Sextant and Altitude

UNIT 8 SEXTANT AND ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS Corrections

Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives

8.2 Definitions
8.2.1 Visible, Sensible and Rational Horizons
8.2.2 Sextant Altitude, Observed Altitude and True Altitude

8.3 Dip, Refraction, Semi-diameter, Parallax and Their Causes

8.4 Errors of Sextant and Their Corrections
8.5 Finding Index Error using Various Methods
8.6 Taking Vertical and Horizontal Angles using Sextant
8.7 Correcting Sextant Altitude of the Sun to Obtain True Altitude and True
Zenith Distance
8.8 Summary
8.9 Key Words
8.10 Answers to SAQs

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The sextant is an instrument used for measuring altitudes. It is essentially a device used
to measure the angle between two objects with a great deal of precision. It derives its
name from the fact that the arc of the sextant is one sixth of a circle. It works on the
optical principle that if a ray of light is reflected twice then the angle between the first
incidence ray and last reflected ray is twice the angle between the mirrors, provided the
incidence ray, reflected ray and normal are in the same plane.
In celestial navigation the sextant is used to find the angular distance of the celestial
bodies above the horizon which is corrected to get true altitude. The true altitude is then
subtracted from 90º to get true zenith distance that is the distance of the observer from
the body. The true zenith distance gives us a position circle and part of large position
circle can be taken as line of position (LOP). From this angle and the exact time of day as
registered by a chronometer, a Line of position (LOP) can be determined. By taking
measurements on two or more astronomical objects, two or more LOPs are drawn on a
chart or plotting sheet and the location of the observer will be at the intersection of the
lines.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• define sextant altitude, visible, sensible and rational horizons, observed
altitude and true altitude,
• Determine dip, refraction, semi-diameter and parallax, and know their
causes,
• read a sextant and correct a sextant for the error of perpendicularly, side
error or index error,
• find the index error of the sextant by the horizon and by the sun,
• take vertical and horizontal angles using the sextant, and
• apply index error and other corrections to obtain true altitude of sun.
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Celestial Navigation
8.2 DEFINITIONS
8.2.1 The Horizons
Visible Horizon
Visible horizon is a small circle on the Earth’s Surface that binds the observer’s
view. It is the boundary of the Sea Horizon as seen by the observer at O . VV in
Figure 8.1 below.
Rational Horizon
Rational horizon is a great circle on the celestial sphere the pole of which is the
Observer’s zenith or the great circle every point on which is 90 from observer’s
zenith. RCR′ in Figure 8.1 below.
Sensible Horizon
Sensible horizon is a small circle on the celestial sphere whose plane is parallel to
the Plane of rational horizon and passes through the eye of the observer. SOS’ in
Figure 8.1 below.
Error! Z

O Horizon
Sensible S’
S

V v’
Visible
Horizon
Rational Horizon
R R’
C

Figure 8.1

8.2.2 The Altitudes

Sextant Altitude
Sextant altitude is the altitude of a body, above the visible horizon, as read off
from the sextant.
Observed Altitude
Altitude of the body above the visible horizon is called observed altitude. It is
sextant Altitude corrected for Index Error.
Apparent Altitude
It is the altitude of the body above the sensible horizon. And is obtained by
applying dip correction to the observed altitude.
True Altitude
True altitude of the body is arc of vertical circle passing through the body
contained between the observer’s rational horizon and the body or it is the angle at
the centre of the earth between the observer’s rational horizon and the centre of the
body.

52
 To obtain the true altitude of a celestial body, various corrections have to be Sextant and Altitude
Corrections
applied to its altitude measured by the sextant. The corrections, in the order they
are to be applied, follow : Index error, Dip, Refraction, Semidiameter and Parallax.
Error! Z
Parallax
Apparent
Altitude
Observed
Sensible Horizon O Altitude
S
S′
V v′
Visible Horizon Dip
True Altitude
Rational Horizon
R R′
C

Figure 8.2

8.3 THE CORRECTIONS AND THEIR CAUSES

Dip (Angles S’OV’ or SOV)
Dip is the angle at the observer between plane of the observer’s sensible horizon
and direction to his visible horizon.

Z
Error! Apparent Altitude
O
Sensible Horizon
S S′
Dip
V v′
Observed
Altitude
Rational Horizon
R R′
C

Visible Horizon

Figure 8.3

Dip occurs due to the observer not being at sea level. The dip is directly
proportional to height of the observer’s eye above sea level.
It is tabulated in nautical almanac behind cover page. No interpolation is required
and at critical entry the upper value needs to be taken. It can be also found by
using formula :
Dip = 1.76 √height of eye in metres
Dip is applied to the observed altitude to obtain the apparent altitude of the body.
As can be seen from the figure, dip should always be subtracted from the observed
altitude.
Refraction
Refraction is the deviation of light rays passing from one medium to another.
When passing from a rarer medium into a denser medium, the ray bends towards
the normal to the surface of separation between the two media. The atmosphere of
the Earth is most dense at the Earth’s surface and becomes rarer as the height
above the surface increases. A ray of light from a celestial body, passing through
the Earth’s atmosphere, is continuously refracted until it reaches the observer. Due 53
Celestial Navigation to this, the apparent direction in which the ray finally reaches the observer is larger
in altitude than the true direction to the body. Since refraction increases the
apparent altitude of the body, refraction correction is always negative.
Error! Z
Rarer

Dense
Earth’s
O Atmosphere

R R’
C

Figure 8.4

The value of refraction increases with the increase in incidence (angle which the
ray makes with the normal to the surface of separation between the two media).
Refraction has a maximum value of about 34' when the body is on the horizon and
it decreases as the altitude increases. It is nil when the body is at the zenith, as no
refraction can take place when the ray is coincident with the normal.
Tables of correction for refraction are available, both in the nautical tables and on
the cover page of the nautical almanac as a function of the apparent altitude. In the
almanac, they are tabulated under the head ‘Total correction for stars and planets’.
Besides index error and dip, refraction is the only correction necessary for star
altitudes. The value of refraction correction for a particular apparent altitude holds
good for all celestial bodies.
The refraction tabulated in the nautical almanac is for standard temperature and
pressure 10ºC and 1010 mb respectively. For non-standard conditions an
additional correction is applied due to the abnormal refraction, particularly when
the measured altitudes are small. A table of corrections for such conditions is
provided in the nautical almanac.
The visible horizon also gets refracted due which the actual angle of dip is less
than the theoretical angle at the observer. This difference caused due to terrestrial
refraction is also allowed for in the tables of dip corrections.
Semi-diameter
Tabulated semi-diameter is the angle subtended by the radius of the Sun or the
Moon at the centre of the earth.
Observed or Augmented semi diameter is the angle subtended by the radius of the
Sun or radius of the Moon at the centre of the arth.
All the calculations in nautical astronomy refers to the centers of celestial bodies
and therefore the true altitude should also refer to the centre of the body. Stars and
planets appear as point sources of light. The altitude of these bodies, when
observed is therefore, directly that of their centers.
The Sun and the Moon present visible discs to the observer and it is difficult to
judge their exact centers, by sight. Therefore, we measure the altitude of either
their upper limb or lower limb, to which we apply apparent semi-diameter of the
body to obtain the altitude of their centers. The semi-diameter should be added to
an altitude of the lower limb and subtracted from the altitude of the upper limb to
obtain the altitude of the centre of the body.

54 Z
 Sextant and Altitude
Semi-Diameter Corrections

Observed Altitude
Sensible Horizon O Corrected for Dip
S S’

Visible Horizon
Rational Horizon
Error! R R’
C

Figure 8.5

The semi-diameter (SD) of the Sun is tabulated, once for every 3 days, in the daily
pages of the nautical almanac. For the Moon, it is tabulated for each day. The
tabulated semi-diameter is the angle subtended by the radius of the body at the
centre of the Earth. As the observer on the Earth’s surface is closer to the Moon
than the Earth’s centre, the SD of the Moon as observed by him would be larger
than the tabulated SD value. Semi diameter may be given by the formula :
Sin SD = radius of body / dist. of body from the Earth
As the average distance of the Moon from the Earth is only about 240,000 miles,
the radius of the Earth, which is approximately 4,000 miles makes a significant
difference between the distance to the Moon from the Earth’s centre and that from
an observer situated on the Earth’s surface. The Sun being about 93,000,000 miles
away, the radius of the Earth does not cause any significant reduction in the
distance of the Sun from the observer. Augmentation correction is therefore not
necessary in the case of the Sun.
So the semi-diameter obtained from the nautical almanac needs to be increased
(augmented). The value of augmentation of moon’s semi-diameter can be obtained
from page 453 Norie’s table.
The SD varies as the distance of the Sun and Moon from the Earth varies. The SD
of Sun, varies from 15.8′ at the beginning of July when the Sun is at apogee to
16.3′ at the beginning of January when the Sun is at perigee. Similarly, the SD of
Moon varies from about 14.8′ to about 16.7′.
Parallax
Parallax in altitude is caused by observing the body from the surface instead of
from centre of the Earth and is the angle at a body between a line drawn to the
observer and another to the centre of the Earth. We can therefore define Parallax as
the angle at the centre of the body subtended by the radius of the earth at any
altitude.
Horizontal Parallax (HP) is the angle subtended at the centre of the body by the
radius of the Earth, when the body is at sensible horizon.
From Figure 8.6
True Altitude = ∠ XCR’ = XLS’ (Corresponding Angles as Rational Horizon ║
Sensible Horizon)
XLS’ = XOL + XLO (Exterior angle of ∆ XLO)
= Apparent Altitude + Parallax
∴ True Altitude = Apparent Altitude + Parallax
Hence Parallax is always added.
Error!
Z X Parallax 55
Celestial Navigation

Apparent
Altitude
Sensible Horizon O S′
S
Horizontal
V V′ Parallax
Visible Horizon
Rational Horizon
R R′
C

Figure 8.6

We can also see from the figure that the parallax will be maximum at the sensible horizon
and zero at the observer’s zenith, hence it is also function of apparent altitude.
Value of parallax for stars is negligible as they are at immense distance from earth, for
the planets it is appreciable only for planets near to the Earth. Parallax for planets is
tabulated in nautical almanacs as additional correction. Parallax for the Sun may be
obtained from page 453 of Norie’s table. Horizontal Parallax of the Moon is tabulated at
every GMT hour and its parallax at any apparent altitude can be found by using the
formula :
Parallax = HP × cos Apparent Altitude
SAQ 1
(a) What is value of dip if Height of Eye is zero?
(b) Obtain the value of Dip for Height of eye 11m and 20m.
(c) Obtain the value of refraction of the Moon when its Apparent Altitude
is 32° 10′.
(d) Find the value of parallax of the Sun when its Apparent Altitude is 22° 20′.
(e) Prove Sin Parallax = sin HP × cos Apparent Altitude
(f) Find parallax of the moon at GMT 27th April 06h 31m 06s, when its
Apparent Altitude is 41° 12′.
(g) Find HP of the moon if the distance its centre from the centre of the Earth is
30 times the diameter of the Moon.
(h) Why does the sun appear to be oval in shape when it is rising or setting? Use
the Mean Refraction Table in the nautical tables and calculate the reduction
in diameter between the upper and lower limb of sun when rising/setting.

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 Sextant and Altitude
8.4 ERRORS OF SEXTANT AND THEIR CORRECTIONS Corrections

Parts of Sextant
Frame (A)

The frame is of rigid metal construction and incorporates three legs upon
which the sextant rests when in the horizontal position. The upper side of
the frame is referred to as the plane of the Instrument.

Handle (J)

The handle is fitted with a button switch and contains the battery, which
supplies power to the electric light on the Index Arm.

Telescope or Prismatic Monocle (G)

The telescope or Monocle is used to enlarge the observed object and to

make accurate observation easier. Higher magnification is desirable when
observing vertical sextant angles of distant shore objects such as a
lighthouse and to obtain a clearer view of the sun’s lower limb when taking
sights.

Error!

A wide field of view is important when trying to locate stars which, because
of their apparent size, are not easily found. The Telescope is attached to the
Frame by an adjustable slide or Rising piece, which allows it to be adjusted
relative to the frame. This adjustment alters the area of the Horizon Mirror
viewed through the Telescope and hence alters the brilliance of the reflected
image.

57
Celestial Navigation Arc (B)
The Arc is constructed of a thin strip of metal which has a low co-efficient
of expansion. It is “let in” flush with the frame of the sextant and is
graduated from 0°-125° ‘On’ the Arc and from 0°- 5° ‘off’ the arc.
Index Arm (C)
Mounted on a circular base plate, the Index Arm is free to rotate on a central
axis beneath the Index Mirror. The arrow or zero of the Index Arm is known
as the Index Mark.
Clamp
By exerting finger pressure, the clamp disengages or unclamps the Index
Arm from the gearing cut into the lower limb of the sextant. The Index Arm
can then be moved to the required angle. On releasing pressure, the Index
Arm is automatically clamped in position.
Worm and Rack
The worm is an endless tangent screw, which engages with the Rack or
gearing which is cut into lower limb of the sextant. Exerting pressure on the
quick release Camp disengages the Worm from the Rack and allows the
Index Arm to move freely.
Micrometer Drum (D)
Whereas whole degrees are read directly from the arc, minutes are read off
the Micrometer Drum which screws the Worm along the Rack and permits
fine adjustment of an observed angle or altitude.
Micrometer Vernier
The micrometer Vernier has either 5 or 6 graduations, which correspond to
0.2′ to 10′′ of arc respectively. Minutes of arc are read off the Micrometer
Drum opposite the Vernier Index Mark. Seconds, or decimal places of
minutes of arc, are read where one vernier graduation lines up perfectly with
(any) one of the minute graduations on the Micrometer Drum.
Electrical Light
The Light Bulb is contained in an open ended rectangular tube so arranged
that the light illuminates the Arc, Micrometer Drum and Micrometer
Vernier. It is operated from the handle and is particularly useful when taking
star sights at twilight.
Index Mirror (E)
The Index Mirror reflects the observed object into the Horizon Mirror. It is
rectangular in shape and set in a frame attached to the movable Index Arm.
When properly adjusted, the Index Mirror should be perpendicular to the
Plane of the Instrument.
Index Mirror Clips
These are spring clips, which hold the Index Mirror in its frame.
Index Mirror (First) Adjustment Screw
An Adjustment screw situated on the centreline of the Index Mirror. By
turning the screw the Index Mirror is pushed against its spring clips and
adjusted to the perpendicular position.
Index Mirror Shades (H)
Made of high quality optical glass, Index Mirror Shades are neutral or
coloured light filters, used as necessary, to reduce the intensity of the sun’s
reflected image and to protect the eyes. Four index shades are normally
fitted.
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 Horizon Mirror (F) Sextant and Altitude
Corrections
The Horizon Mirror receives the reflected image from the Index Mirror and
reflects it back to the observer through the Telescope. It is a semi-circular
mirror held in circular frame. As the Horizon Mirror occupies only half the
space enclosed by its frame, the observer is able to see both the reflected
image and the horizon at the same time. When properly adjusted, the
Horizon Mirror should be perpendicular to the Plane of the Instrument and
parallel to the Index Mirror when the Index Arm is set at Zero.
Designs vary and the Horizon Mirror may consist of either (a) a half silvered
rectangular glass, (b) a half silvered circular glass, or (c) a semi circular
mirror only.
Horizon Mirror Clips
Spring clips which hold the Horizon Mirror in its frame.
Horizon Mirror (Second) Adjustment Screw
This Adjustment screw is located on the centreline of the Horizon Mirror. It
may be at the top or bottom (depending on mirror design) and is used to
adjust the horizon Mirror to the perpendicular position.
Horizon Mirror (Third) Adjustment Screw
This adjustment screw is located on the edge of the mirror and is used to
adjust the Horizon Mirror parallel to the Index Mirror when the Index Arm
is set at zero.
Horizon Mirror Shades (I)
These shades are used to reduce the intensity of a brightly lit horizon and are
similar to the Index Mirror shades. Two or three Horizon Mirror shades are
normally fitted.
Sextant Accessories
Accessories normally included in the Sextant Case are :
• Sextant Spanner
• Sextant Screw Driver or Ball Headed Adjustment Pin
• Sextant Oil in small bottle.
• Spare Telescope (if carried)
• Soft cloth or chamois leather
Handling of Sextant
Housing
To house the sextant the Index Arm is set at the middle of the Arc and all
shades are turned towards the centre of the instrument. Transfer the sextant
to the left hand, open the sextant handle toggle and gently place the
instrument in the box. Lock the toggle over the handle and make a final
check to ensure the sextant is correctly positioned in its case. Gently lower
the lid. Now secure the patent fasteners and place the sextant case on a safe
shelf fitted with heavy weather “fiddles”.
Reading the Micrometer Sextant
Reading the micrometer sextant is easy and requires little explanation.
Degree
Read directly from the Arc of the Sextant (opposite the Index Mark on the
Index Arm).
Minutes 59
Celestial Navigation Read directly from the Micrometer Drum (opposite the Vernier Index
Mark).
Seconds
Read directly from the Vernier (where one of the Vernier graduations lines
up with one of the Micrometer Graduation).
Sextant Reading ‘On’ and ‘Off’ the Arc
It is essential to be able to read the sextant both on and off the arc especially to
check the errors of the sextant. To read angles (particularly very small angles) on
and off the arc it is helpful to understand the working of the Micrometer Drum.
Sextant Errors
A sextant may have the following Adjustable and Non-Adjustable Errors :
1 Perpendicularly Errors Adjustable
2 Side Error Adjustable
3 Index Error Adjustable
4 Collimation Error Adjustable
5 Vernier Error Adjustable by Instrument Maker
6 Centering Error Adjustable by Instrument Maker
7 Graduation Error Non Adjustable
8 Micrometer Error Non Adjustable
9 Shade Error Non Adjustable
10 Prismatic Error Non Adjustable

Order of Making Corrections

The first three errors MUST be corrected in the order stated. Correcting the sextant
for Perpendicularity Error is referred to as making the 1st Adjustment, correcting
for Side Error as making the 2nd adjustment and correcting for Index Error as
making the 3rd Adjustment.
Manufacturer’s Sextant Certificate
Some non-adjustable (residual) errors are found in even the finest sextants.
Such errors are tabulated as corrections on the Manufacturer’s Certificate
which is attached to the inside lid of the sextant case.
Admiralty Test Certificate
For an additional fee, the Admiralty compass observatory will test a sextant
and issue an Admiralty Test Certificate. Class A certificates indicate that
residual errors do not exceed 0.8′ (48′′) on any part of the arc.
Applying Residual Errors
On the Certificate, the signs of residual errors are reversed so that they can
be applied as corrections.
Adjustment Screws
When correcting a sextant it is necessary to use the sextant adjustment
screws. The design of these screws varies. Some are fitted with conventional
screws driver slots and dust covers. Others have round heads through which
a small hole has been drilled. A thin stiff wire (the Adjustment Pin) is used
to turn this type of adjustment screw.

60
 To make an adjustment, the screwdriver or adjustment pin is inserted in the Sextant and Altitude
Corrections
adjustment screw and gently turned clockwise or anti-clockwise to achieve
the required result. To prevent mirror breakage, a delicate movement is
advised.
Perpendicularity Error
The Index Mirror must be Perpendicular to the Plane of the Instrument – if not,
Perpendicularity Error is Present.
To check a sextant for Perpendicularity Error :
(i) Turn all Shades AWAY from the mirrors.
(ii) Unclamp and set the Index Arm about the MIDDLE of the Arc.
(iii) Clamp the Index Arm.
(iv) Look obliquely into the Index Mirror so that the True Arc is visible (to the
left of the mirror) and the Reflected Image of the Arc is seen in the mirror.
(v) If the True and Reflected Arcs appear in a Straight Line Perpendicularity
Error is NOT present.
(vi) If the True Reflected Arcs are NOT in a straight Line, Perpendicularity
Error is PRESENT and should be removed.
To remove Perpendicularity Error make the 1st Adjustment.
1st Adjustment (To Remove Perpendicularity Error)
With the shades away from the mirrors and the Index arm clamped about the
middle of the arc,
(i) Take the Adjustment Pin from its housing in the Sextant case.
(ii) Insert the pin in the Index Mirror adjustment screw (note there is only
ONE such screw on the Index Mirror).
(iii) Using only gentle pressure, turn the adjustment screw until the true
and Reflected Arc appears in a Straight Line.
(iv) Carefully remove the adjustment pin (so as not to alter the adjustment
screw setting) and replace in the sextant case.
The sextant is now free of Perpendicularity Error.
Side Error
The Horizon Mirror must be perpendicular to the plane of the instrument- if not,
Side Error is present.
Checking a Sextant for Side Errors (Horizon Method).
(i) Set the Index Arm and Micrometer exactly to zero.
(ii) Hold the sextant horizontally and look through the Horizon Mirror at the
horizon.
(iii) If the True and Reflected images of the Horizon appear IN a Straight Line –
Side Error is NOT present.

No side error Side error

61
Celestial Navigation (iv) If the True and Reflected Horizons are NOT in a Straight Line, Side Error IS
present and should be removed.
(v) To remove Side Error, make the 2nd Adjustment.
2nd Adjustment (To remove Side Error) Horizon Method
With the telescope removed and shades away from the mirror,
(i) Identify the 2nd Adjustment Screw.
N.B.-There are two adjustment screws on the Horizon Mirror.
(ii) Take the Adjustment Pin from the Sextant Case.
(iii) Insert the pin in the 2nd Adjustment Screw.
(iv) Hold the sextant in the horizontal position and look through the
Horizon Mirror at the horizon.
(v) Using only gentle pressure, turn the adjustment screw until the true
and Reflected Horizons appear in a straight line.
(vi) Carefully remove the adjustment pin (so as not to alter the adjustment
screw setting) and replace in the sextant case.
The sextant is now free of side Error.
Index Error (I. E.)
The Index Mirror must be parallel to the Horizon Mirror when the Index Arm is at
Zero-if not, Index Error is present.
Checking a sextant for Index Error-Horizon and Star Methods.
The procedure is summarised as follows :
(i) Set the Index Arm and Micrometer Exactly at zero.
(ii) Hold the sextant in the vertical position and look at the Horizon (or a
1st Magnitude Star).
(iii) If the true and reflected images of the Horizon (or Star) appear in a straight
line (side by side coincident)-Index Error is NOT present.

No Index Error Index Error

(iv) If the True and Reflected images are NOT in a straight line (not side by side
or coincident)-Index Error IS present and should be removed.
(v) To remove Index Error make the 3rd Adjustment.
3rd Adjustment (To remove Index Error)
(i) Set the Index Arm and Micrometer PRECISELY at zero.
(ii) Identify the 3rd Adjustment Screw on the Horizon Glass.
(iii) Take the Adjustment Pin from the case and insert in the
3rd adjustment screw.
(iv) Hold the sextant in the vertical position.
(v) Look directly at the Horizon (or Star).
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 (vi) Adjust the Horizon Mirror until the true and reflected images are in Sextant and Altitude
Corrections
straight line (side by side).
(vii) Carefully remove the adjustment pin and place in the sextant case.
The sextant is now free of Index Error.
Interaction (between the Two Adjustment Screws on the Horizon Mirror)
There is interaction between the two screws on the Horizon Mirror. When
adjusting for Side Error it is possible to introduce Index Error and vice versa. For
this reason it is necessary to repeat the procedure for Side Error and Index Error,
and repeat again as necessary, until no further errors can be detected.

8.5 INDEX ERROR

Residual Index Error
Index Error is said to exist when the Index Mirror and Horizon Mirror are not
parallel when the sextant is set exactly at zero. Index Error is also referred to in
another sense, i.e. the residual error that remains AFTER making the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
adjustments.
Until now it has been assumed that it is possible to completely remove any error in
the sextant- in practice this is not always possible. Indeed, continual use of the
adjustment screws will eventually loosen them to an extent where even the
slightest jolt will alter their setting and introduce error. In practice the navigator
will thoroughly check and adjust the sextant at periodic, fairly lengthy intervals of
time. Thereafter, the sextant will be regularly checked AT SHORT INTERVALS
OF TIME to determine any remaining error (Index Error), which is then applied as
a small correction to be observed altitudes and angles. It must be stressed that it is
of vital importance to CHECK THE SEXTANT FOR INDEX ERROR BEFORE
TAKING AN OBSERVATION. The Index error thus found MUST then be
applied to all observed angles.
An Index Error of 1′ or 2′ is quite acceptable and easily applied. If this error
increases, say to 3′ or 4′, it is probably necessary to completely adjust the sextant
by carrying out the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Adjustments and then find the NEW Index Error
(if any) to apply. The non-adjustable (residual) errors listed on the Manufacturer’s
or Admiralty Test Certificate should also be applied.
Finding the Value of Index Error
Having made the 1st, 2nd and 3rd adjustment, three methods are available for finding
the value of any remaining Index Error :
(i) Horizon Observation
(ii) Star Observation
(iii) Sun Observation
The following summaries deal with the Horizon method.
(i) Set the sextant exactly at zero. Swing the shades away from the mirrors.
N. B. : A horizon shade may be necessary but avoid the use of all shades if
possible.
(ii) Hold the sextant in the vertical position and look through the telescope and
Horizon Mirror at the horizon. If the true and reflected horizons are in a
continuous straight line NO Index Error is present. If the true and reflected
horizon is NOT in a straight line adjust the Micrometer Drum until they
appear in a straight line. The Micrometer reading will be the value of Index
Error. Reading ‘on’ the Arc is SUBTRACTED from sextant angles. Reading
‘off’ the Arc is ADDED to sextant angles.
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Celestial Navigation Note : Sextant Altitude (or Angle) – The altitude (or angle) read directly from the
sextant without applying Index Error (if present).
Observed Altitude (or Angle) – The altitude (or angle) read from the
sextant AND corrected for Index Error (if present) i.e.
obs. Angle = Sextant Angle (+) or (–) I. E.
Finding the Value of Index Error (Sun Method)
(i) Clamp the Index Arm at zero.
(ii) Adjust the Micrometer to read approximately 32′ off the arc.
(iii) Select a suitable combination of Index Mirror shades.
(iv) Hold the sextant in the vertical position.
(v) Look through the telescope at the sun and re-select more suitable Shades if
necessary.
(vi) Look again at the Sun; the True and Reflected Image will be seen with the
reflected image above the true image.
(vii) Adjust the Micrometer Drum until the Lower Limb of the Reflected Image
just touches the Upper Limb of the True image.
(viii) Note the Micrometer to read and label it ‘off’ the arc.
(ix) Adjust the Micrometer to read approximately 32’ on the arc.

Off the Arc Reading On the Arc Reading

(x) Look again at the Sun, the True and Reflected Image will be seen with the
reflected image BELOW the true image.
(xi) Adjust the Micrometer Drum until the Upper Limb of the Reflected Image
just touches the Lower Limb of the true Image.
(xii) Note the Micrometer Reading and label it ‘On’ the arc.
(xiii) Subtract the smaller reading from the greater reading and divide by 2 to
obtaining the index Error.
(xiv) Name the Index Error the SAME as the GREATER READING: i.e. Greater
Reading On the Arc, then Index Error is On the Arc (–) : if Greater Reading
Off the Arc, then Index Error is Off the Arc (+).
Collimation Error
The axis (or Line of Collimation) of the telescope or monocle must be parallel to
the Plane of the Instrument – if not, Collimation Error is present.
In the case of a modern Micrometer Sextant of non-flexible metal construction, it
is almost impossible for the telescope, to get out of collimation unless of course it
has sustained a severe knock and the Rising Piece has been bent. Some of the less
expensive alloy-sextants are more prone to collimation error.
Quick Approximate Method for Checking the Presence of Collimation Error
64
 Most people are capable for detecting (by eye) a misalignment of about 1°. A Sextant and Altitude
Corrections
quick, visual check may be carried out as follows :
(i) Place the sextant on a level table.
(ii) Position the eye level with a line mid-way between the telescope and the
Plane of the Instrument.
(iii) Make a visual inspection of the Rising Piece to see if it is vertical to the
Plane of the Instrument.
(iv) Make a visual inspection to see if the Telescope or Monocle is parallel to the
Plane of the Instrument.
(v) If in doubt, return the sextant to the instrument maker.

8.6 TAKING VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ANGLES

USING SEXTANT
The sextant measures angles with great precision and is used to measure angles in
vertical and horizontal planes.
To measure vertical angles, set the index to zero. Hold the sextant vertically and view the
object through the telescope. The object will be seen direct through the plane (or
unsilvered) part of the horizon glass, i.e., the true image. It will also be seen as a reflected
image in the silvered part. Move the index arm to bring the tip of the object in line with
the horizon (Swing the sextant so that the horizon is tangential to the swing of tip) and
note the readings taken off the graduated arc and micrometer drum. The correction
applicable to the vertical Sextant angle is Index error.
To measure horizontal angles, set the index to zero. Hold the sextant horizontally and
view the object through the telescope. View object 1 through the plane (or unsilvered)
part of the horizon glass, i.e., the true image. It will also be seen as a reflected image in
the silvered part. Move the index arm to bring object 1 in line with the object 2 and note
the readings taken off the graduated arc and micrometer drum. The correction applicable
to the horizontal Sextant angle is Index error.
To measure sextant altitude of celestial bodies set the index to zero bring the body to the
horizon and swing the sextant about few degrees sideways and adjust the index to ensure
that the horizon is tangential to the arc of swing of the body. The sun or the moon appear
as discs so it is difficult to pick the centre with sufficient accuracy and so you must use
either its upper or - more commonly – lower ‘limb’ and apply a correction to the altitude
thus obtained. When satisfied that you have the body sitting square on the horizon you
note the sextant altitude and time to the nearest second.

Taking Sextant Altitude of Sun or Sextant Altitude of Star

Moon’s Lower Limb

8.7 CORRECTING SEXTANT ALTITUDE OF THE SUN TO

OBTAIN TRUE ALTITUDE AND TRUE ZENITH
DISTANCE
The corrections to be applied to the sextant altitudes of the various celestial bodies are
listed as follows :

Stars Planets Sun Moon

65
Celestial Navigation
(a) IE IE IE IE

(b) Dip Dip Dip Dip

(c) Refraction Refraction Refraction Refraction

(d) Correction for SD Augmente

parallax and d SD
phase (Venus and
Mars only)

(e) Parallax in Parallax in

alt. alt.

It is usual to apply the corrections listed at ‘c’, ‘d’ and ‘e’ above as a “Total Correction”.
Total correction tables for the various celestial bodies are available on the front and back
cover pages of the nautical almanac and in the nautical tables. After applying the Index
error, if any, the dip correction is subtracted to obtain the apparent altitude. The apparent
altitude is used as the argument to obtain the ‘total correction’ for the various bodies.
Tables of total correction are provided separately for stars and planets together, for the
Sun, and for the Moon. The total correction for stars consists of the refraction correction
alone. A further small correction is provided for Venus and Mars, due to their proximity
to the Earth, to allow for their parallax and phase. The total correction table for the Sun is
provided separately for lower limb and upper limb observations; for two periods of the
year.
The total correction table for the Moon is provided in two parts. In the upper part, the
corrections are tabulated as a function of the apparent altitude. The correction is additive
to lower limb observations. In the case of upper limb observations also the correction is
to be added, but 30' is to be subtracted thereafter. The lower table gives the correction for
parallax, separately for lower and upper limbs, as a function of the Horizontal parallax
obtained from the daily pages. This correction is also additive.
To calculate true zenith distance, subtract true altitude from 90 degrees.
Back Angles
When the near horizon is not available for a sight due to fog or intervening land, it
is possible to measure the altitude of a celestial body to the opposite point of the
horizon. The altitude thus measured to the far horizon would be over 90°, and is
called a ‘back angle’. Such an observation is possible only when the body is fairly
close to the observer’s zenith, as the sextant cannot measure angles greater than
120°. To correct a back angle observation, index error, dip and SD are applied
initially. The angle so obtained is subtracted from 180°. Refraction and parallax for
the angle so obtained are then applied to it. All corrections are applied with the
normal signs, as for an observation to the near horizon.
Example 8.1
Correct the following sextant altitudes applying each correction separately. Verify
the results using the total correction method.
(a) Sirius, 23°12.5'; IE 3.4' off the arc; HE 11.0 m
(b) Mars; 42°54.1'; IE 2.7' on the arc; HE 9.0 m; on 2nd Feb.92
(c) Sun’s UL; 35°19.1'; IE nil; HE 12.8m, on 14th Oct.1976
(d) Moon’s LL 60°12.0'; IE 1.5' off the arc, HE 14m, on 14th October, 1976 at
1730 GMT.
Solution

66 Sirius Mars
 Sextant and Altitude
Sextant Altitude 23°12.5′ 42°54.1′ Corrections
Index Error + 3.4′ (OFF) ─ 2.7′ (ON)
Observed Altitude 23°15.9′ 42°51.4′
Dip ─ 5.8′ (HE = 11 m) ─ 6.6′ (HE = 14 m)
Apparent Altitude 23°10.1′ 42°44.8′
Total Correction ─ 2.3′ ─ 1.0′
Additional Correction ─ + 0.1′
True Altitude 23°09.8′ 42°43.9
True Zenith Distance 66°50.2′ 47°16.1

SUN Moon
Sextant Altitude 23°12.5′ 42°54.1′
Index Error + 3.4′ (OFF) ─ 2.7′ (ON)
Observed Altitude 23°15.9′ 42°51.4′
Dip ─ 5.8′ (HE = 11 m) ─ 6.6′ (HE = 14 m)
Apparent Altitude 23°10.1' 42°44.8′
Total Correction ─ 2.3′ ─ 1.0′
Additional Correction ─ + 0.1′
True Altitude 23°09.8′ 42°43.9
True Zenith Distance 66°50.2′ 47°16.1

SAQ 2
(a) If the reflected and true images are separated vertically when index is at
Zero, what error is present on the sextant?
(b) Which Adjustment screw is used for correcting Side Error?
(c) If the Index mirror is not perpendicular to the plane of sextant, the error
caused is ____________________. The error can be corrected by adjusting
_________________ adjustment screw.
(d) While using sun to find index error of the sextant the readings obtained were
34.2′ on the arc and 30.0′ off the arc. Find the index error of the sextant and
semi diameter of the sun.
(e) Calculate the True Altitude of the Sun on 31st Aug 92, given sextant altitude
of its LL was 39° 15′, I.E. 2.5′ on the arc and HE was 17 m.
(f) Calculate the true zenith distance of star Sirius if its sextant altitude was
57° 49′, given H.E. 21 m and I.E. 1.7′ off the arc.
(g) Calculate the true zenith distance of Moon on GMT 25th Feb 92 14 h 52 m
16 s, if observed altitude of its UL was 52° 25.5′ and given H.E. 11 m.

8.8 SUMMARY
True zenith distance (the distance of the observer’s zenith from the body) is the radius of
the position circle. To obtain the true zenith distance first the sextant altitude is observed
which is corrected to true altitude. The true altitude is subtracted from 90 degrees to
obtain true zenith distance. 67
Celestial Navigation
8.9 KEY WORDS
Visible Horizon : Visible horizon is a small circle on the Earth’s
Surface that binds the observer’s view.
Rational Horizon : Rational horizon is a great circle on the celestial
sphere every point on which is 90 from observer’s
zenith.
Sensible Horizon : Sensible horizon is a small circle on the celestial
sphere whose plane is parallel to the Plane of
rational horizon and passes through the eye of the
observer.
Sextant Altitude : Sextant altitude is the altitude of a body, above the
visible horizon, as read off from the sextant.
Observed Altitude : Altitude of the body above the visible horizon is
called observed altitude.
Apparent Altitude : It is the altitude of the body above the sensible
horizon.
True Altitude : True altitude of the body is arc of vertical circle
passing through the body contained between the
observer’s rational horizon and the body or it is
the angle at the centre of the earth between the
observer’s rational and the centre of the body.

8.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Zero
(b) − 5.8 and − 7.9
(c) − 1.5
(d) − 0.1
(e) Hint: use sine rule for plane triangles, ∆ XOS
(f) 1
(g) 57.3′
SAQ 2
(a) Index Error
(b) 3rd Adjustment screw
(c) Perpendicularity error, First
(d) Index error 2.1′ on the arc, Semi-diameter of the sun 16.05′
(e) 39° 20′
(f) 32° 18′
(g) 37° 22.2′

68