus, of
our family, Cambyses by name -- 29 he was the king here. Of that Cambyses [there] was a brother, 30 Smerdis by
name, having the same mother and father as Cambyses. And then Cambyses 31 struck down that Smerdis. When
Cambyses struck down Smerdis, 32 it did not become known among the people that [he] had struck down
Smerdis. And then Cambyses 33 went to Egypt. And when Cambyses went to Egypt, the people grew treacherous,
34 and thus deceit rose rampantly in both Persia and Media and 35 in the [Empire's] other lands. Darius the King
declares: Later, 36 there was one man, a Magian, Gaumata by name, and he rose up from Paishiyauvada. 37
[There is] a mountain in Persia named Arakadri. From there, when fourteen days of the month of Viyakhna 38
were completed, he rose up, [and] he deceived the people [saying] thus: 39 "I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus who
[is] brother of Cambyses." 40 Thereupon, all the people became rebellious against Cambyses and went over to
him, [Smerdis], 41 Persia and Media and the other lands, [and] he seized the kingdom. 42 Nine days were
completed in the month of Garmapada [when] he seized the kingdom thus. 43 And then Cambyses died by his
own hand ...
48 ... Darius the king declares: There was no man, 49 neither Persian nor Median nor any among our family who
could render that Gaumata 50 kingdom-deprived. The people feared him greatly, 51 lest he would strike down the
numerous people who knew him previously as Smerdis; 52 lest he would strike down the people on account of
this: "Lest he who would know me [would know that] I am not Smerdis, 53 the son of Cyrus." No one dared to say
anything 54 against Gaumata the Magian until I came. After that, 55 I asked Ahura Mazda for help, [and] Ahura
Mazda bore me aid. 56 Ten days of the month of Bagayad were completed when, with a small number of men, 57
I struck down that Gaumata the Magian and those men who 58 were his foremost allies. [There was] a fortress
called Sikayauvati, a land called Nisaya, 59 in Media, [and] there I struck him down. I seized the kingdom [from]
him, [and] by the will 60 of Ahura Mazda, I became king. Ahura Mazda bestowed the kingdom to me.
Grammar
6 Short and Long i- and u-Stem Nouns
Nominal stems in short i and u are not easily distinguished from those in long ī and ū except by comparison with other
Indo-Iranian languages. The declensions take identical in ections in all cases of the masculine and feminine and in the
oblique cases of the neuter. Long ī- and ū-stem cognates with the Sanskrit are attested, e.g., bumi-, Skt. bhūmī-, but
again these do not appear to have had declensions distinctive from the short i- and u-.
6.1 i- and u-Stem Nouns, Masculine and Neuter
Masculine skauθi- 'poor' magu- 'priest'

Nom. sg. skauθiš maguš
Acc. sg. skauθim magum
Instr. sg. unattested *maguvā
Abl. sg. unattested *magauš, *magauv
Gen. sg. skauθaiš *magauš
Loc. sg. unattested magauv

Gen. pl. unattested magunām

Neuter dāru- 'wood'

Nom/Acc. sg. dāruv
7 Personal Pronouns
Fewer Old Persian pronominal forms are attested than in the Avestan. The rst and second person are known in only a
few declensions, while the third person is found in only the nominative and accusative singular. As in the Avestan, the
oblique cases of all personal pronouns form a suppletive system, i.e., they are based on a stem different from that of
the nominative case.
7.1 First and Second Person Pronouns

The rst and second person pronouns have no inherent gender. The azem- 'I' and tvə̄m- 'you' paradigms are given here,
with enclitic forms given in parentheses.
First Person Second Person
Nom. sg. adam tuvam

Acc. sg. mām θuvām
Abl. sg. (ma) unattested
Gen. sg. manā (taiy)

Nom. pl. vayam unattested
Gen. pl. amāxam unattested
7.2 Third Person Pronouns

The third person pronoun stem hauv- 'he' is found in only its masculine form.
Masculine
Nom. sg. hauv, hauvam

Acc. sg. (šim), (dim)
Acc. pl. (šiš), (diš)
Instr. pl. tāiš

Abl. pl. taēibyō
8 Athematic Presents
As noted in Lesson 1, verbs of the present system are based on various stems. Those stems ending with the theme-
vowel -a-, called thematic stems, were discussed there. Athematic stems are similarly attested. They are constructed
in ve distinctive but systematic ways.
The root class stems add their ending directly to the verbal root, e.g. ahmiy 'I am', rst person singular present
indicative active of ah 'be'. The root may appear in its strong or weak grade, depending on the verb's ablaut pattern (cf.
Section 2.2).
The reduplicating class forms its stem by adding a reduplicated syllable to the beginning of a verbal root. Only a few
instances of reduplicating class verbs are found in Old Persian: the 1st and 3rd person singular imperfect indicative
adadā, from dā 'make'; the 3rd person singular present imperative active dadātuv, from dā 'give'; and the 2nd person
singular present imperative middle dīdiy, from dī 'think, see, know'.
The na̱- and nu- classes add a form of -na̱-/-na- or -nau-/-nu- to the root, according to ablaut pattern. A third nasal
category, the in x class, is found where the -na- appears inside the root itself in its middle or zero grade.
Athematic Present Paradigms: ah 'be'
1 sg. ahmiy *ahmiy
3 sg. astiy 1 *astiy
1 pl. ahmahi unattested

Imperative
2 sg. *zdiy unattested
3 sg. *astuv unattested
2 pl. *zdā unattested

Optative
3 sg. ahā unattested

Imperfect
1 sg. āham unattested
3 sg. āha2 unattested
3 pl. āha unattested
9 Causatives and Denominatives
The causative stem -aya- that appears in Avestan conveying the sense of causativity (cf. Section 2.9) is also found in
the Old Persian, though it does not necessarily effect a change of meaning: e.g., 3rd person singular imperfect
indicative middle agarbāyatā 'he seized', from grab 'seize, grab'. The causative takes the endings of the present
system.
A denominative stem is formed from a noun by adding the su x -ya- to the noun stem. Like the causative, it takes the
endings of the present system: patiyāvahyaiy 'I asked for help', from the pre x patiy added to the noun-stem avah-
'aid'.
10 Adverbs, Adpositions, and Preverbs

Old Persian adverbs function as adpositions (prepositions or postpositions) and verbal pre xes. Some function as
both, some as one or the other. Adpositions precede or follow the noun they modify, while preverbs are attached
immediately to the front of verbs. Some common examples of each are as follows:
Adposition or Verbal Pre x Meaning Case of Governance
ā near Locative
upa up to Accusative
ni down Locative
patiy toward, against Accusative, Instrumental, Locative
pariy around Accusative
parā away Accusative

Adposition Only Meaning Case of Governance
anuv along, according to Instrumental, Genitive
antar between Accusative
tara through Accusative
pasā after Accusative, Genitive
rādiy on account of Genitive
hacā from Ablative
hadā with Instrumental

Verbal Pre x Only Meaning
ava down
ud up
niš out
fra forth, toward
vi apart
ham together
Footnotes
1 Proto-Indo-Iranian /s/ > Old Persian /h/ in most environments, but not in consonant clusters. Note here that the /m/ in rst
person ahmi is considered a resonant -- i.e. a sound that functions as a consonant when in a vocalic environment, or as a
vowel when in a consonantal environment. Hence, the rule does not apply.

2 Final consonants are dropped in Old Persian, but a third person imperfect ending in t and n can be inferred from
comparison with other Indo-Iranian languages. Thus, the 3rd singular āha is assumed to have developed out of the earlier
form *āhat, and the plural out of *āhan.
Old Iranian Online

The tomb of Darius is located at Naqs-i-rastam, a few miles north of the ancient Persian capital at Persepolis. The
second in a series of three other burial chambers with entryways carved, in the shape of Orthodox crosses each
roughly seventy-three feet high, into the face of a cliff, it bears a relief of Darius standing at the base of his throne,
supported by two lines of fteen throne-bearers. Darius looks toward an altar; Ahura Mazda looks down from above.
There are two inscriptions. Directly behind the Darius gure, 60 lines are carved in Old Persian, translated into 48 lines
of Elamite and 36 lines of Akkadian on the adjacent rock. The second inscription anks the door, with panels in Old
Persian, Elamite, Aramaic, and Akkadian. Together, these constitute the Emperor's last public decrees, highlighting his
deeds and moral and physical fortitude, both praising the god Ahura Mazda.

The passage behind Darius on the relief panel, called the inscription of Darius at Naqs-i-rastam A (DNa), opens by
declaring Ahura Mazda great by virtue of his creation of the earth, sky, and happiness for humankind, and for making
Darius the king. It immediately follows with Darius declaring himself and his noble ancestry to posterity and moves on
to list the countries that bore him tribute during his reign. The passage then mentions, again, that Darius was made
king by his god, but this time adds the reason: Ahura Mazda saw disorder, rebellion, and moral laxity on the earth, and
therefore put Darius in charge, presumably to bring the people back into accordance with Zoroastrian teaching. Darius
then refers his readers to the relief itself, should they forget just how many lands he conquered: "look at the reliefs [of
those] who bear the throne." Their number is carved in stone. The passage closes with a request for Ahura Mazda to
continue to protect him and his descendents from harm and, nally, a last command that his subjects never again rise
in rebellion.
1 - baga vazraka Auramazdā hya imām
baga -- noun; nominative singular masculine <baga-> 'god' -- the god

vazraka -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <vazraka-> 'great' -- great
imām -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ima-> 'he, this' -- this
2 - būmim adā hya avam asmānam
būmim -- noun; accusative singular feminine <būmi-> 'earth' -- earth

adā -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist indicative active <dā> 'put, make, create' -- created
avam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ava-> 'this, that' -- this
asmānam -- noun; accusative singular masculine <asman-> 'sky' -- sky
3 - adā hya martiyam adā hya
martiyam -- noun; accusative singular masculine <martiya-> 'mortal, man, human being' -- mankind
4 - šiyātim adā martiyahyā
šiyātim -- noun; accusative singular feminine <šiyati-> 'welfare, peace, happiness' -- happiness
martiyahyā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <martiya-> 'mortal, man, human being' -- for mankind
5 - hya Dārayavaum xšāyaθiyam akunauš
Dārayavaum -- proper name; accusative singular masculine <Dārayavahu-> 'Darius' -- Darius
xšāyaθiyam -- noun; accusative singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- the king
akunauš -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- made
6 - aivam parūvnām xšāyaθiyam
aivam -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <aiva-> 'one' -- one

parūvnām -- adjective; genitive plural masculine <paru-> 'much, many' -- of many
xšāyaθiyam -- noun; accusative singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- king
7 - aivam parūvnām framātāram
aivam -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <aiva-> 'one' -- one

parūvnām -- adjective; genitive plural masculine <paru-> 'much, many' -- of many
framātāram -- noun; accusative singular masculine <framātar-> 'lord, master' -- overlord
8 - adam Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya vazraka

vazraka -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <vazraka-> 'great' -- great
9 - xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām

xšāyaθiyānām -- noun; genitive plural masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- of kings
10 - xšāyaθiya dahyūnām vispazanānām

dahyūnām -- noun; genitive plural feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- of the lands
vispazanānām -- adjective; <vispa-> 'all, every' + noun; genitive plural masculine <zana-> 'man' -- of all men
11 - xšāyaθiya ahyāyā būmiyā

ahyāyā -- demonstrative pronoun; locative singular feminine <a-> 'this' -- this
būmiyā -- noun; locative singular feminine <būmi-> 'earth' -- on earth
12 - vazrakāyā dūraiapiy Vištāspahyā
vazrakāyā -- adjective; locative singular feminine <vazraka-> 'great' -- great

dūraiapiy -- adverb; <dūra> 'far' + enclitic particle; <apiy> emphatic particle -- far and wide
Vištāspahyā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Vištāspa-> 'Hystaspes' -- of Hystaspes
13 - puça haxāmanišiya pārsa pārsahyā
puça -- noun; nominative singular masculine <puça-> 'son' -- son

haxāmanišiya -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <haxāmanišiya-> 'Achaemenid' -- an Achaemenid
pārsa -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <pārsa-> 'Persian' -- a Persian
pārsahyā -- adjective; genitive singular masculine <pārsa-> 'Persian' -- of a Persian
14 - puça ariya ariyaciça ...
puça -- noun; nominative singular masculine <puça-> 'son' -- son

ariya -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <ariya-> 'Aryan' -- an Aryan
ariyaciça -- adjective; <ariya-> 'Aryan' + noun; nominative singular masculine <ciça-> 'seed, lineage' -- of Aryan
descent
30 - ... θātiy
31 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya Auramazdā yaθā

32 - avaina imām būmim yaudatim
avaina -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <vaina-> 'see' -- saw
imām -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine <ima-> 'he, this' -- this
būmim -- noun; accusative singular feminine <būmi-> 'earth' -- earth
yaudatim -- present participle active; accusative singular feminine <yaud> 'rise up, bubble over' -- rising up
33 - pasāvadim manā frābara mām xšāyaθiyam
pasāvadim -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' + enclitic demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine
<di-> 'this' -- thereupon... it
manā -- personal pronoun; genitive singular masculine <adam> 'I' -- upon me
frābara -- verbal pre x; <fra> 'to, toward, forth' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <bar>
'bear, carry' -- he bestowed
mām -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <adam> 'I' -- me
xšāyaθiyam -- noun; accusative singular masculine <xšāyaθiya-> 'royal, king' -- king
34 - akunauš adam xšāyaθiya
akunauš -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- made
35 - amiy vašnā Auramazdāhā adamšim
amiy -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- am
vašnā -- noun; instrumental singular masculine <vašna-> 'will, favor' -- will
Auramazdāhā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' -- of Ahura Mazda
adamšim -- personal pronoun; nominative singular <adam> 'I' + enclitic pronoun; accusative singular feminine
<ši-> 'she, this' -- I... it
36 - gāθavā niyašādayam tyašām
gāθavā -- noun; locative singular feminine <gāθu-> 'place, throne, battle eld' -- in place
niyašādayam -- verbal pre x; <ni> 'down' + verb; 1st person singular present imperfect indicative active
causative <had> 'sit' -- put down
tyašām -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' + enclitic demonstrative
pronoun; genitive plural masculine <ša-> 'he, this' -- which... of them
37 - adam aθaham ava akunava yaθā mām

aθaham -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <θah> 'speak, say, declare' -- commanded
ava -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- that
akunava -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative middle <kar> 'do, make' -- they did
mām -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <adam> 'I' -- my
38 - kāma āha yadipatiy maniyāhaiy tya
kāma -- noun; nominative singular masculine <kāma-> 'wish, desire' -- wish

yadipatiy -- relative adverb; <yadiy> 'if, when' + adverb; <patiy> 'against, during, with respect to' -- if again
maniyāhaiy -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive middle <man> 'think' -- you would wonder
tya -- relative conjunction; accusative singular neuter <tya-> '(so/in order) that' -- ...
39 - ciyakaram āha avā dahyāva
ciyakaram -- adverb; <cayakaram> 'how much, how many' -- how many

avā -- relative pronoun; nominative plural feminine <ava-> 'this, that' -- those
dahyāva -- noun; nominative plural feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- countries
40 - tyā Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya
tyā -- relative pronoun; nominative plural feminine <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- which
41 - adāraya patikarā dīdiy tyaiy gāθum
adāraya -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle causative <dar> 'hold, support' -- held
patikarā -- noun; accusative plural masculine <patikara-> 'picture, carved/incised likeness' -- the reliefs
dīdiy -- verb; 2nd person singular present imperative middle <di> 'see, look' -- look at
tyaiy -- relative pronoun; accusative plural masculine <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- who
gāθum -- noun; accusative singular feminine <gāθu-> 'place, throne, battle eld' -- the throne
42 - baratiy avadā xšnāsāhy
baratiy -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active <bar> 'bear, carry' -- bear
avadā -- adverb; <avadā> 'then, there' -- then
xšnāsāhy -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active <xšnā> 'learn, know' -- you will know
43 - adataiy azdā bavātiy pārsahyā
adataiy -- adverb; <ada> 'then' + enclitic personal pronoun; genitive singular <tuvam-> 'you' -- thus... to you
bavātiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <bu> 'be, become' -- it will become
pārsahyā -- adjective; genitive singular masculine <pārsa-> 'Persian' -- of a Persian
44 - martiyahyā dūraiy arštiš
martiyahyā -- noun; genitive singular masculine <martiya-> 'mortal, man, human being' -- for mankind
dūraiy -- adverb; <dūraiy> 'afar, far away' -- a great distance
arštiš -- noun; nominative singular feminine <aršti-> 'spear, weapon' -- spear
45 - parāgmatā adataiy azdā bavātiy
parāgmatā -- adverb; <parā> 'forth, forward, beyond' + past participle passive; nominative singular feminine
<gam> 'go' -- has gone forth
adataiy -- adverb; <ada> 'then' + enclitic personal pronoun; genitive singular <tuvam-> 'you' -- thus... to you
bavātiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active <bu> 'be, become' -- it will become
46 - pārsa martiya dūrayapiy hacā Pārsā
pārsa -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <pārsa-> 'Persian' -- a Persian

dūrayapiy -- adverb; <dūra> 'far' + enclitic particle; <apiy> emphatic particle -- extremely far
Pārsā -- geographic name; ablative singular masculine <Pārsa-> 'Persia' -- Persia
47 - partaram patiyajatā θātiy
partaram -- noun; accusative singular neuter <partara-> 'battle' -- battle

patiyajatā -- verbal pre x; <patiy> 'against, during, with respect to' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect
indicative middle <jan> 'smite, strike, slay' -- has done battle
48 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya aita tya kartam

aita -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <aita-> 'he, this' -- this
tya -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- which
kartam -- past participle passive; nominative singular neuter <kar> 'do, make' -- has been done
49 - ava visam vašnā Auramazdāhā
ava -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- that
visam -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <visa-> 'all, every' -- all
Auramazdāhā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' -- of Ahura Mazda
50 - akunavam Auramazdāmaiy upastām abara
akunavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- I did
abara -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <bar> 'bear, carry' -- bore
51 - yātā kartam akunavam mām
yātā -- adverbial conjunction; <yātā> 'until, while, as long as' -- until

kartam -- past participle passive; accusative singular neuter <kar> 'do, make' -- task
akunavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- I accomplished
mām -- personal pronoun; accusative singular masculine <adam> 'I' -- me
52 - Auramazdā pātuv hacā gastā utāmaiy
pātuv -- verb; 3rd person singular present imperative active <pā> 'protect' -- may... protect
gastā -- noun; ablative singular neuter <gasta-> 'evil, harm' -- evil
utāmaiy -- conjunctive particle; <utā> 'and' + personal pronoun; genitive singular <adam> 'I' -- and my
53 - viθam utā imām dahyāum aita adam
viθam -- noun; accusative singular feminine <viθ-> 'house(hold), clan, royal court' -- house
dahyāum -- noun; accusative singular feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- country
54 - Auramazdām jadiyāmiy aitamaiy
jadiyāmiy -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <jad> 'pray, ask' -- I pray
aitamaiy -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <aita-> 'he, this' + personal pronoun; genitive
singular <adam> 'I' -- this... me
55 - Auramazdā dadātuv
dadātuv -- verb; 3rd person singular present imperative active <dā> 'give, take' -- may... give
Lesson Text
1 - baga vazraka Auramazdā hya imām 2 - būmim adā hya avam asmānam 3 - adā hya martiyam adā
hya 4 - šiyātim adā martiyahyā 5 - hya Dārayavaum xšāyaθiyam akunauš 6 - aivam parūvnām
xšāyaθiyam 7 - aivam parūvnām framātāram 8 - adam Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya vazraka 9 - xšāyaθiya
xšāyaθiyānām 10 - xšāyaθiya dahyūnām vispazanānām 11 - xšāyaθiya ahyāyā būmiyā 12 - vazrakāyā
dūraiapiy Vištāspahyā 13 - puça haxāmanišiya pārsa pārsahyā 14 - puça ariya ariyaciça ...
30 - ... θātiy 31 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya Auramazdā yaθā 32 - avaina imām būmim yaudatim 33 -
pasāvadim manā frābara mām xšāyaθiyam 34 - akunauš adam xšāyaθiya 35 - amiy vašnā
Auramazdāhā adamšim 36 - gāθavā niyašādayam tyašām 37 - adam aθaham ava akunava yaθā mām
38 - kāma āha yadipatiy maniyāhaiy tya 39 - ciyakaram āha avā dahyāva 40 - tyā Dārayavauš
xšāyaθiya 41 - adāraya patikarā dīdiy tyaiy gāθum 42 - baratiy avadā xšnāsāhy 43 - adataiy azdā
bavātiy pārsahyā 44 - martiyahyā dūraiy arštiš 45 - parāgmatā adataiy azdā bavātiy 46 - pārsa
martiya dūrayapiy hacā Pārsā 47 - partaram patiyajatā θātiy 48 - Dārayavauš xšāyaθiya aita tya kartam
49 - ava visam vašnā Auramazdāhā 50 - akunavam Auramazdāmaiy upastām abara 51 - yātā kartam
akunavam mām 52 - Auramazdā pātuv hacā gastā utāmaiy 53 - viθam utā imām dahyāum aita adam
54 - Auramazdām jadiyāmiy aitamaiy 55 - Auramazdā dadātuv
Translation
1 Great is the god Ahura Mazda, who 2 created this earth, who 3 created this sky, who created mankind, who 4
created happiness for mankind, 5 who made Darius the king, 6 one king of many, 7 one overlord of many. 8 I [am]
Darius: great king, 9 king of kings, 10 king of the lands of all men, 11 king on this great earth 12 far and wide, son
of Hystaspes 13 an Achaemenid, a Persian, son 14 of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan descent ...
30 ... Darius the king declares: 31 When Ahura Mazda 32 saw the [peoples of] the earth rising up, 33 he then
bestowed it upon me. He 34 made me king, [and therefore] I 35 am king. By the will of Ahura Mazda 36 I put it
down in [its] place. 37 They did that which I asked of them, as 38 was my wish. [And] if you would wonder, 39 "How
many were those countries 40 which Darius the King 41 held?" look at the reliefs [of those] who 42 bear the throne.
Then you will know. 44 "The spear of a Persian man has 45 gone forth a great distance." [And] thus it will become
known to you: 46 "A Persian man has done 47 battle far indeed from Persia." Darius the King 48 declares: I did all
this which has been done 49 by the will of Ahura Mazda. 50 Ahura Mazda bore me aid 51 until I accomplished the
task. 52 May Ahura Mazda protect me from evil, and 53 my house, and this country. This I 54 pray to Ahura Mazda:
may Ahura Mazda 55 give this to me.
Grammar
11 r- and n-stem Nouns
11.1 r-stem Nouns
Old Persian nouns ending in the su x tar function either as agent nouns that indicate the performers of actions -- e.g.,
jantar- 'slayer' -- or as relational nouns describing familial ties -- e.g., mātar- 'mother'. Based on Sanskrit evidence, a
slight variation in declension would be expected in the nominative and accusative cases, but attestations in Old
Persian are too few to verify this. The nominative, accusative, and genitive of pitar- 'father' are given here. The feminine
mātar- declines similarly. Neuter declensions do not appear.
Nom. sg. pitā

Acc. sg. *pitārām
Gen. sg. piça, piçah
11.2 an-, man-, and van-stem Nouns

Old Persian nouns ending in an, man, and van generally function as action nouns. Their masculine and neuter endings
are given here. Feminines are not attested.
Masculine xšayāršan- 'Xerxes' Neuter tauman- power'
Nom. sg. xšayāršā taumā

Acc. sg. xšayāršām,1 *xšayāršānam *taumanam
Instr. sg. unattested *taumnā
Gen. sg. xšayāršāha unattested

Instr. pl. unattested taumaniš
12 Pronouns
12.1 Demonstrative Pronouns
In Section 7.2, the third person pronoun hauv- 'this' was described as functioning also as a demonstrative in the
masculine and feminine. There are two other demonstratve pronouns, i- 'this' and ava- 'that', in masculine, feminine,
and neuter declensions. The neuter third person pronoun aita- is also attested.
i-declension Masculine Neuter Feminine
Nom. sg. iyam ima iyam

Acc. sg. imam ima imām
Instr. sg. anā unattested unattested
Loc. sg. unattested unattested ahyāyā

Nom/Acc. pl. imaiy unattested imā

Instr. pl. unattested unattested imaibiš
Gen. pl. imaišām unattested unattested

ava-declension
Nom. sg. ava ava, avaš-ca unattested
Acc. sg. avam ava, avaš-ca avām

Instr. sg. unattested avamā unattested
Gen. sg. avahyā unattested unattested

Nom. pl. avaiy avā a, avā

Acc. pl. avaiy unattested avāh
Gen. pl. avaišām unattested unattested
12.2 Relative Pronouns

Old Persian relative pronouns form a suppletive system, combining the *ha/ta demonstrative system with the *ya
relative system of Indo-Iranian. (It happens to be the only pronoun declension that includes a dual form, not shown
here.)
hya-declension Masculine Neuter Feminine
Nom. sg. hya tya hyā

Acc. sg. tyam tya tyām
Instr. sg. unattested tyanā unattested

Nom/Acc. pl. tyaiy tyā imā

Gen.pl imaišām unattested tyaišām
13 The Aorist Tense

As in Avestan, the Old Persian includes an aorist stem. By this time, however, the complexity of the aorist system had
been signi cantly reduced, both in the number of forms and in modal function (cf. Avestan Lesson 3, Section 13 on the
injunctive/indicative distinction for the aorist tense). The augment is always included in all moods except the optative,
which may employ it or not, and the form conveys a simple past tense no different in meaning from the imperfect.
A sigmatic aorist is formed from the roots paiθ 'engrave' (with the pre x ni), e.g. niyapaišam, and dar 'support', e.g.
adaršiy, in the rst person singular adaršiyam. The root aorist, shown here, is more common, though still infrequent.
Root Aorist Paradigm: dā 'put, place, create'
1 sg. unattested *adamā
3 sg. adāt *adātā

Imperative
2 sg. adāuvā unattested
Optative
2 sg. (a)dyā, (a)dyāh unattested
3 sg. (a) dyā, (a)dyāt unattested
14 Verbal Adjectives and Nouns

A participle is a verbal adjective -- a verb stem that takes an adjectival su x. It functions syntactically as either an
adjective modifying a noun, or as a substantive replacing it. Like verbs, participles are formed in the active, middle, and
passive voices, and the past, present, and future tenses.
An example of the present participle in English is the word 'running'. In the sentence "The running water is cold," the
verb 'run' functions as an adjective to describe 'water'. In Old Persian, the word might also be used as the subject of the
sentence to describe someone or something that is running, as in "The running (one) is passing by," but this is unusual
in English. Keeping in mind that a participle is adjectival, the common slang phrase "the big, the bad, and the ugly" may
illustrate the same principle. Though 'big', 'bad', and 'ugly' are not participles, they are adjectives standing in place of
the nouns they modify (e.g., 'the big men', 'the bad men', etc.) -- a usage that participles commonly have in Old Persian.
The present active participle is formed by adding the ending -ant to a present verbal stem, which declines according to
the an- paradigm, given in Section 12, in the masculine and neuter. The feminine is formed by weakening the ant-
ending to at and adding a long ī. The form then declines accordingly (cf. Section 6). The present middle participle adds
the ending -amna to the verbal stem and declines like the a-/ā-stems in Section 3.
In addition to the present active and middle participles, Old Persian employs a perfect and a future passive participle.
The perfect passive participle is most commonly formed by adding ta to the zero-grade root, e.g. marta 'dead', from
mar 'die', though it is occasionally added to a stronger grade. A few roots add na, also to the zero-grade, instead of ta.
The form is translated as a simple past tense verb with adjectival function, e.g. marta 'dead' as seen in line 48 ('[when I
am] dead') of Lesson 10. It may also be used substantively, as in karta 'deed', from kar 'do, make', in line 46 of Lesson
10.
The future passive participle adds ata to the zero- or middle-grade root, e.g. θakata- 'past' from θak 'pass'. Despite the
name passive, the form only appears in Old Persian with intransitive verbs and is therefore active in meaning.
The in nitive is the only verbal noun formation in Old Persian. It is formed by adding the su x tanaiy to a middle grade
root. It is translated as the English in nitive, e.g. bartanay 'to bear' from bar 'support, bear'.
15 Relative-Correlative Syntax
Native English speakers sometimes nd the Indo-Iranian relative clause di cult since it is not usually embedded within
the main clause, as it is in English, but rather precedes the clause, which 'picks up' the relative pronoun with a
corresponding demonstrative, or correlative, pronoun. The relative pronoun may be placed anywhere within its own
clause, though it is often found at the beginning. The correlative must begin the main clause. The antecedent, or the
word that the relative pronoun represents in the relative clause, is included, somewhat counter-intuitively, in the relative
clause, usually immediately following the relative pronoun.
The relative clause in lines 48 and 49 above provide an illustration:
aita tya kartam ava visam vašnā auramazdāhā

this which has been done, that all by the will of Ahura Mazda
This is translated into English as "I did all this which has been done by the will of Ahura Mazda."
Footnote
1 Built on analogy with the h-stem paradigm, probably after Ahura Mazdah-.
Old Iranian Online

Herodotus (7.1) relays a dispute between Darius' sons Artobazanes and Xerxes for succesion to their father's throne.
Each made an appeal according to Persian tradition, which held that the eldest son would become the next king. As
Darius' rst son by his rst wife, Artobazanes presented a straightforward case favoring himself, while Xerxes was
forced, like a more 'modern' politician, to stretch the meaning of the term ' rst-born'. As Darius' rst son by Atossa,
daughter of Cyrus the Great, whom Darius had married after becoming king, Xerxes claimed that it was he who was the
true heir apparent since it was he who was the eldest son of Darius the King while his brother was merely the eldest
son of Darius the man. According to Herodotus, Darius found the latter argument more compelling and appointed
Xerxes his successor. By Xerxes' own accounts, however, it was Ahura Mazda's desire for Darius to make Xerxes the
next king, since he was the greatest of all his sons. It is for this reason alone, Xerxes implies, that he ascended the
throne upon his father's death (486 B.C.).

Xerxes' so-called "Daiva Inscription" is carved on four stone tablets that were found in a building located on the
southeast corner of the Royal Complex at Persepolis, Darius' and Xerxes' capitol. Of the four, two are in Old Persian, a
complete version of 60 lines and a copy stopping in the middle of line 51. Elamite and Akkadian translations of 50 lines
each complete the set. The inscription's opening lines are nearly identical to lines 1-6 and 13-15 of Darius'
proclamation at Naqs-i-rastam (cf. Lesson 9), but for the necessary changes of name. Lines 13 to 28 then list the
countries over which Xerxes held sway "by the will of Ahura Mazda." The selection below begins in the middle of line
28, where Xerxes declares that one of the countries just named rose against him but was defeated when Ahura Mazda
bore him aid in putting the rebellion down. In line 35, Xerxes goes on to describe another kind of revolt -- the worship of
daivas, or the practice of the old religion overturned by Zarathustra -- that he also put down. The immediate
juxtaposition of these two events serves to highlight the integral nature of religion, morality, and politics in the ideology
of the time: Ahura Mazda made Xerxes king; therefore it is his responsibility to see that the god's will is done in his
kingdom, that the Zoroastrian ritual is carried out and the Zoroastrian teachings are obeyed. The moral component is
also reinforced in lines 41-46, where Xerxes declares his righting of other wrongs, again with Ahura Mazda's aid. The
king then declares what brings happiness to the living and the dead, namely reverence of and obedience to Ahura
Mazda. In closing, Xerxes again copies Darius exactly (cf. DNa 51-5, Lesson 9).
28 - ... θātiy Xšayāršā
Xšayāršā -- proper name; nominative singular masculine <Xšayāršan-> 'Xerxes' -- Xerxes
29 - xšāyaθiya yaθā tya adam
yaθā -- adverbial conjunction; <yaθā> 'as, when, because' -- since
tya -- relative pronoun; <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- that
30 - xšāyaθiya abavam astiy atar aitā

abavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <bu> 'be, become' -- have become
astiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- there is
atar -- preposition; <atar> 'within, among' -- among
aitā -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural feminine <aita-> 'he, this' -- those
31 - dahyāva tyaiy upariy nipištā
dahyāva -- noun; accusative plural feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- lands
tyaiy -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- which
upariy -- adverb; <upariy> 'over, above, in accordance with' -- above
nipištā -- verbal pre x; <ni> 'down' + past participle passive; accusative plural feminine <paiθ> 'inscribe,
engrave' -- are inscribed
32 - ayauda pasāvamaiy Auramazdā upastām
ayauda -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <yaud> 'rise up, bubble over' -- was rising up
pasāvamaiy -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' + personal pronoun; genitive singular <adam> 'I' -- and
thereupon... me
33 - abara vašnā Auramazdahā ava dahyāvam
Auramazdahā -- proper name; genitive singular masculine <Auramazdāh-> 'Ahura Mazda' -- of Ahura Mazda
ava -- preposition; <ava> 'away, down' -- down
dahyāvam -- noun; accusative singular feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- country
34 - adam ajanam utašim gāθavā nīšādayam

ajanam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <jan> 'smite, strike, slay' -- struck down
utašim -- conjunctive particle; <utā> 'and' + enclitic pronoun; accusative singular feminine <ši-> 'she, this' --
and... it
gāθavā -- noun; locative singular feminine <gāθu-> 'place, throne, battle eld' -- in place
nīšādayam -- verbal pre x; <ni> 'down' + verb; 1st person singular present indicative active causative <had>
'sit' -- put down
35 - utā atar aitā dahyāva āha yadātya

atar -- preposition; <atar> 'within, among' -- within
aitā -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural feminine <aita-> 'he, this' -- these
dahyāva -- noun; accusative plural feminine <dahyu-> 'country, land, region' -- lands
āha -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active <ah> 'be' -- there was
yadātya -- adverb; <yadā> 'where' + demonstrative pronoun; <tya-> 'he, this, that' -- one where
36 - paruvam daivā ayadiya pasāva vašnā
paruvam -- adverb; <paruvam> 'previously, before' -- once

daivā -- noun; accusative plural masculine <daiva-> 'daiva' -- the daivas
ayadiya -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative passive <yad> 'revere, worship' -- were worshipped
pasāva -- adverb; <pasāva> 'after(wards)' -- then
37 - Auramazdahā adam avam daivadānam
avam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- that
daivadānam -- noun; <daiva-> 'daiva' + noun; accusative singular neuter <dāna-> 'offering' -- altar to the
daivas
38 - viyakanam utā patiyazbayam daivā
viyakanam -- verbal pre x; <vi> 'wide, apart' + verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <kan> 'dig' --
uprooted
patiyazbayam -- verbal pre x; <patiy> 'against, during, with respect to' + verb; 1st person singular imperfect
indicative active causative <zbā-> 'call' -- proclaimed
39 - mā yadiyaiša yadāyā paruvam daivā
mā -- injunctive particle; <mā> (expresses prohibition) -- not

yadiyaiša -- verb; 3rd person plural present imperative passive <yad> 'revere, worship' -- shall be worshipped
yadāyā -- adverb; <yadā> 'where' + ; <tya-> (corrupt form) 'that' -- where
paruvam -- adverb; <paruvam> 'previously, before' -- once
40 - ayadiya avadā adam Auramazdām ayadaiy
ayadiya -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative passive <yad> 'revere, worship' -- were worshipped
avadā -- adverb; <avadā> 'then, there' -- there
ayadaiy -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative middle <yad> 'revere, worship' -- worshipped
41 - artācā brazmaniya utā aniyašca
artācā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <arta-> 'Truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and, but' -- and
brazmaniya -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <brazmaniya-> 'reverent' -- being reverent
aniyašca -- adjective; nominative singular neuter <aniya-> 'other' + conjunction; <ca> 'and, but' -- yet another
42 - āha tya duškartam akariya ava adam
tya -- relative pronoun; <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- that
duškartam -- adverb; <duš> 'di cult, bad, evil' + past participle passive; accusative singular masculine <kar>
'do, make' -- for ill
akariya -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative passive <kar> 'do, make' -- had been done
ava -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- that
43 - naibam akunavam aita tya adam
naibam -- adjective; accusative singular neuter <naiba-> 'beautiful, pious' -- right

akunavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- I made
tya -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter <tya-> 'who, which; that' -- which
44 - akunavam visam vašnā Auramazdahā akunavam
visam -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <visa-> 'all, every' -- all
45 - Auramazdāmaiy upastām abara
46 - yātā kartam akunavam tuva kā hya
yātā -- adverbial conjunction; <yātā> 'until, while, as long as' -- as long as

kartam -- past participle passive; accusative singular neuter <kar> 'do, make' -- deed
akunavam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect indicative active <kar> 'do, make' -- I accomplished
tuva -- pronoun; nominative singular <tuvam-> 'you' -- you
47 - apara yadimaniyāiy šiyāta ahaniy
apara -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <apara-> 'later, after' -- after

yadimaniyāiy -- relative adverb; <yadiy> 'if, when' + verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle <man>
'think' -- if you think
šiyāta -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <šiyāta-> 'happy' -- happy
ahaniy -- verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive active <ah> 'be' -- may I be
48 - jīva utā marta artāvā ahaniy
jīva -- present active particle; nominative singular masculine <jiva-> 'living' -- living
marta -- past participle passive; nominative singular masculine <mar> 'die' -- dead
artāvā -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <artāvan-> 'blessed, righteous' -- blessed
ahaniy -- verb; 1st person singular present subjunctive active <ah> 'be' -- may I be
49 - avanā dātā parīdiy tya Auramazdā
avanā -- demonstrative pronoun; instrumental singular neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- on account of that
dātā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <dāta-> 'law' -- laws
parīdiy -- verbal pre x; <pariy> 'toward, with respect to' + verb; 3rd person singular present imperative middle
<ay> 'go' -- honor
50 - niyaštāya Auramazdām yadaišā
niyaštāya -- verbal pre x; <ni> 'down' + verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative middle <šta> 'sit, set,
place' -- has set down
yadaišā -- verb; 2nd person singular present optative middle <yad> 'revere, worship' -- you should worship
51 - artācā brazmaniya martiya hya avanā
artācā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <arta-> 'Truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and, but' -- and Truth
avanā -- demonstrative pronoun; instrumental singular neuter <ava-> 'this, that' -- on account of that
52 - dātā pariyaita tya Auramazdā
dātā -- noun; accusative plural neuter <dāta-> 'law' -- laws

pariyaita -- verbal pre x; <pariy> 'toward, with respect to' + verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle
<ay> 'go' -- honors
53 - nīštāya utā Auramazdām yadataiy
nīštāya -- verbal pre x; <ni> 'down' + verb; 3rd person singular present indicative middle <šta> 'sit, set, place' --
sets down
yadataiy -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active <yad> 'revere, worship' -- worships
54 - artācā brazmaniya hauv utā jīva
artācā -- noun; instrumental singular neuter <arta-> 'Truth' + conjunction; <ca> 'and, but' -- and Truth
hauv -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <hauv-> 'he, this' -- ...
jīva -- present active particle; nominative singular masculine <jiva-> 'living' -- living
55 - šiyāta bavatiy utā marta artāvā
šiyāta -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <šiyāta-> 'happy' -- happy

bavatiy -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- becomes
marta -- past participle passive; nominative singular masculine <mar> 'die' -- dead
artāvā -- adjective; nominative singular masculine <artāvan-> 'blessed, righteous' -- blessed
56 - bavatiy ...
bavatiy -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active <ah> 'be' -- becomes
Lesson Text
28 - ... θātiy Xšayāršā 29 - xšāyaθiya yaθā tya adam 30 - xšāyaθiya abavam astiy atar aitā 31 -
dahyāva tyaiy upariy nipištā 32 - ayauda pasāvamaiy Auramazdā upastām 33 - abara vašnā
Auramazdahā ava dahyāvam 34 - adam ajanam utašim gāθavā nīšādayam 35 - utā atar aitā dahyāva
āha yadātya 36 - paruvam daivā ayadiya pasāva vašnā 37 - Auramazdahā adam avam daivadānam 38
- viyakanam utā patiyazbayam daivā 39 - mā yadiyaiša yadāyā paruvam daivā 40 - ayadiya avadā
adam Auramazdām ayadaiy 41 - artācā brazmaniya utā aniyašca 42 - āha tya duškartam akariya ava
adam 43 - naibam akunavam aita tya adam 44 - akunavam visam vašnā Auramazdahā akunavam 45 -
Auramazdāmaiy upastām abara 46 - yātā kartam akunavam tuva kā hya 47 - apara yadimaniyāiy
šiyāta ahaniy 48 - jīva utā marta artāvā ahaniy 49 - avanā dātā parīdiy tya Auramazdā 50 - niyaštāya
Auramazdām yadaišā 51 - artācā brazmaniya martiya hya avanā 52 - dātā pariyaita tya Auramazdā 53
- nīštāya utā Auramazdām yadataiy 54 - artācā brazmaniya hauv utā jīva 55 - šiyāta bavatiy utā marta
artāvā 56 - bavatiy ...
Translation
28 ... Xerxes the King 29 declares: Since [the time] that I 30 have become king, there is among those 31 lands
inscribed above [one that] 32 was rising up. And thereupon, Ahura Mazda 33 bore me aid. By the will of Ahura
Mazda I struck [that] country 34 down and I [now] put it down in [its] place. 35 And among these lands there was
[also] one where 36 the daivas were once worshipped; [but] later, by the will 37 of Ahura Mazda, I uprooted that
altar to the daivas, 38 and proclaimed: "The daivas 39 shall not be worshipped!" [Then,] 40 being reverent, I
worshipped Ahura Mazda and Truth where the daivas were worshipped once before. 41 And there was yet
another thing 42 that had been done for ill, [and] that I 43 made right, [too]. All this that I did, 44 I did by the will of
Ahura Mazda. 45 Ahura Mazda bore me aid, 46 as long as I was doing the deed. [And] if you who [would come] 47
after [me] should think, "May I be happy 48 [as long as I am] living, may I be blessed [when I am] dead," 49 [then]
on account of that, honor the laws which Ahura Mazda has 50 set down. You, being reverent, should worship
Ahura Mazda 51 and Truth. The man who, on account of that, 52 honors the laws which Ahura Mazda sets 53
down, and [who], being reverent, worships Ahura Mazda 54 and Truth, both becomes happy [as long as he is]
living 55 and becomes blessed 56 [when he is] dead ...
Grammar
16 Noun Stems in Sibilants and Stops
16.1 s-stem Nouns
Old Persian nouns in as are few in form and number, though these few are fairly common. The stem appears in both
the masculine ās and the neuter as, but never in the feminine.
Singular: Masculine auramazdāh- 'Wise Lord' Neuter drayah- 'sea'
Nom. auramazdā *drahyah, *drahya
Acc. auramazdām, *auramazdāham *drahyah, *drahya
Instr. unattested *drahyahā
Gen. auramazdāha unattested
Loc. unattested drayahyā

Plural:
Instr. unattested drayabiš
Neuter nouns in is are seen in nominative and accusative singular hadiš. Masculine proper names in is, e.g.,
haxāmaniš, are treated as masculine i-stems and decline accordingly.
16.2 Stems in Stops
There are Old Persian noun stems in t, d, p, and θ. The nominative form is found only in napāt 'grandson', preceded by
long a: napā. Feminine accusative, instrumental, genitive, and locative forms of each decline similarly, as follows:
Singular: θard- 'year'

Acc. θardam, *auramazdāham
Instr. *θardā
Gen. θarda
Loc. θardiy, *θardiyā
Plural:
Instr. *θardbiš
17 Compounds
Two types of nominal compound occur in Old Persian. Determinative compounds are made by joining two noun stems
together such that the second determines the syntactic function of the rst, which therefore remains undeclined. This
case relation may be any one of the oblique cases (accusative through locative), e.g., hauma-varga- 'haoma-drinking'
(accusative) or arda-stana- 'place of light' (genitive). The case ending on the second stem determines the relation of
the whole unit to the other words of the sentence in which it appears.
Exocentric, or possessive-adjectival compounds, are made like determinative compounds but function as possessive
adjectives modifying another noun which may or may not be explicity stated; e.g., hama-pitar- 'having the same father',
'they who have the same father', or aspa-cana- 'having a love for horses', 'he who loves horses'.
18 The Perfect Tense and the Passive Verb

Old Persian includes only one perfect form, caxriyā, the third person singular optative active of kar 'do, make'. The
form shows reduplication as in the Avestan and Sanskrit, with the zero-grade root preceded by ca. The translation is 'he
would have done'.
Passive stems appear in both the present and aorist systems with the su x ya added to the stem in its normal grade.
With two exceptions, an active ending is then added. E.g., abariya 'is born', 3rd person singular imperfect indicative.
19 The Passive and the Sequential Accusative

19.1 The Passive Construction
Sentences employing passive verbal forms, either nite or participial, require the logical subject to be placed in the
instrumental case while the direct object becomes the grammatical subject of the verb, putting it in the nominative
case, as in tya manā kartam 'what was done by me' beside tya adam akunavam 'what I did'.
19.2 The Sequential Accusative
The nal member of any list containing two or more accusative objects has the instrumental case form; e.g., adam
auramazdām ayadaiy / artācā... 'I worshipped Ahura Mazda and Truth...', where auramazdām is accusative and artā
instrumental. The pattern is standard, though it most likely originated by con ating the instrumental's expression of
accompaniment with the common sequence of accusatives: *auramazdām artā hadā 'Ahura Mazda along with Truth'
> auramazdām artā ca 'Ahura Mazda and Truth'.
20 Old Persian Texts, Grammars, and Dictionaries
Roland G. Kent's Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, 2nd ed.) is the
standard work; as the title indicates, it includes the texts as well as the grammar and dictionary. Additional data are
provided by Supplement zur Sammlung der altpersischen Inschriften, by Manfred Mayrhofer (Vienna: Verlag der
Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1978); the Academy has also published a large number of volumes on
manifold topics. And Rüdiger Schmitt has provided a new edition of the most extensive text in The Bisitun Inscriptions
of Darius the Great: Old Persian Text (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1991).

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Reading and Textual Analysis

1 - xšmaibyā gə̄uš urvā gərəždā kahmāi mā θwarōždūm kə̄ mā tašaṯ

xšmaibyā -- pronoun; dative plural masculine <yūžəm-> 'you' -- to you

ā mā aēšəmō hazas-cā rəmō āhišāyā dərəš-cā təviš-cā

ā -- preposition; <ā> '(up) to, toward, etc.' -- ...

nōiṯ -- negative particle; <nōiṯ> 'no, none' -- no

adā -- adverb; <adā> 'then, thereupon, thus' -- then

hyaṯ hīm dātā xšayantō hadā vāstrā gaodāyō θwaxšō

hyaṯ -- relative adverb; <hyaṯ> 'if, so, when' -- when

kə̄m hōi uštā ahurəm yə̄ drəgvōdəbīš aēšəməm vādāyōiṯ

3 - ahmāi ašā nōiṯ sarəjā advaēšō gavōi paitī-mravaṯ

avaēšąm nōiṯ vīduyē yā šavaitē ādrə̄ng ərəšvåŋhō

hātąm hvō aojištō yahmāi zavə̄ng jimā kərədušā

4 - mazdå saxvārə̄ mairištō yā zī vāvərəzōi pairī-ciθīṯ

daēvāiš-cā mašyāiš-cā yā-cā varəšaitē aipī-ciθīṯ

hvō -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ha-> '(s)he, this' -- he

5 - aṯ vā ustānāiš ahvā zastāiš frīnəmnā ahurāi ā

aṯ -- particle; <aṯ> 'then, but, and, so, thus' -- so

mə̄ urvā gə̄uš-cā azyå hyaṯ mazdąm dvaidī frasåbyō

mə̄ -- adjective pronoun; nominative singular masculine <ma-> 'my' -- my

nōiṯ ərəžəjyōi frajyāitiš nōiṯ fšuyentē drəgvasū pairī

nōiṯ -- negative particle; <nōiṯ> 'no, none' -- no

1 - xšmaibyā gə̄uš urvā gərəždā kahmāi mā θwarōždūm kə̄ mā tašaṯ

3 - ahmāi ašā nōiṯ sarəjā advaēšō gavōi paitī-mravaṯ

4 - mazdå saxvārə̄ mairištō yā zī vāvərəzōi pairī-ciθīṯ

5 - aṯ vā ustānāiš ahvā zastāiš frīnəmnā ahurāi ā

Who fashioned me?

Cruelty, oppression, bloodlust, rage, and violence have fettered me,

[And] there is no herdsman for me other than you.

together with pasturage?

Possessor of the Lie?"

[will be] the strongest of beings.

And [those also] that he will make sometime later.

He is the discerning Lord; it will be for us just as he would wish."

So [that] we may dispose the Wise One to [answer our] inquiries.

Letter Sound Letter Sound Letter Sound

a gutter k kipper y youth

ā father x Ger. Loch r room

i sit, Ger. bitte x́ horse v vice;

u book g (ġ) gipper s sound

ū choose γ approx. brogue, Sp. haga š (ṣ̌) shout

e red ŋ sing š́ wish you

ē hey c chip, It. ciao z zoo

o goat, Sp. rojo j jest ž azure

ō hoe ń Sp. año

ə approx Fr. ṯ approx. as British bitter h horse

ə̄ herd, Fr. peur t time

2 The Sound System

Vowels: Front Central Back

Unaspirated Aspirated Unaspirated Aspirated Nasal Sibilant Sibilant

Unvoiced Unvoiced Voiced Voiced Unvoiced Voiced

2.3 Length of Final Vowels

The cases are as follows:

Case Primary Function English Translation

Nominative Grammatical Subject (subject)

Accusative Direct Object (object)

Instrumental Object of Means by, with

2 pl. barata baraδBvəm

1 sg. barāni barāne, barāi

3 sg. barāiti, barāṯ barāite

3pl. barąn barāŋte, barāire

2 pl. baraita baraiθəm