Feynman Calculus:

Examples from QED

 Feynman rules

The Feynman rules tell us how to go from a diagram to
the corresponding matrix element (or amplitude) which
is necessary to calculate σ and Γ.

There are 3 kinds of ingredients: external lines, internal
lines and propagators. To set up the Feynman
diagrams we need the free particle wave functions.
Also everything is in momentum space. The rules are
given in Table 6.2 of Halzen and Martin, or in Chapter 7
of Griffith
fermions ψ ≈ u1e − (i / h ) p1 ⋅ x
ψ ≈ u2e −(i / h ) p ⋅ x
2

photon Aµ ≈ ε µ* ( k )e −(i / h )k⋅ x

 Feynman rules

In the previous equation ε is the polarization
vector. There are two independent polarization
directions. A photon has spin 1, but because m=0
its polarization can have only two spin
projections, called transverse because

ε ⋅ k = 0 from the gauge ∂ µ Aµ = 0

We do not really care about ε since we are not
going to deal with external photons.
 Summary of the Feynman rules
(1) Momenta. Label incoming and outgoing momenta p1,
p2…, pn and spin s1, s2,…, sn. Label internal 4-momenta
q1, q2,…, qn. Put an arrow on each line to keep track of
the “positive” direction (in time). In general an out-going
anti-particle is equivalent to an incoming particle.
Therefore external lines indicate e- or e+.
The direction of internal fermion lines are assigned
according to the “flow”. The arrows on external photon
lines points forward, on internal lines is arbitrary.
p p'
 Summary of the Feynman rules
2) External lines
Electrons u incoming
u outgoing
Positrons
v incoming
v outgoing
µ
Photons ε incoming
ε µ * outgoing

In writing the factors follow the arrows backward

Quantum Electro Dynamics
3) Vertex Factor: Each vertex contributes
µ 4π
igeγ with ge = 4πα = e
hc

4) Propagator: Each internal line contributes a propagator

− ig µν
photons ⇒
q2
i (γ µ qµ + mc )
electrons + positrons ⇒
q 2 − m 2c 2
Feynman Rules
Note that for the photon propagator:
− ig µν
q2
where q is the photon four momenta. The propagator carries
Lorentz indices because the photon is a spin 1 particle. The
4-momenta q is given by 4-momentum conservation. This
photon is virtual or “off mass shell” since

q ≠0
2
Feynman Rules
(4) Conservation of energy momenta. Energy and momentum
must be conserved at each vertex. We impose energy-
momentum conservation by assigning a δ-function to each
vertex
(2π ) δ ( p1 − p3 + q )
4

where the incoming particles are taken with a (+) sign and
outgoing particles with a (-) sign.
(5) Integration over internal momenta. For each internal line
we have an integral
1 4
dq
(2π ) 4

Therefore we have to integrate over all internal momenta.

Feynman Rules
(6) Cancel the final δ-function. After we follow step 1-5,
we get a final result which will include a δ-function of the
type
( 2π ) δ ( p1 + p2 ....... − pn )
4

This δ-function enforces overall energy-momentum

conservation. Cancel this factor then what remains is
proportional to –iM
(7) Antisymmetrization: Include a (-) sign between the
diagram that differ only in the interchange of two
incoming (or outgoing) electrons (or positron) or of an
incoming electron with an outgoing positron (or
viceversa).
Note that you can find the Feynman’s rules in chapter 7
Summary of
the
Feynman
rules
e+e-→µ+µ-

We are now ready to calculate the cross section for the
process

e e →µ µ
+ − + −

p4,s4

e+ µ+
t
e- q

p3,s3
 p4,s4

e+e-→µ+µ- e+ µ+

Apply the Feynman rules:

e- q

4 s3
( µ
)
(2π ) ∫ u ( p3 ) ig eγ v ( p4 ) − 2 
s4  ig µν  p3,s3

 q 
( )
v s2 ( p2 ) ig eγ µ u s1 ( p1 )δ 4 ( p1 + p2 − q)δ 4 (q − p4 − p3 )d 4 q

Integration over dq and the δ-function of the vertices
yields:
p1 + p2 = p3 + p4

M =−
g 2e
( p1 + p2 ) 2
u s3
[( p3 ) γ µ s4
v ( ( )
p 4 ) v s2
( ][
p 2 ) (γ µ )u s1
( p1 ) ]
Muon piece Electron- piece
e+e-→µ+µ-

Notice that all indices Lorentz and Dirac are contracted
so that M is a pure complex number

In principle we can have also the Z0 exchange
( remember electro-weak unification).
Cross section for e+e-→µ+µ-

Now that we have determined the matrix element we can
calculate the cross section for
e e →µ µ
+ − + −

because it is an easy two body final state which

corresponds to only 1 diagram in QED. Since the cross
section is given by:
dσ ≈ M × phase space
2

Therefore we can divide our calculation in 3 steps:

 Kinematics
 calculations of |M|2 from Feynman diagrams
 phase space integration and cross section
Cross section for e+e-→µ+µ-

We want to determine:

e ( p1 ) + e ( p2 ) → µ ( p3 )µ ( p4 )
− + − +

with ECM>>m µ so that we will neglect e and µ masses.

We also want ECM<m Z so we can neglect Z exchange
diagram. The only contributing diagram is via photon
exchange.

We will work in the e+ e- center of mass frame, but to
keep things as general as possible we will use as much
as we can Lorentz invariant quantities.
Kinematics

The kinematics constraints offers us useful information.
Consider the final state: there are 6 degrees of freedom
alias the 3-momenta of the µ- and the µ+ (p3 and p4). But
conservation of 4-momentum gives us 4-constraints:
p1 + p2 = p3 + p4
therefore there are only two independent variables in the
final state.

To get the total cross section we will only have to do two
integrals, the δ4 functions take care of the rest.

Let
s=E 2
cm s = ( p1 + p2 ) = ( p3 + p4 )
2 2

s = 2 p1 ⋅ p2 = 2 p3 ⋅ p4
where we have neglected the electron and muon masses.
Kinematics

The quantity s is a Lorentz invariant quantity. Let us now
consider the e+ e- center of mass frame. The e+ and e-
collide head-on with equal and opposite momenta and the
µ + and µ - go off also back to back with equal and opposite
momenta but in some other directions.

If we neglect the masses, all particles have the same
energy
s E cm
=
2 2
µ- (p3)

e- (p1) e+ (p2)
z
µ+ (p4)
 Kinematics

Taking the e- direction to be in the z direction , setting c=1 and
neglecting the masses:
E E 
p1 =  cm ,0,0, cm  e−
 2 2 
 Ecm Ecm 
p2 =  ,0,0,−  e+
 2 2 
E E E 
p3 =  cm ,0, cm sin θ , cm cos θ  µ−
 2 2 2 
E E E 
p4 =  cm ,0,− cm sin θ ,− cm cos θ  µ+
 2 2 2 
We have taken the plane of the momenta to define φ =0.

Ecm is considered to be fixed, so that the two degrees of
freedom are the angles θ and φ. There is azimuthal symmetry
and we do not expect a dependence on φ⇒easier integration.
 Calculation of |M|2

Recall the Feynman diagram

p4,s4

e+ µ+ s = ( p1 + p2 ) 2 = ( p3 + p4 ) 2

e- q

p3,s3

M =−
g2
( p1 + p2 ) 2
u s3 [
( p3 ) (γ µ )v s4 ( p 4 ) ][
v s2
( p 2 )( )
γ µ
u s1 ( p1 ) ]

The first step to determine |M|2, is to calculate M*
Calculation of |M|2

Recall the Feynman diagram [ (AB)+=B+A+ ]

[ ( ) ] [u (v ) ]=
2
g + + + + ν+ +
M* = − v ( p )γ ν u s3 ( p3 ) ( p1 )γ ( p2 )
( p1 + p2 )
s4 4 s1
2 s2

Let us use
µ+
ψ =ψ γ + 0
and γ γ0
γ0 =γµ

M =−
* g2
( p1 + p2 ) 2
v s4
+
[
( p 4 )γ γ γ γ u
0 ν 0 0 s3 ( p3 ) u ][
s1
+
( p1 )γ 0 ν 0 0
γ γ γ v s2 ( p2 ) ]

Since γ 0γ 0 = I

[ ][ ]
2
g ν
M* = − v ( p )γ u
ν s3 ( p ) u ( p )γ v s2 ( p2 )
( p1 + p2 )
s4 4 3 s1 1
2
Calculation of |M|2

If everything is unpolarized we
 average over the initial helicities
1  1 
 ∑  ∑ 
2 s  2 s 
 1  2 
 and we sum over the final helicities
  
∑  ∑ 
 s  s 
 3  4 

This is done when we do not use polarized initial states

and we do not measure the polarization in the final state
( i.e we accept all polarizations). Note that these are
incoherent sums and that different helicity states do not
interfere. The sum over the helicity states will allow us to
use the properties of the Dirac equation ( see 7.5 and 7.7)
 Calculation of |M|2

The final result
2
1 1 g
M = ∑ M= ×
2 *
M
4 s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 4 ( p1 + p2 ) 2

∑ [v s4 ][
( p4 )γ ν u s3 ( p3 ) u s3 ( p3 )γ µ v s4 ( p4 ) × ]
∑ [u ( p )γ v ][ ]
s3 , s 4
ν µ
s1 1 s2
( p 2 ) v s2 ( p 2 )γ u s1 ( p1 )
s 2 , s1

 We define two tensors

Aνµ = ∑ [v s4 ][
( p4 )γ ν u s3 ( p3 ) u s3 ( p3 )γ µ v s4 ( p4 ) ]
[ ][ ]
s3 , s 4

Bνµ = ∑ u s1 ( p1 )γ ν v s2 ( p2 ) vs2 ( p2 )γ µ u s1 ( p1 )
s 2 , s1
 Calculation of |M|2

Note that Aνµ depends only on the muon momenta while Bµν
depends on the electron momenta. This means that Aνµ is
related to the final states (the µ +µ - vertex) and Bµν is
related to the initial states (the e+e- vertex). Therefore we
can calculate Aνµ and Bµν separately and then contract
them to get the average value of |M|2. (See Griffith’s 7.7)

Then we have:
Aνµ = ∑ ∑ v s4a ( p4 )(γ ν )ab u s3 b ( p3 )u s3 c ( p3 )(γ µ )cd v s4 d ( p4 )
s3 s4

where the indices a, b, c and d refer to the Dirac indices.

Remember that the Dirac indices goes from 1 to 4 and that
repeated indices are summed (Einstein convention).
 Calculation of |M|2

We can group the elements of Aνµ as:
[ ] [ ]
Aνµ = ∑ v s4 d ( p4 )v s4a ( p4 ) (γ ν )ab ∑ u s3 b ( p3 )u s3 c ( p3 ) (γ µ )cd
s4 s3

Since the u and v spinors satisfy the Dirac equation in

momentum space we have:
(γ p − mc )u = 0
µ
µ (γ µ
pµ + mc v = 0)
u (γ p − mc ) = 0
µ
µ (
v γ pµ + mc = 0
µ
)

v and u are orthogonal
u (1)u (2 ) = 0 v (1)v (2 ) = 0

v and u are normalized
u u = 2mc v v = −2mc
 Calculation of |M|2

v and u are complete
∑
s =1, 2
u s u s = γ µ pµ + mc ∑
s =1, 2
v s v s = γ µ pµ − mc

If we neglect the mass m:

∑
s =1, 2
u s u s = γ µ pµ = p/ ∑
s =1, 2
v s v s = γ µ pµ = p/

Therefore
Aνµ = p/ 4 ( ) (γ ) ( p/ ) (γ )
da ν ab 3 bc µ cd (
= −Tr p/ 4γ ν p/ 3 γ µ )

Since Aνµ is a trace , we can write is as:
Aνµ = − p4α p3β Tr (γ α γ ν γ β γ µ ) =
= −4 p4α p3β [gαν g βµ − gαβ gνµ + gαµ gνβ ] = −4[ p4ν p3µ − p3 ⋅ p4 gνµ + p4 µ p3ν ]
 Calculation of |M|2

The Aνµ is symmetric in µ and ν

Aνµ = Aµν

Bµν is also a trace
B νµ
[
= −Tr ( p/ 1γ ν p/ 2γ µ ) = −4 p1 p2 − p1 ⋅ p2 g + p1 p2
ν µ νµ µ ν
]

In fact Aνµ and Bµν are similar because the interaction
vertices are similar.

Putting everything together :
2
1
2 g νµ
M = A
4 νµ
B
4 ( p1 + p2 )
 Calculation of |M|2

Note:

Aνµ Bνµ = 16[ p4ν p3 µ + p4 µ p3ν − p4 ⋅ p3 g µν ]

[p1
ν µ µ ν
p2 + p1 p2 − p1 ⋅ p2 gνµ =]
(1 + 1) p4 ⋅ p2 p3 ⋅ p1 + (1 + 1) p4 ⋅ p1 p3 ⋅ p2 
 
16− (1 + 1) p1 ⋅ p2 p3 ⋅ p4 − (1 + 1) p3 ⋅ p4 p1 ⋅ p2 +  =
 p ⋅ p p ⋅ p g g µν 
 3 4 1 2 νµ 
= (16 × 2 )( p4 ⋅ p2 p3 ⋅ p1 + p4 ⋅ p1 p3 ⋅ p2 )

Recall that
µν
gνµ g =4
 Calculation of |M|2

Finally since (p1+p2)2=s
8g 4
M = 2 [( p1 ⋅ p3 )( p2 ⋅ p4 ) + ( p1 ⋅ p4 )( p2 ⋅ p3 )]
2

s

Note that this is a real number and it is a Lorentz invariant as
it is always true for |M|2. Note:

s = ( p1 + p2 ) 2 = ( p3 + p4 ) 2 ≈ 2 p1 ⋅ p2 = 2 p3 ⋅ p4
t = ( p1 − p3 ) 2 = ( p4 − p2 ) 2 ≈ −2 p1 ⋅ p3 = −2 p4 ⋅ p2
u = ( p1 − p4 ) 2 = ( p3 − p2 ) 2 ≈ −2 p1 ⋅ p4 = −2 p3 ⋅ p2

Then
2g 4 2
2
M = 2 t + u2
s
[ ]
 |M|2 in CM system

Let: 2
s Ecm s
E= = E4 =
2 2 16
be the energy of any of the particles ( remember that the
energies of all 4 particles are the same if we neglect the
masses). Then r r
p1 ⋅ p3 = E1 E3 − p1 ⋅ p3
r r r r
Since p1 = − p2 and p3 = − p4
r r r r
p1 ⋅ p3 = E cos θ = p2 ⋅ p4
2

Therefore :
( p1 ⋅ p3 )( p2 ⋅ p4 ) = E 4 (1 − cos θ ) 2
( p1 ⋅ p4 )( p2 ⋅ p3 ) = E 4 (1 + cos θ ) 2
M
2
[
= g 4 (1 + cos 2 θ ) ]
 Phase Space Integration

Now we can use 6.47 that yields the general expression for
dσ/dΩ for a 2 by 2 scattering process in the CM system.
r
dσ 1 pf 1 2
= r M for h = c = 1, S = 1
dΩ 64π 2 pi ( E1 + E2 ) 2

For e+e-→µ+µ- scattering we have:

M
2
[
= g (1 + cos θ )
4 2
]
r r
pi = p f if me = mµ = 0
( E1 + E2 ) = s = ( p1 + p2 )
2 2
 Phase Space Integration
( )

Therefore.
dσ g e 1 + cos θ
4 2
(e e → µ µ ) =
+ − + −

dΩ CM 64π 2
s

If
g e2
α=
4π

Therefore
dσ α
( )
2
(e e → µ µ ) =
+ − + −
1 + cos 2 θ
dΩ CM 4s
 Phase Space Integration

To get the total cross section we have to integrate in dΩ,
since 1

∫ dφ = 2π ∫−1cos d (cosθ ) = 3
2 2

4 π α 2
σ (e + e − → µ + µ − ) = h = c =1
3 s
4π (α hc )
2
σ (e e → µ µ ) =
+ − + −

3 s
π (α hc )2

In other books you will find σ (e + e − → µ + µ − ) =
3 s
1
qHL = 4π qG = qSI
ε0
 Comments on total cross section

We could have got the same result with a simple “order of
magnitude” argument. See T. D. Lee : “Particle Physics and
introduction to field theory” Chapter 8.
p4,s4

So far as the total cross section
µ+
is concerned the only Lorentz
e+
invariant variable in this
q
problem is the 4-momentum q
e-
carried by the virtual γ. In the
p3,s3 CM system

s=E 2
CM = −q 2

Therefore the total cross section must be of the form

σ = α 2 f (s, me , mµ )
 Comments on total cross section

When ECM>> me, mµ we may set me=mµ =0. Since α is
dimensionless and

σ = [L 2
] [ ]
−2
s= L

Therefore in natural units h=c=1
α 2
σ≈
s

As you can see we get the correct estimation albeit without
the factor of 4π/3

Suppose ECM=35 GeV

398µb
2
4  1  1
σ ≈ π  ≅ 70 pb
3  137  (35GeV ) 1GeV
2 −2
( )