SUBSEA ENGINEERING

PART A (2 MARKS)

1. What is subsea system (SSS)?

Subsea systems are generally multicomponent seafloor systems
These allow for the production of hydrocarbons in water depths that would normally
rule out installing conventional fixed or bottom founded platforms.
Through an array of subsea wells, manifolds, central umbilical, and flow lines a
subsea system can be located many miles away in deeper water and tied back to
existing host facilities in shallow water.
Host facilities in deeper water will be like FPS.

2. What are the components of Subsea System?

 Subsea Production Tree
 Pipeline and Flowline
 Subsea manifold
 Umbilical
 Host Facility
 Termination Unit
 Production risers
 Template
 Jumpers

3. What is Subsea Manifold?

It is a gravity-based seafloor structure that consists of an arrangement of valves, pipes,
and fittings. It serves as a central gathering point for production from subsea wells
and redirects the combined flow to the host facility. A manifold arrangement can be of
any shape, but normally is rectangular or circular. The likely range of dimensions for
a subsea manifold would be 80 feet on a side (diameter for circular design), standing
up to 30 feet above the seafloor.

4. Draw the Umbilical cross section.

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5. Give any four codes associated with subsea components.

6. What are the different layouts of Subsea system?

 Single-well satellite
 Multiwell satellite
 Cluster-well system
 Template
 Combination of the above

7. Sketch the different layouts of Subsea System.

8.Give the names of different methods of offloading.

 Floating Storage and Offloading
 Floating Production, Storage and Offloading
 Floating, Drilling and Production, Storage and Offloading
 Floating Storage Regasification Unit.

9. What is Subsea production tree?

Subsea production tree is an arrangement of valves, pipes, fittings, and connections
placed on top of a wellbore. Orientation of the valves can be in the vertical bore or
the horizontal outlet of the tree. Its valves can be operated by electrical or hydraulic
signals or manually by diver or remotely operated vehicle (ROV). The dimensions of
the production tree are approximately 3.6 m x 3.6m ft x 3.6 m (12x12x12 ft, length by
width by height), and can range in height up to 4.8m(40 ft) for deeper water depths.

10. What do you mean by the term Umbilical?

It is a bundled arrangement of tubing, piping, and/or electrical conductors in an
armored (protective) sheath installed from the host facility to the subsea production
system equipment. It is used to transmit the control fluid and/or electrical current
necessary to control the functions of the subsea production and safety equipment
(tree, valves, manifold, etc.

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11. What is Host facility? Give examples.

The host facility is nothing but one of the various types of platforms used for
developing offshore hydrocarbon fields.

Examples:
Fixed jacket type platforms, tension leg platforms, spars, floating production systems
or floating production, storage, and offloading systems.

12. What is termination unit?

The termination unit is a subsea equipment skid used to facilitate the interface of the
umbilical or pipeline or flow lines with the subsea equipment. Its dimensions range up
to 300cm (10’) on a side and 150cm (5’) in height.

13. What are the buoyancy modules?

These are the modules which are used between a subsea structure and a surface vessel
or platform. These modules are been used for holding the pipelines in a specific
geometric configuration to prevent over utilization of the system and to reduce the
weight of the pipeline during installation.

14. What are Jumpers?

A short segment of flexible pipe/hose/cable with a connector half a either end is
known as jumpers. It is used to connect flowlines and/or subsea facilities together.

15. What are the types of Subsea completions?

 Open hole completions
 Liner completions
 Perforated casing completions
 Single completions
 Multiple completions
 Alternate completions
 Slim hole completions

16. What is PLET?

A PLET is the Pipeline End Termination. Its skid typically contains a male hub that
serves as an attachment point for a jumper.

17. What is PLEM?

A PLEM is the Pipeline End Manifold. It serves as a manifold to split the product
flow into multiple routes that may feed into an FPSO, refinery and holding tanks
concurrently.

18. Expand: a) TTR b) SCR

a) TTR: Top Tensioned Risers
b) SCR: Steel Catenary Risers

19. Expand: a) FPSO b) FLNG

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a) FPSO: Floating Production Storage and Offloading

b) FLNG: Floating Liquefied Natural Gas

20. Expand: a) VLCC b) ULCC

a) VLCC: Very Large Crude Carrier
b) ULCC: Ultra Large Crude Carrier

21. What is multiphase flow? Write its possible combinations.

It is defined as the flow with different states or phases (i.e. gas, liquid or solid).
Combination:

22. What is Flowline?

Piping installed within the confines of the platform or manifold for the purpose of
commingling (mixing, for example, subsea manifold) or routing into the processing
equipment.

23. What is Flow assurance and Flow control?

It refers to ensure successful and economical flow of fluids from reservoir to the
refinery smoothly and without interruption.

The ability to actively or passively manipulate a flow field in order to effect a

beneficial change.

24. What are the challenges of flow assurance?

Challenges:
Hydrates
Wax/paraffin deposition Fluid control
Scale

Emulsions
Slugging Flow control
Sand

25. What is hoop stress of Pipelines?

The stress which is acting circumferential and perpendicular to the axis and the radius of
the cylinder wall and which is set up in resisting the bursting effect of the applied
pressure and can be most conveniently treated by considering the equilibrium of the
cylinder is known as hoop stress.

26. What is Longitudinal Stress of Pipeline?

For a cylinder closed in both ends the internal pressure creates a force along the axis of
the cylinder. The stress caused by this force can be said as longitudinal stress.

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27. What is equivalent stress of pipelines?

Equivalent stresses are factor value of internal over pressure condition in the pipelines
and load controlled condition. Its design factor is 0.96.

28. Give any four examples of uncoupled risers?

29. Write the types of ROVs.

 Micro class
 Mini class
 General class
 Light Work class
 Heavy Work class
 Trenching/Burial class

30. Write classification of underwater vehicle.

 Manned submersibles
 Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
 Autonomous Under Water Vehicle (AUVs)

PART B (16 MARKS)

1. What is blow out preventer? Write about its design, installation functions.

Blow Out Preventer: A blowout preventer (BOP) is a large, specialized valve or similar
mechanical device, used to seal, control and monitor oil and gas wells to prevent blowout, the
uncontrolled release of crude oil and/or natural gas from a well. They are usually installed
redundantly in stacks.

Blowout preventers were developed to cope with extreme erratic pressures and uncontrolled flow
(formation kick) emanating from a well reservoir during drilling. Kicks can lead to a potentially
catastrophic event known as a blowout. In addition to controlling the down hole (occurring in the
drilled hole) pressure and the flow of oil and gas, blowout preventers are intended to prevent tubing
(e.g. drill pipe and well casing), tools and drilling fluid from being blown out of the wellbore (also
known as bore hole, the hole leading to the reservoir) when a blowout threatens. Blowout preventers
are critical to the safety of crew, rig (the equipment system used to drill a wellbore) and environment,
and to the monitoring and maintenance of well integrity; thus blowout preventers are intended to
provide fail-safety to the systems that include them.
The term BOP (pronounced B-O-P, not "bop") is used in oilfield vernacular to refer to blowout
preventers. The abbreviated term preventer, usually prefaced by a type (e.g. ram preventer), is used to
refer to a single blowout preventer unit. A blowout preventer may also simply be referred to by its
type (e.g. ram).

The terms blowout preventer, blowout preventer stack and blowout preventer system are commonly
used interchangeably and in a general manner to describe an assembly of several stacked blowout
preventers of varying type and function, as well as auxiliary components. A typical subsea deep water
blowout preventer system includes components such as electrical and hydraulic lines, control pods,
hydraulic accumulators, test valve, kill and choke lines and valves, riser joint, hydraulic connectors,
and a support frame.
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Two categories of blowout preventer are most prevalent: ram and annular. BOP stacks frequently
utilize both types, typically with at least one annular BOP stacked above several ram BOPs.
(A related valve, called an inside blowout preventer, internal blowout preventer, or IBOP, is
positioned within, and restricts flow up, the drill pipe. This article does not address inside blowout
preventer use.)

Blowout preventers are used on land wells, offshore rigs, and subsea wells. Land and subsea BOPs are
secured to the top of the wellbore, known as the wellhead. BOPs on offshore rigs are mounted below
the rig deck. Subsea BOPs are connected to the offshore rig above by a drilling riser that provides a
continuous pathway for the drill string and fluids emanating from the wellbore. In effect, a riser
extends the wellbore to the rig. Unfortunately, blowout preventers do not always function correctly.
An example of this is the Deep-water Horizon blowout, where the pipe line going through the BOP
was slightly bent and the BOP failed to cut the pipe.

Types:

Ram blowout preventer:

The ram BOP was invented by James Smither Abercrombie and Harry S. Cameron in 1922, and
was brought to market in 1924 by Cameron Iron Works.

A ram-type BOP is similar in operation to a gate valve, but uses a pair of opposing steel plungers,
rams. The rams extend toward the centre of the wellbore to restrict flow or retract open in order to
permit flow. The inner and top faces of the rams are fitted with packers (elastomeric seals) that press
against each other, against the wellbore, and around tubing running through the wellbore.

Outlets at the sides of the BOP housing (body) are used for connection to choke and kill lines or
valves. Rams, or ram blocks, are of four common types: pipe, blind, shear, and blind shear.

Pipe rams close around a drill pipe, restricting flow in the annulus (ring-shaped space between
concentric objects) between the outside of the drill pipe and the wellbore, but do not obstruct flow
within the drill pipe. Variable-bore pipe rams can accommodate tubing in a wider range of outside
diameters than standard pipe rams, but typically with some loss of pressure capacity and longevity.
Pipe ram should not be closed if there is no pipe in the hole.

Fig 4: Ram type blowout preventer

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Annular blowout preventer:

The annular blowout preventer was invented by Granville Sloan Knox in 1946; a U.S. patent for it
was awarded in 1952. Often around the rig it is called the "Hydril", after the name of one of the
manufacturers of such devices.

An annular-type blowout preventer can close around the drill string, casing or a non-cylindrical
object, such as the Kelly. Drill pipe including the larger-diameter tool joints (threaded connectors) can
be "stripped" (i.e., moved vertically while pressure is contained below) through an annular preventer
by careful control of the hydraulic closing pressure.

Annular blowout preventers are also effective at maintaining a seal around the drill pipe even as it
rotates during drilling. Regulations typically require that an annular preventer be able to completely
close a wellbore, but annular preventers are generally not as effective as ram preventers in
maintaining a seal on an open hole. Annular BOPs are typically located at the top of a BOP stack,
with one or two annular preventers positioned above a series of several ram preventers.

Fig 5: Annular type blowout preventer

Usage:

Blowout preventers come in a variety of styles, sizes and pressure ratings. Several individual units
serving various functions are combined to compose a blowout preventer stack. Multiple blowout
preventers of the same type are frequently provided for redundancy, an important factor in the
effectiveness of fail-safe devices.

The primary functions of a blowout preventer system are to:

 Confine well fluid to the wellbore;
 Provide means to add fluid to the wellbore;
 Allow controlled volumes of fluid to be withdrawn from the wellbore.

Additionally, and in performing those primary functions, blowout preventer systems are used to:
 Regulate and monitor wellbore pressure;
 Center and hang off the drill string in the wellbore;
 Shut in the well (e.g. seal the void, annulus, between drill pipe and casing);
 “Kill” the well (prevent the flow of formation fluid, influx, from the reservoir into the
wellbore) ;
 Seal the wellhead (close off the wellbore);
 Sever the casing or drill pipe (in case of emergencies).

In drilling a typical high-pressure well, drill strings are routed through a blowout preventer stack
toward the reservoir of oil and gas. As the well is drilled, drilling fluid, "mud", is fed through the drill

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string down to the drill bit, "blade", and returns up the wellbore in the ring-shaped void, annulus,
between the outside of the drill pipe and the casing (piping that lines the wellbore). The column of
drilling mud exerts downward hydrostatic pressure to counter opposing pressure from the formation
being drilled, allowing drilling to proceed.

When a kick (influx of formation fluid) occurs, rig operators or automatic systems close the blowout
preventer units, sealing the annulus to stop the flow of fluids out of the wellbore. Denser mud is then
circulated into the wellbore down the drill string, up the annulus and out through the choke line at the
base of the BOP stack through chokes (flow restrictors) until down hole pressure is overcome. Once
“kill weight” mud extends from the bottom of the well to the top, the well has been “killed”.

If the integrity of the well is intact drilling may be resumed. Alternatively, if circulation is not feasible
it may be possible to kill the well by "bull heading", forcibly pumping, in the heavier mud from the
top through the kill line connection at the base of the stack. This is less desirable because of the
higher surface pressures likely needed and the fact that much of the mud originally in the annulus
must be forced into receptive formations in the open hole section beneath the deepest casing shoe.
If the blowout preventers and mud do not restrict the upward pressures of a kick, a blowout results,
potentially shooting tubing, oil and gas up the wellbore, damaging the rig, and leaving well
integrity in question.

Since BOPs are important for the safety of the crew and natural environment, as well as the drilling
rig and the wellbore itself, authorities recommend, and regulations require, that BOPs be regularly
inspected, tested and refurbished. Tests vary from daily test of functions on critical wells to monthly
or less frequent testing on wells with low likelihood of control problems.

Exploitable reservoirs of oil and gas are increasingly rare and remote, leading to increased subsea
deep water well exploration and requiring BOPs to remain submerged for as long as a year in extreme
conditions. As a result, BOP assemblies have grown larger and heavier (e.g. a single ram-type BOP
unit can weigh in excess of 30,000 pounds), while the space allotted for BOP stacks on existing
offshore rigs has not grown commensurately. Thus a key focus in the technological development of
BOPs over the last two decades has been limiting their footprint and weight while simultaneously
increasing safe operating capacity.

Design:

 Unique space saving slim-line panel unit utilising EEx de & EEx is components
 Zone I classification
 Reliable multi-voltage, long-life LED indicator. Convenient front access for easy
maintenance
 316L grade stainless steel construction
 IP66 Ingress protection

Installation:

 Links effectively into the latest and more traditional interfaces

 Core design customised to suit individual rig requirements
 Integrates with existing data management systems
 Termination compartments provide fast and easy hook-up
 Manufactured and supplied on an integral mounting frame for quick and straightforward
installation.

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2. What is X- Mas tree? Write about its design, installation functions.

X-mas trees used on offshore oil and gas fields, a subsea tree monitors and control the
production of a subsea well. Fixed to the wellhead of a completed well, subsea trees can also
manage fluids or gas injected into the well. Source: Cameron. Since the 1950s, subsea
trees have been topping underwater wellheads to control flow.

Types:
Two main types of subsea trees used in modern offshore technology.
 Horizontal tree
 Dual bore tree(conventional/vertical)

Horizontal tree:
A subsea horizontal tree is designed so that all flow control valves are outside the central
wellbore. A tubing hanger is located inside of a subsea horizontal tree body. A horizontal tree
is well known as a work over friendly tree because it offers easy access for tubing retrieval
because the valves are not located at the centre of the wellbore. Figure 1 shows an image of a
horizontal subsea tree from GE oil and gas.

Fig 2: Horizontal Subsea Tree Diagram

Vertical tree:
In this part, it emphasizes on vertical subsea Christmas trees (conventional subsea trees).
Vertical trees are manufactured in single bore and dual-bore configurations and pressure
ratings are between 5,000 and 15,000 psi. The body of a Christmas tree can be made of
carbon steel, low-alloy steel, or stainless steel depending on the operating
environment. Figure 1 show the conventional single-bore subsea tree from Drill Quip.

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Fig 3: Diagram of Vertical Tree

Material:

The material requirements shall be in accordance NORSOK standard M-DP-001 and the relevant
NORSOK standards referred there in.

Function:

Christmas trees are used on both surface and subsea wells. ... The primary function of a tree is to
control the flow, usually oil or gas, out of the well. (A tree may also be used to control the injection of
gas or water into a non-producing well in order to enhance production rates of oil from other wells.)

Design:

The subsea tree is basically the connection between the wellhead and the flow line (or a
manifold), and it provides for well control during production. A tree can be installed on either a
satellite well and connected to a flowline, or it can be installed on a template drilled well and
connected to piping in the template or to a manifold.

There is no fundamental difference between these types of trees. This tutorial provides basic
description and guidance for the design of subsea trees utilizing conventional guideline installation
and vertical well re-entry techniques. Guideline-less systems are not covered in this tutorial.

This tutorial does not cover mudline suspension systems, subsea wellhead systems, subsea control
systems, control umbilicals or flowlines. Subsea tree interfaces with subsea controls, control
umbilicals and flowline connections are addressed in the following sections.

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Installation:

Tree was a controversial 24-metre (79 ft.) high inflatable sculpture by the artist Paul
McCarthy that was briefly installed in the Place Vendome in Paris in October 2014 as part of
a FIAC exhibition called "Hors les mars”. Although officially described as a Christmas tree, it was
widely criticised for its similarity in appearance to a huge green butt plug. McCarthy admitted that it
was deliberately shaped as such as a joke.

The controversy over the sculpture led to McCarthy being assaulted and the sculpture being
vandalised only two days after its installation; a vandal climbed the fencing around it and cut the
power supply which kept it inflated, in addition to cutting the cords holding it up. McCarthy stated
that he did not want the work repaired or replaced.

Operation:

Standard configurable trees are specified tailored for company’s various project. A general
SCT is normally used in shallow water measure up to 1000 metres deep.

High pressure, High Temperature trees are able to survive in rough environments such as the
North sea, HPHT trees are designed for pressure up to 16500 PS and temperatures ranging from -330 c
to 1750 c.

3. What is a Subsea Manifold? Write in detail about its types, design, installation and
function.
A large metal piece of equipment made up of pipes and valves and designed to transfer oil / gas
from wellheads into a pipeline. Manifolds are usually mounted on a template and often have a
protective structure.

Fig 1: Subsea manifold

Manifolds vary greatly in size and shape, though can be huge structures reaching heights of 30 metres.
The image below demonstrates just how large these structures can be, when compared to the cars
placed alongside the manifold.

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Although this equipment often has a protective structure surrounding it, there is still a serious risk
of fishing gear becoming snagged on the protruding elements or within inner cavities.
Most subsea templates / manifolds will be protected by a 500 metre safety zone cantered on one
position. However, other equipment may also be clustered within the same area, justifying the need to
have a 500 metre safety zone.

The image to the right shows how associated seabed structures may extend more than 100 metres
from the central location of the safety zone. This demonstrates just how important it is that a 500
metre safety zone is recognised by all seabed users.

Manifold types:

1) Template manifold:

Template manifold is a drill-through structure designed to house multiple subsea Christmas trees on
top of it and gather/route flow at the same time. It is required when subsea Christmas trees are
grouped side-by-side. Trees are connected directly into the manifold via mandrels when installed.

Template manifold must be fabricated and installed before the start of drilling, which gives less
schedule flexibility. It does not allow the re-use of exploration wells because they are typically not
grouped together. Statoil Norn in North Sea has template manifold.

2) Cluster manifold:

Cluster manifold is a stand-alone structure designed to direct fluids for multiple subsea Christmas
trees placed around it. It typically can accommodate 4- 8 wells per manifold. Both
the total and Shell’s manifolds shown in the picture are cluster manifolds. When subsea Christmas
trees are grouped closely in a central location (but not side by side), either a cluster manifold or a
PLEM is required depending on the number of trees anticipated. A Daisy Chain field layout has the
same manifold requirements.

Pros:

 Provides flexibility to co-mingle or segregate any particular wells

 Can accommodate pigging capability
 Can include chemical injection
 Allow the re-use of exploration wells
 Has reduced risk of dropped objects and Samos compared to template manifold.

Pipe end manifold :( PLET)

It a simpler version of a cluster manifold generally designed to direct fluids for only one or two
subsea Christmas trees. A PLEM generally connects directly to a subsea flow line without the use of a
pipeline end termination.

Manifold components:

A manifold is typically composed of the following major components:

 Pipework and valves – contains and controls the production and injection fluids.

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 Structure framework – protects and supports the pipework and valves.

 Subsea connection equipment – allows subsea tie-in of multiple pieces of equipment. Types
include vertical, horizontal and stab-and-hinge-over connections.
 Foundation – interface between the manifold structure and seabed.
 Controls Equipment – allows the remote control of any hydraulically actuated subsea
manifold valves and the monitoring of production and injection fluids. Control pods may be
either internal or external to the manifold.
Valves:

Valves on the manifold are essential for directing and controlling the flows. They can be either
manual or hydraulically actuated. Sometimes chemical injection valves are placed on the manifold as
well.
 Branch valves are generally slab type gate valves (similar to tree valves). Their sizes are
based on the production/injection tree size.
 Flow line header valves are also gate type, but ball valves have been used previously. Their
sizes are based on the flow line size.
 Materials are chosen for compatibility with production and injection fluids. Most of time, it is
CRA-clad.
 Double barrier philosophy generally used against production fluids.
 Two valves in series
 One valve and one pressure cap
 Primary seal is generally a metal-to-metal seal

Pipework:

A wide range of pipework configurations is possible. Each header connects to an individual flow line.
The pipework sizing is based on the tree piping size and the flow line diameters. The main circuit is
designed to accommodate pigging operations. The material of construction needs to be compatible
with production and injection fluids.

 Test headers can be incorporated to test individual or groups of trees

 Test headers can be a second or even third header isolated in the manifold
 Insulation may be required for unscheduled or emergency shutdowns.

Control system:

Control system for the manifolds is the same as the control system for the trees. Multiple options for
the control system have been used in the manifold design.

 No controls on the manifold. The manifold is controlled by tree subsea control modules
(SCMs).
 SCMs on the manifold.
 Manifold with control system distribution units with flying leads going to trees.

Framework structure:

The framework is a welded structure to provide support for the pipework and valves and contain the
foundation interface structure. The pipework is allowed to float inside the framework within limits
and it is not rigidly attached to the frame. The frame can also be used for lifting and landing of the
jumper tie-in tools.
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Foundation:

 Mud mats – a simple foundation resting directly on the seabed, generally with a short skirt
around the perimeter to resist lateral loads.
 Piles – long cylindrical structures embedded into the soil intended to hold a subsea structure
above the seabed. Foundations may utilize one or more individual piles.
 Intermediate Structures – an intermediate structure can be used to interface a subsea manifold
with a pile foundation to reduce weight of the manifold structure or to ease retrieval of the
manifold. Intermediate structures can be either retrievable or permanent structures.

Tie-ins to wells and flow lines:

The tie-in hubs placed on the outer edge of the manifold, which are used to tie-in jumpers that bring in
fluid from the production wells and export fluid into the flow lines (production manifold). The tie-in
sizing is based on the tree piping size and the flow line diameters. and the loads applied from the flow
lines.

Insulation:

Generally gas manifolds are not insulated and oil manifolds are insulated. For oil production,
insulation is necessary to allow adequate cool-down time to treat or remove trapped production water.
Gas production is generally treated continuously with chemicals to prevent hydrates.

Materials for HP/HT Manifolds:

Materials for HP/HT manifolds should meet these requirements:

 All piping pipe is made of duplex stainless steel alloy.

 All tees, crosses, elbows, and flanges are made of duplex stainless steel alloy.
 The production pipeline end connectors and hubs are made of materials based on their UNS
designation (unified numbering system designation).
 The manifold frame is made from carbon steel.

Material Evaluation:

For the materials used in subsea structures, manifolds, piping, and other components having
importance for the safety and operability of the subsea production system, the following factors apply
to the materials selection:

 Materials with good market availability and documented fabrication and service performance;
 Design life;
 Operating conditions;
 Mass reduction;
 Experience with materials and corrosion protection methods from conditions with similar
corrosively;
 System availability requirements;
 Minimization of the number of different material types considering costs, interchange ability,
and availability of relevant spare parts;

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 Inspection and corrosion-monitoring possibilities;

 Effect of external and internal environment, including compatibility of different materials;
 Evaluation of failure probabilities, failure modes, criticalities, and consequences;
 Environmental issues related to corrosion inhibition and other chemical treatments.

The materials to be used should normally fulfil the following requirements:

 The material should be listed by the relevant design code for use.
 The material should be standardized by recognized national and international standardization
bodies.
 The material should be readily available on the market.
 The material should be readily weldable, if welding is relevant.
 The material preferably has a past experience record for the particular application.


Metallic Materials:

Corrosively Evaluation in Hydrocarbon Systems

Evaluation of corrosively should include at the least:

 CO2 content;
 H2S content;
 Oxygen content and content of other oxidizing agents;
 Operating temperature and pressure;
 Acidity, pH;
 Halogen ide concentration/water chemistry;
 Velocity.
Function:

A production manifold is a subsea structure containing valves and pipework designed to commingle
and direct produced fluids from multiple wells into one or more flow lines. Our cluster style
production manifolds play a key role in well testing, isolation, sampling, and allocation management.

Design:

 Manifold design, verification, and validation. The manifold is an arrangement of piping

and/or valves designed to combine, distribute, control, and often monitor fluid flow.
 Subsea manifolds are installed on the seabed within an array of wells to gather produced
fluids or to inject water or gas into wells.

 The design pressure for a steel manifold piping system or the nominal wall thickness for a
given design pressure may be determined according to ASME B31.8

Interfaces The following interfaces in the design of the manifold are considered:

 Well/flowline jumper interface to manifold hub including spacing for and access to pipeline
end connector running tools.
 Pressure cap installation and retrieval.
 ROV access for valve functioning/isolation.

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 ROV access to flying lead junction plates.

 Operational interfaces associated with installation, lifting and handling (padeyes, slings,
bridles, spreader bars, and installation vessel.)
 Pile foundation top.

Manifold piping design:

The following issues should be considered for the piping stress analysis:

 Internal pressure;
 Hydro testing;
 Thermal loads;
 Operating with jumper loads;
 Flow line jumper connection loads;
 Well jumper connection loads;
 Environmental loads;
 External corrosion;
 Internal corrosion/erosion;
 Piping supports to accommodate all anticipated loading, deflections, and vibrations.

Piping system should be designed to satisfy the requirements for internal pressure, thermal
loads, hydrostatic collapse, and external operational loads, and fabricated to ASME Section IX
requirements. Piping stress analysis should be performed using a finite element software package,
such as CAESAR II, Ansys, or Abaqus, to confirm that the manifold piping system is fit for the
intended purpose for its entire life span.

Installation:

 In deep water fields the contribution of installation activities to project costs and schedule is
higher than for shallower developments. The risks associated with installation are also higher.
 The met ocean condition of deep water is a key factor for the installation of subsea structures.
 Relatively gentle conditions in offshore West Africa may not mean installation operations are
easier than in the GoM because the persistent swell is likely to result in ideal conditions for
vessel motion resonance. High currents in offshore Brazil are likely to be a dominating factor.
 A subsea development may have more than 30 wells, which require an extensive installation
program of manifolds, PLETs, jumpers, and suction pile foundations.

 Excluding the flow lines, which are small lift weight components having compact
dimensions, we must still consider the large number of individual items that require a long
installation program and the large number of heavier manifolds, which also present
installation challenges.

Operation:

 Operating a control system for the manifold is the same the same as the control system for the
multiple options for the control system have been used in the manifold design.
 No control on the manifold. The manifold is controlled by three subsea control modules.
 SCMs on the manifold.
 Manifold with control system distribution units with flying loads going to trees.

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4. Explain Subsea production system? Explain its components.

Subsea Production Systems are typical wells located on the seabed, shallow or deep
water. Generally termed as Floating production system, where the petroleum is extracted
at the seabed and the same can be tied back to an already existing production platform or
an onshore facility. The oil platform well is drilled by a movable rig and the extracted oil
or natural gas is transported by submarine pipeline under the sea and then to rise to a
processing facility.

It’s Components:

 Subsea Production Tree

 Pipeline and Flowline
 Subsea manifold
 Umbilical
 Host Facility
 Termination Unit
 Production risers
 Template
 Jumpers

Subsea Production Tree:

Subsea production tree is an arrangement of valves, pipes, fittings, and connections placed on
top of a wellbore. Subsea Production Tree Orientation of the valves can be in the vertical
bore or the horizontal outlet of the tree. The valves can be operated by electrical or hydraulic
signals or manually by diver or remotely operated vehicle (ROV). Typical dimensions of the
production tree are approximately 3.6 m x 3.6m ft x 3.6 m (12x12x12 ft, length by width by
height), and can range in height up to 4.8m(40 ft) for deeper water depths. They are used on
both surface and subsea wells.

The primary function of a tree is to control the flow, usually oil or gas, out of the well. (A
tree may also be used to control the injection of gas or water into a non-producing well in
order to enhance production rates of oil from other wells.) When the well and facilities are
ready to produce and receive oil or gas, tree valves are opened and the formation fluids are
allowed to go through a flow line. This leads to a processing facility, storage depot and/or
other pipeline eventually leading to a refinery or distribution center (for gas). Flow lines on
subsea wells usually lead to a fixed or floating production platform or to a storage ship or
barge, known as a floating storage offloading vessel (FSO), or floating processing unit (FPU),
or floating production, storage and offloading vessel (FPSO).

A tree often provides numerous additional functions including chemical injection points, well
intervention means, pressure relief means, monitoring points (such as pressure, temperature,
corrosion, erosion, sand detection, flow rate, flow composition, valve and choke position
feedback), and connection points for devices such as down hole pressure and temperature
transducers (DHPT). On producing wells, chemicals or alcohols or oil distillates may be
injected to preclude production problems (such as blockages).
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Pipeline and Flowline:

Pipelines and flowlines are conduits to transport fluids from one location to another.
Pipeline — piping, risers, and appurtenances installed for the purpose of transporting oil, gas,
sulphur, and produced waters between two separate facilities
Flowline — piping installed within the confines of the platform or manifold for the purpose
of commingling(mixing, for example, subsea manifold) or routing into the processing
equipment. Typical pipe dimensions for offshore pipelines can range from 75 mm (3”) to
300mm (12”)-inches outer diameter (OD), and can be as large as 900mm (36”) Length and
size of a pipeline or flowline depend on its purpose and throughput.
For the purpose of subsea production systems, the pipe length can range from a m to in
excess of 100km (70 miles), and these pipes are typically less than 450 mm (18”) inches in
diameter. Shell’s Mensa development has the longest offset distance in the Gulf of Mexico
(GoM) as of July 1998: nearly 70 miles from the subsea production system to the host
facility.

Subsea manifold:
It is a gravity-based seafloor structure that consists of an arrangement of valves, pipes, and
fittings. It serves as a central gathering point for production from subsea wells and redirects
the combined flow to the host facility.

A subsea manifold may not be needed for some subsea designs, for example, developments
where the individual production trees are directly tied into the host facility. A manifold
arrangement can be any shape, but normally is rectangular or circular, and may be either a
stand-alone structure or integrated into a well template. The manifold may be anchored to the
seafloor with piles or skirts that penetrate the mudline.

Size is dictated by the number of wells and throughput, as well as how the subsea wells are
integrated into the system (that is, on template, individual flowlines, etc.). The likely range of
dimensions for a subsea manifold would be 80 feet on a side (diameter for circular design),
standing up to 30 feet above the seafloor. A large metal piece of equipment made up of pipes and
valves and designed to transfer oil / gas from wellheads into a pipeline. Manifolds are usually
mounted on a template and often have a protective structure.

Although this equipment often has a protective structure surrounding it, there is still a serious
risk of fishing gear becoming snagged on the protruding elements or within inner cavities.
Most subsea templates / manifolds will be protected by a 500 metre safety zone cantered on
one position. However, other equipment may also be clustered within the same area,
justifying the need to have a 500 metre safety zone. The image to the right shows
how associated seabed structures may extend more than 100 metres from the central location
of the safety zone. This demonstrates just how important it is that a 500 metre safety zone is
recognised by all seabed users.

Umbilical:
It is a bundled arrangement of tubing, piping, and/or electrical conductors in an armored
(protective) sheath installed from the host facility to the subsea production system equipment.

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An umbilical is used to transmit the control fluid and/or electrical current necessary to control
the functions of the subsea production and safety equipment (tree, valves, manifold, etc.)
Dedicated tubes in an umbilical are used to monitor pressures and inject fluids (chemicals
such as methanol) from the host facility to critical areas within the subsea production
equipment. Electrical conductors transmit power to operate subsea electronic devices.
Dimensions typically range up to 200mm (10”) in diameter. The umbilical will include
multiple tubing normally ranging in size up to 25mm (1”); The number of tubes is dependent
on the complexity of the production system. The length of an umbilical is defined by the
spacing of the subsea components and the distance these components are located from the
host facility.

Host Facility:
The host facility can be any one of the various types of platforms used for developing
offshore hydrocarbon fields including fixed jacket type platforms; tension leg platforms;
spars; floating production systems; or floating production, storage, and offloading systems.
The type of host used for the subsea production system is dependent on water depth type of
field development reserve base and distance from infrastructure, and is largely driven by
economic considerations.

Termination Unit:
The termination unit is a subsea equipment skid used to facilitate the interface of the
umbilical or pipeline or flow lines with the subsea equipment. The termination unit has a
number of analogous names, including pipeline end manifold, umbilical termination
assembly, electrical distribution structure, and flow line laydown sled, to name just a few. It
can be used for electric and/or hydraulic control applications and is equipped with an
installation arm to brace it during the lowering process.

Dimensions range up to 300cm (10’) on a side and 150 cm (5’) in height. It is positioned near
subsea manifolds, production trees and flowline and umbilical connections on various subsea
equipment or incorporated into the design of manifolds and templates.

Production risers:

Template:
A template is a fabricated structure that houses subsea equipment. Templates can be any
shape, but are typically rectangular.
Dimensions range from 10 to 150 ft long and 10to 70 ft wide and 5 to 30 ft high. A template
can accommodate multiple trees in tight clusters, manifolds, pigging equipment, termination
units, and chemical treatment equipment.

Jumpers:
A short segment of flexible pipe/hose/cable with a connector half a either end is known as
jumpers. It is used to connect flowlines and/or subsea facilities together.

10. What is riser? Explain briefly about its typical configuration, classification, materials and
selection procedure.

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In recent years, exploration and production activities of oil and gas in offshore have increased
in deep and ultra-deep water. As one of the key elements in offshore infrastructure, d e e p
water riser technology plays an important role in offshore development. The drilling riser is
the key element for drilling in deep water. A riser is a tube that can be made of steel,
aluminium, titanium or composite materials that is used to conduct drilling, running and
setting casing, cementing and coring operations through the seawater column. Its architecture
for deep water drilling depends on numerous different factors related to operational and
environmental conditions. These include water depth, mud weight, auxiliary line diameters
and working pressures, sea state and current profiles, and maximum rig offset, and so on. All
of the above parameters have to be taken into account in the design of the various riser
system components including the main tube, the auxiliary lines, the connectors, the
distribution of buoyancy modules, and the tensioning system. A riser joint is a large diameter,
high strength pipe, either seamless or electric welded, with couplings welded to each end. The
main tube is specified by its outside diameter, wall thickness, and material properties.

Riser stack-up for 10,000 ft water depth and drilling riser joint. When the riser system is
being deployed, the riser joints are coupled together on the drill floor and lowered into the
water. The string of riser joints represents the principal component of the riser system and is
used to perform the riser system functions. The push to drill in harsh, deep water
environments makes the need for an optimum riser stack-up that can maximize operability
envelopes critical. This requires detailed analysis of all the stages of riser operation. There is
a requirement for more refined methods and finite elements models to verify the operability
of drilling riser systems in extreme conditions. Ultra-deep water and a harsh environment
place higher demands on both the vessel and the drilling equipment. These higher demands
results in the calculation of reduced operability envelopes for the various operations such as
running, hang-off, drilling, connected non- drilling, etc. Drilling riser system development
through riser analysis is relatively common in the developed countries and many studies have
been conducted previously [2–6], but it is still a new field in Korea and this is the
significance of this study. In this study, drilling riser system analysis is carried out as a
process of drilling riser system development especially, focused on the drilling riser joint.

Design consideration:
The design and optimization of a drilling riser system for harsh environments involves the
assessment of a number of riser conditions and operations scenarios with variable design
drivers on the riser stack-up. As a result, an iterative process is required between all stages of
drilling riser system analysis. For deep water harsh environment drilling operation, vessel
options include anchored or dynamically positioned semisubmersibles, or dynamically
positioned drill ships. The riser system has to be designed according to the international
codes such as API RP 16Q. Its requirement in particular is the maximum von Mises stress
must be limited to less than 67% of the yield stress. For the data of vessel and weather, a
statistical assessment can produce the most probable maximum vessel heave, pitch, and roll
response for all combinations of Hs and Tp. Especially, wave and Vortex induced
vibration(VIV) fatigue analyses can optimize a little more the riser system stack-up. Wave
fatigue analysis identifies the fatigue critical regions of the string. The string then can be
optimized to reduce the overall damage at this location and to smooth peaks. VIV induced
fatigue damage can be reduced through VIV suppression devices such as fairings or strakes.
However, VIV suppression devices can increase drag loading. In high current environments

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this leads to larger riser deflections and reduced operability. Optimum arrangement of the
buoyant and riser joints within the string can reduce the effects of VIV. Placing riser joints at
regular intervals between buoyant joints can disrupt current flow around the riser to help
mitigate VIV.

The aforementioned tensioner load variations that occur with modern tensioner systems can
have a significant effect on the loads transferred to the wellhead and conductor/casing. This
can lead to fatigue concerns at critical locations. The connectors along the conductor and
surface casing can be highly susceptible to fatigue if they are located in regions of high
bending loads below the mudline. The recent technology advancements that have been
incorporated into the latest version of an industry-standard tool for global analysis of drilling
risers and that allow these concerns to be addressed. It will focus on two main areas where
significant enhancements have been made in tensioner and wellhead & casing modelling. The
advanced tensioner modelling capability consists of a detailed tensioner model that includes
individual hydraulic and pneumatic components of the tensioner system that are fully
integrated with a non-linear 3D structural finite element model. This tensioner model is
capable of fully capturing all transient behaviour and load variations of real world tensioner
systems. This paper will describe in detail this unique modelling capability and its
application, including riser recoil analysis. Additionally, accurate modelling of the wellhead,
conductor/casing and the surrounding soil structure is crucial in order to accurately predict
bending loads experienced in this region. This includes modelling individual wellhead
sections (high pressure housing, low pressure housing and tapered sections) and multi-pipe
structures for conductor/casing sections (including cement layers). The advanced soil
modelling includes the capability to specify different soil types at different depths. The
detailed tensioner modelling capability represents a highly advanced technical and innovative
development and is fundamental to providing a realistic recoil analysis capability. The
advanced wellhead and casing modelling allows for accurate prediction of the stresses
experienced in this critical region and accurate determination of the fatigue lives of these
components. These advanced modelling capabilities can be used to accurately model deep
water drilling risers and provide increased confidence in conducting drilling operations in the
harshest of environments.

Riser analysis:
A complete riser analysis is a compilation of a number of analyses, which investigates the
overall static and dynamic response of a drilling riser for various environmental loads, vessel
loads and drilling loads. Riser systems are required to resist environmental loading whilst
maintaining small flex joint angles for optimum utility. In shallow water, this may be
achieved by the use of standard joints without using buoyancy and a low top tension. In
deep water however, increased riser tension and specific stack-up configurations are
required for productive operation. In the riser system analysis, the riser system is modelled as
a tensioned bema subjected to loads throughout its length, and with boundary conditions at
each end. The tensioned beam element descriptions include riser geometry, riser mass, and
riser material properties. Loading on the riser includes internal and external pressures as
well as environmental loads caused by waves and currents. Top boundary conditions
generally include top tension, vessel offsets and motions as well as a description of the
rotational stiffness of the upper flex/ball joint. Typically, required top tension depends on the
drilling fluid density. The bottom boundary condition may result from either a connected or
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disconnected riser. The boundary condition of a disconnected riser should include the mass
of either the BOP stack or only the LMRP depending on the situation. Drilling riser analysis
has been performed by the commercial code, Deep Riser.

The Deep Riser is an integrated engineering application used across the drilling industry and
has been developed specially to optimize and streamline the design and analysis of drilling
riser system. Environmental parameters for riser analysis are as follows. The design water
depth is plainly one of the major starting points for the riser design. It should be noted that
the number of bare joints as well as the blow out preventer (BOP) and lower marine riser
package (LMRP) weights have to be checked versus the hook load capacity during the
deployment phases. Deepwater drilling operations are sensitive to ocean currents due to the
length of the riser and the large top tensions required supporting the riser string. The current
profiles and intensity determine the riser top and bottom end angles. According to API RP
16Q, in the drilling connected mode these angles have to be less of 2° in static conditions and
4° in dynamic conditions. Wave action influences the riser system design in two ways. It
contributes to the hydrodynamics loads acting on the riser. And it affects the riser top end
motions through the rig RAOs (Response Amplitude Operators). Deepwater drilling riser
analysis provides a means for identifying the critical stages of the drilling program and
enables strategies to be developed to combat loss of riser operability. By the static analysis of
drilling riser system, stack-up configuration of the system and the designed thickness of riser
pipe were evaluated. Static analysis is not affected by the wave and the basic specifications
of the system are evaluated through the calculation of loads and stress on the riser system.

21. Explain ROV in detail.

Remote Operated Underwater Vehicle shortened as ROV is a tethered underwater vehicle.
T he term “Remote Operated Underwater Vehicle” will be referred as ROV. ROVs were
created to help people to fulfill their needs fast and with minimum risk for their lives. The
first advanced ROV was created in the 1970’s and used to recover practice torpedoes and
mines. ROVs were also created by offshore oil and gas industries in order to assist in the
development of offshore oil fields later on, when the new offshore development exceeded
the reach of human divers. Nowadays you can find ROVs designed for different purposes,
such as science, education, military and for hobby as well. The ROVs can maneuver in any
direction inside the water. The maneuvering of the robot is achieved with the help of four
brushless motors. The ROV has an on board camera for monitoring and recording the
underwater life. Finally, the robot is tethered with the controller’s side via an Ethernet
cable.
The first ROV known, as “Poddle”, was created by a French scientist, engineer and
explorer Dimitri Rebikoff in 1953. The first funding attempt of the early ROV technology
was made by the US Navy in the 1960’s. They invented the so called "Cable-Controlled
Underwater Recovery Vehicle" or also known as CURV. The CURV was able to
perform series of deep sea rescue operations, as well as recovering objects from the
ocean floor. Other technology development of the ROVs was made by commercial firms
that saw the future in ROV support of the offshore oil fields. These ROVs were first used as
inspection vehicles and a decade later as vehicles for maintenance of the offshore oil
fields. Nowadays ROVs are responsible for numerous tasks in many fields. ROVs can do
something as simple as an inspection of an underwater structure, but more demanding
work as well, such as inspection and maintenance of pipelines all the way to connecting

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pipelines together and placing underwater manifolds. All in all, ROVs can work on all
stages, from construction to maintenance.

Construction:
The ROVs are built with a large flotation pack on top of an aluminium chassis to provide the
necessary buoyancy to perform a variety of tasks. The sophistication of construction of the
aluminium frame varies depending on the manufacturer's design. Syntactic foam is often used
for the flotation material. A tooling skid may be fitted at the bottom of the system to
accommodate a variety of sensors or tooling packages. By placing the light components on
the top and the heavy components on the bottom, the overall system has a large separation
between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity; this provides stability and the
stiffness to do work underwater. Thrusters are placed between center of buoyancy and center
of gravity to maintain the attitude stability of the robot in maneuvers. Various thruster
configurations and control algorithms can be used to give appropriate positional and attitude
control during the operations, particularly in high current waters. Thrusters are usually in a
balanced vector configuration to provide the most precise control possible.
Electrical components can be in oil-filled water tight compartments or one-atmosphere
compartments to protect them from corrosion in seawater and being crushed by the extreme
pressure exerted on the ROV while working deep. The ROV will be fitted with cameras,
lights and manipulators to perform basic work. Additional sensors and tools can be fitted as
needed for specific tasks. It is common to find ROVs with two robotic arms, each
manipulator may have a different gripping jaw. The cameras may also be guarded for
protection against collisions. An ROV may be equipped with Sonar and LIDAR equipment.

Types:
The different types of ROVs can be categorized by size, depth capability, on-board
horsepower, and whether they are all-electric or electro-hydraulic shown in Fig 2. In general,
ROVs can be grouped as follows:

 Micro - Typically Micro class ROVs are very small in size and weight. Today’s
Micro Class ROVs can weigh less than 3 kg. These ROVs are used as an alternative
to a diver, specifically in places where a diver might not be able to physically enter
such as a sewer, pipeline or small cavity.

 Mini - Typically Mini Class ROVs weigh in around 15 kg. Mini Class ROVs are also
used as a diver alternative. One person may be able to transport the complete ROV
system out with them on a small boat, deploy it and complete the job without outside
help. Occasionally both Micro and Mini classes are referred to as "eyeball" class to
differentiate them from ROVs that may be able to perform intervention tasks.

 General - Typically less than 5 HP (propulsion); occasionally small three finger

manipulators grippers have been installed, such as on the very early RCV 225. These
ROVs may be able to carry a sonar unit and are usually used on light survey
applications. Typically the maximum working depth is less than 1,000 metres though
one has been developed to go as deep as 7,000 m.

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 Light Work class - typically less than 50 HP (propulsion). These ROVs may be able
to carry some manipulators. Their chassis may be made from polymers such
as polyethylene rather than the conventional stainless steel or aluminium alloys. They
typically have a maximum working depth less than 2000 m.

 Heavy Work class - typically less than 220 HP (propulsion) with an ability to carry at
least two manipulators. They have a working depth up to 3500 m.

 Trenching/Burial - typically more than 200 HP (propulsion) and not usually greater
than 500 HP (while some do exceed that) with an ability to carry a cable laying sled
and work at depths up to 6000 m in some cases.

As a part of any mobile robotic system, some means of locomotion is necessary in order
to move the robotic system. For that reason, thrusters are used for the movement of the
ROV. Thrusters are a critical design consideration for any ROV system. Without having
the proper thrust, the ROV can be overwhelmed by the environmental conditions and
thus unable to perform the desired tasks. Thrusters can be either electrical, hydraulic,
ducted jet type or a combination of those four. The most important considerations that a
ROV designer must take into account for choosing the size and type of the thruster used
are listed below:

 The task that the ROV must perform and thus the work system and tools
necessary for it.
 The necessary power system to support the work system, tools control system,
lights and cameras.
 The size of the frame and the amount of buoyancy in order to support the power and
work system.
 The physical and environmental conditions such as depth and sea current.
 The drag on the vehicle and cable.

There are four types of thrusters that are nowadays used for the propulsion of the ROVs.
There are electrically driven propellers, hydraulically driven propellers, ducted jet driven
propellers or a combination of those. These different types are developed to suit the size of
the vehicle and the tasks that it shall perform. In some cases the location where the ROV
is operating, dictates the type of propulsion used. For instance, if the ROV requires
heavy duty tooling for intervention, the vehicle could be driven with hydraulics. Hydraulic
driven types o f p r o p e l l e r s a r e rarely used in small scale ROVs. This is because
they operate though hydraulic pumps, and the energy conversion (from electrical to
mechanical to hydraulic) makes it inefficient. Finally, the main goal for the design of a
ROV propulsion system is to have high thrust to physical size/drag and power input ratios.

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