Precision Machine

Design

Alexander H. Slocum
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Society of Manufacturing Engineers

Dearborn, Michigan
 Preface
History has shown that precision machines are essential elements of an industrial society. Indeed, modem
industry is critically dependent on precision machines ranging from those for the manufacture of integrated
circuits, to machines for the manufacture of optical components, to machines for the manufacture of
automobiles. There are many fine texts on the design of machine elements, and this book assumes that the
reader is familiar with their concepts. However, a precision machine is an integrated system that relies on
the attributes of one component to augment the weaknesses of another component. Therefore, in this book,
emphasis is placed on the design of mechanical and structural precision machine components and their
integration with sensor and control systems to maximize performance. In the discussion of the design of
components and assemblies, emphasis is placed on how the design will affect the overall accuracy,
repeatability, and resolution of the machine.
No single text can adequately cover the detailed design of mechanical, sensor, and control system
components. This text is primarily concerned with the design and integration of precision mechanical
components and machines. Thus with respect to sensor and control systems, basic operating principles are
first discussed. Examples are then given of commercially available sensors’ characteristics. Control system
design is discussed in the context of how the selection of a component affects the controllability of the
machine.
Design is a mixture of analysis and creative thought, and it is my intent to provide the reader with
a sound theoretical background and then provide the means for the reader to experiment. When teaching
design courses in the past, I always dreaded having to arrange for students to have the proper catalogs
required for a hands-on design course. In addition, when working on a.design, often at a client’s site, I was
also often frustrated when I did not have a catalog I needed in order to complete a design layout. Thus in
this text, examples are given of the characteristics of commercially available components that I have found
to be quite useful. I would gladly accept recommendations for additions to the examples provided.
The book begins with a discussion of design philosophies for precision machines and presents in-
depth case studies on the design of a machine tool and a coordinate measuring machine. Chapter 2 presents
a detailed discussion on the physics of errors in machines and how such knowledge can be used to build an
error budget for a machine, Chapters 3 and 4 discuss types of analog and optical sensors for use in
precision machine tools.1 Chapter 5 discusses sensor mounting methods. Chapter 6 is a detailed case study
on the mapping of geometric and thermal errors in a machine tool. Chapter 7 discusses system design
considerations. Chapters 8 and 9 discuss all types of linear and rotary bearings used in machine tools.
Emphasis is placed on discussing fundamental properties of bearings and how the bearings behave in the
machine. Chapter 10 discusses how to define actuator requirements and then discusses in detail many types
of linear and rotary actuators and transmissions commonly used in precision machines.
This book is intended as a textbook for senior-level or graduate design courses and as a reference
book for practicing engineers. As a textbook it assumes that the student has the level of maturity required
to investigate concepts in more detail when an unfamiliar one is only briefly mentioned. Because this book
in many ways is the first design book of its kind, it should be valuable to the practicing engineer as a
reference and review book. In many cases detailed derivations of formulas are provided, because often the
concept of the derivation helps to provide insight into the nature of the problem. The application of
formulas is often illustrated with the use of spreadsheets.

1 Chapters 3 and 4 present sensors in alphabetical order, rather than based on operating principle (e.g., inductive),
because real-world engineers I queried liked the format belter. In the end, the information content is the same. I welcome
further comments from readers on this format.

vii
 Contents

Preface.. .......................................................................................................................... vii

Corporate Acknowledgments ........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~.... . . . . . . . , . , . . .ix

Institutional Acknowledgments.. ...........I............~...........................................~........ xi

. ..
Personal Acknowledgments .......~.........................~....................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . x111

ChaDter 1
Intrbduction to Precision Machine Design.. ......................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction. ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Fundamentals of Economic Analysis ................................................................................... 2
1.3 Project Management ........................................................................................................ 10
1.4 The Design of a Design Engineer ....................................................................................... 17
1.5 Design Case Study: A High Speed Machining Center.. ......................................................... .31
1.6 Design Case Study: A Coordinate Measuring Machine ........................................................ ..4 5

Chapter 2
Principles of Accuracy, Repeatability, and Resolution.. ................................. .58
2.1 Introduction. ................................................................................................................... 58
2.2 Formulating the System Error Budget ................................................................................ .61
2.3 Quasi-static Mechanical Errors ........................................................................................... 80
2.4 Errors Caused by Dynamic Forces ..................................................................................... .104
2.5 Design Case Study: Carriage Straightness Errors Caused by Leadscrew Misalignment ................ .107

Chapter 3
Analog Sensors ............................................................................................................ 114
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 114
3.2 Nonoptical Sensor Systems.. ............................................................................................ .120

Chapter 4
Optical Sensor Systems ............................................................................................. 158
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 158
4.2 Autocollimators .............................................................................................................. 158
4.3 Optical Encoders ............................................................................................................. 163
4.4 Fiber Optic Sensors .................................................................................................................................................................................
:;z
4.5 Interferometric Sensors
4.6 Laser Triangulation Sensors .............................................................................................. 206
4.7 Photoelectric Transducers .................................................................................................. 207
4.8 Time of Flight Sensors .................................................................................................... 212
4.9 Vision Systems .............................................................................................................. 213

Chapter 5
Sensor Mounting and Calibration .......................................................................... .218
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 218
5.2 Sensor Location .............................................................................................................. 218
5.3 Sensor Alignment ........................................................................................................... 222
5.4 Sensor Mounting Structure Design ..................................................................................... 224
5.5 Sensor Mounting Environment. ......................................................................................... 227
5.6 Contact Between Curved Surfaces ....................................................................................... 228
5.7 Metrology Frames ........................................................................................................... 236
5.8 Sensor Calibration ........................................................................................................... 247
5.9 Effects of Sensor Output and Location Errors on Accuracy ..................................................... .250
5.10 Design Case Study: Design of a Laser Telemetric System.. ................................................. .253

V
vi

Chapter 6
Mapping Geometric and Thermal Errors in a Turning Center.. ..................... .268
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 268
6.2 Assembling the HTM Model of the SuperslantTM ................................................................. .274
6.3 Machine Tool Metrology .................................................................................................. 279
6.4 Calibration Measurement Results ....................................................................................... 286
6.5 Compensating for the Measured Errors ............................................................................... .296
6.6 Real-time Implementation of the Error Compensation System ................................................ .298
6.7 Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................................ 302

Chapter 7
System Design Considerations.. ............................................................................. .304
7.1 Introduction. ................................................................................................................... 304
7.2 Manufacturing Considerations ............................................................................................ 305
7.3 Materials ....................................................................................................................... 332
7.4 Structural Design ............................................................................................................ 340
7.5 Joint Design ................................................................................................................... 365
7.6 Support Systems ............................................................................................................. 393
7.7 Kinematic Coupling Design ............................................................................................. .401
7.8 Design Case Study: A Unique Machine for Grinding Large, Off-axis Optical Components .......... .4 12

Chapter 8
Bearings with Mechanical Contact between Elements ................ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..421
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 421
8.2 Sliding Contact Bearings ................................................................................................ ..42 5
8.3 Rolling Element Bearings ................................................................................................. 444
8.4 Rolling Element Rotary Motion Bearings ............................................................................ 460
8.5 Rolling Element Linear Motion Bearings.. .......................................................................... .479
8.6 Flexural Bearings ........................................................................................................... .52 1
8.7 Design to Limit Thermal Effects on Bearing Performance ....................................................... 539
8.8 Case Study: Measurement of a Spindle’s Error Motions.. ..................................................... ..54 3

Chapter 9
Bearings without Mechanical Contact between Elements.. .............................. 551
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... .551
9.2 Hydrostatic. Bearings ....................................................................................................... .55 1
9.3 Aerostatic Bearings .......................................................................................................... 580
9.4 Magnetic Bearings ........................................................................................................... 625

Chapter 10
Power Generation and Transmission ................. ............................................ ........640
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 640
10.2 Dynamic Matching of Components ................................................................................. 640
10.3 Linear and Rotary Electric Servomotors ............................................................................ 650
10.4 Limited Range of Motion Electromagnetic Actuators .......................................................... 663
10.5 Piezoelectric Actuators .................................................................................................. 666
10.6 Fluid Power Systems ...................................................... ..‘............................................ 674
10.7 Rotary Power Transmission Elements.. ............................................................................ 683
10.8 Linear Power Transmission Elements ............................................................................... 699
10.9 Design Case Study: Increasing Axial Stiffness Through Control .......................................... 739

Index ................... .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... ...... .......................................................... . . . . . . . . . .745

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