Baker Atlas

Acoustic Logging
Applications
Baker Atlas

Acoustic Logging Applications

Many earth science disciplines benefit from information derived from acoustic logging data. With this
brochure Baker Atlas wants to raise the awareness of various geoscience applications and help to utilize all
data recorded.

More in-depth information to each application is available. Please contact your local customer service
representative.

INDEX

Petrophysical Applications
Geophysical Applications
Geological Applications
Drilling Applications
Geomechanical Applications
Reservoir Engineering/ Production Applications
Appendix-A – Synergy with other technologies
Appendix-B – Applications sorted into user topics
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Petrophysical Applications
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Porosity and Lithology Evaluation

Acoustic velocity is primarily a function of the rock matrix and can be used to identify different lithologies
and also for stratigraphic correlation. A variety of crossplot techniques, using acoustic measurements
alone, or in combination with other porosity logs (neutron and density), have been devised to assist in
lithologic identification (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1—Generalized comparison of acoustic, neutron, and density log responses in common reservoir
lithologies and to gas

The addition of shear slowness to lithology identification provides a more robust result that can be
particularly useful in cased-hole evaluation where a density log is not available. In Fig. 2, the combined
used of shear slowness and cased-hole neutron porosity result in enhanced porosity determination in a
complex lithology. Crossplots of Vp/Vs ratio vs. compressional traveltime, ∆tc, facilitate identification of
lithology trends with respect to porosity and lithology.
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Fig. 2—Shear slowness as a lithology indicator. The cased-hole apparent compensated neutron porosity
(Track 2) appears to increase with depth while the XMAC shear velocity data decreases with depth. This
indicates a lithology change rather than a porosity change, which is confirmed in the lithology track. In the
interval above x300, the apparent compensated neutron porosity increases with depth, indicating a lithology
change rather than a porosity change. This technique can be extremely useful for through-casing
evaluation when a density log is not available.
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Gas detection in Turbidites by using High Resolution Compressional and Shear Data

The vertical resolution of array tools is typically 3.5 ft but higher resolution is desirable for thin-bed
evaluation. Waveform matching (multi-shot) processing techniques use the redundant information
contained in overlapping receiver sub-arrays to improve vertical resolution. Recent techniques obtain
vertical resolutions up to 1.0 ft

Shear and compressional slowness can be processed to 1ft vertical resolution compared to the standard 3-4
foot vertical resolution. This analysis technique, can be performed on standard XMAC-Elite acquired data
and allows existing data to be re-interpreted. This technique can also be applied in cased holes.

In this example, the interval was logged and the resulting data processed as standard (3.5ft) resolution as
well as high resolution (0.5ft). Notice the difference and additional information provided by the higher
resolution data. One is now able to discriminate dry sands from turbidites, while they are masked when data
is analyzed in the standard 3.5ft resolution. Turbidites are hard to define using standard resistivity data, so
any help provided by other technologies (as high resolution acoustic) is valuable additional information.

Figure: Vp/Vs versus ∆tp crossplot. In addition to the low-saturation sands identified in (a), the high-
resolution result (b) also resolves turbidite and dry sand intervals165
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Shear Slowness in Slow Formations

Normally, shear waves are the second arrival in an acoustic wave train. Monopole transmitters generate
indirect (mode conversion) shear waves while dipole transmitters generate direct shear waves.

Unconsolidated or poorly consolidated sandstones (“soft” rocks) are less rigid and more compressible than
well-consolidated “hard”) rocks. When the formation shear-wave velocity is less than the acoustic velocity
of the borehole fluid (Vs<Vf), a rock formation is called “slow”. Slow formations produce weak shear-wave
propagation that requires low-frequency dipole transmission and reception to adequately detect shear
arrivals. Conventional monopole acoustic logging devices cannot obtain shear-wave slowness in slow
rocks because these devices cannot separate the shear-wave arrival from the Stoneley-wave arrival.

Dipole devices like the XMAC Elite can directly excite a shear wave, such that a good reflected shear
signal can be acquired even in ultra-slow formations.

G Shear
Slowness VDL
CAL

Shallow Unconsolidated
Shale Sequence

. 1200
us/ft

1400 300
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Hydrocarbon Identification. Gas (1 of 4)
Acoustic coupling between solid and gas, or fluid and gas, is poor, resulting in a high loss in energy. A
sudden loss of energy (amplitude) in the measured acoustic signal (primarily in the compressional wave
and only secondarily in the shear wave), e.g., cycle skipping or high slowness values, may indicate gas-
filled pore space (gas effect). In the cased of gas-filled porosity, the acoustic-neutron crossplot can be
useful for this purpose because neutron porosity is lower than acoustic porosity in gas zones.

Compressional velocities are affected (slowed) by the compressive fluids in the pore space while shear
velocity, is affected only by the rock matrix. Consequently, the presence of gas is especially noticeable in
compressional-wave slowness. The combined use of compressional and shear slowness, either as a ratio or
as a log overlay provide quick-look gas indicators.

Figure—Log presentation illustrating the use of ∆tc and ∆ts curves as a quick-look gas indicator
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Hydrocarbon Identification. Gas (2 of 4)

The ratio of Vp/Vs is very effective in identifying light hydrocarbons (gas). When ∆ts is plotted against the
Vp/Vs ratio, water-bearing sands and shales show a linear relationship and points falling below matrix lines
result from the slowing effect of ∆tp in light hydrocarbons . These relationships are used for correcting
porosity in gas-bearing intervals.

Figure — Crossplot of shear slowness vs. Vp/Vs serves as a quick-look hydrocarbon indicator.
Compressional slowness travel times increase where the rock pore space is occupied by more compressible
fluid
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Hydrocarbon Identification. Gas (3 of 4)

Another technique can be used to detect gas with acoustic measurements, without the need for using R/A
sources in a well. The Poisson’s ratio is strongly influenced by gas-filled porosity. This method can be
used in open and cased holes.

GR-CAL Poisson’s Ratio DTS-DTC

Hydrocarbon Identification. Gas (4 of 4)

Another effect to identify gas is to look for reflections of the Stoneley wave generated by a discontinuity
(in this case thin layer filled with gas)

Notice the reflection arrivals lining up with its vortex pointing towards the gas thin bed.

The most robust way to perform a wave separation is a two step separation. The first step wave separation
is a separation over the receiver array in up and down going waves. This is called a common source gather.
The upgoing waves are the direct Stoneley wave and the reflected up going Stoneley wave. The down
going wave is the reflected down going Stoneley wave. Using the Stoneley wave velocity information these
up and down-going waves are then shifted (in time) to the middle of the array. The resulting waveforms are
then stacked to reduce the noise effects.
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Figure - Notice the difference between recorded and modeled reflected Stoneley waves, suggesting
permeable thin beds filled with gas. Here, reflected Stoneley is used to detect Gas zones . Note that Vp/Vs
kicks to the left reaching 1.7 (Light Hydrocarbon/Gas value for DTS=260us/ft) where high reflection
signatures occur.

.
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Geophysical Applications
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Integrated Transit Time (ITT).

Acoustic velocity logs were initially to provide calibration of surface seismic velocities and reflectors.
Acoustic-log interval travel time or transit time, ∆t, can be integrated over the entire logged interval to
provide the equivalent of seismic one-way time which is compared to borehole seismic surveys and
reflection seismic two-way time.

Figure - Acoustic log presentation showing the integrated one-way transit time as pips on the right side of
the depth track

Acoustic-log data are commonly calibrated using checkshot (velocity) or vertical seismic profile (VSP)
surveys prior to their use in geophysical applications. Data from these surveys, is used to adjust the log
data for drift and borehole conditions and result in improved the time-depth correlation.
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TI anisotropy

Two types of anisotropy are of particular interest, azimuthal and transverse anisotropy. Shear wave
anisotropy (splitting) occurs in the presence of horizontal stress. TI anisotropy relates to the vertical
anisotropy of shear wave’s velocity compared to horizontal shear wave velocity. These properties are
derived from Stoneley and Shear wave data. The main application for this technology is surface seismic
anisotropy correction.
Seismic imaging data is available in time (not depth). To migrate from time to depth, an earth model is
utilized. Large uncertainties can result from assuming an isotropic earth, if anisotropy is not accounted for
during this migration process.

Figure - Different corrections to surface seismic can provide very different answers to the earth model to be
used later on when a drilling trajectory is chosen. The more accurate the model, the better. TI (Transverse
anIsotropy), occurs mostly in shales. TI correction is required for good seismic inversion.
TI is computed from the difference between DTSvertical (from a Shear measurement) and DTShorizontal
(from inversion of Stoneley data)
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GR DTSH
De Stoneley Wave
pt 50 (API) 200 DTSV
h Anisotropy ( γ )
(ft) 350 (µs/ft) 100 0.5 (ms) 5.5
100 (%) 0

X1
00

sand

shale

X2
00
Figure - TI anisotropy is quantified by γ (Gamma), which relates to the ratio of DTSh/DTSv. Notice that is
only >0 in shale sections. In a transverse anisotropic formation, the Stoneley wave is delayed more (slower)
than in an isotropic formation. A significant delay of the dipole wave relative to the Stoneley wave in the
shale indicates the TI effect.
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γ
Wang

γ = - 0.01049 + 0.9560

ε
Figure - Core data reflecting the correlation between γ (Shear Anisotropy) and ε (Compressional
Anisotropy). Is the parameter used to correct seismic sections for anisotropy. So if γ can be determined
from logs, then ε can be obtained from this graph. Better correlations can be obtained if core analysis is
constrained to the particular formation under study.

In deviated wells, the measured anisotropy will be a mix of Azimuthal and TI anisotropy. While anisotropy
can be easily detected, it is hard to quantify for large deviations (>45 deg).
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Geological Applications
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Fracture detection and Orientation

Knowledge of fracture system orientation is important for further field development. Optimal reservoir
drainage is dependent on the well location relevant to fracture system direction. Subsequent development
well placements should consider the detected fracture system direction.

Locating fractures, recognizing fracture morphology, and identifying fluid flow properties in the fracture
system are important criteria in characterizing reservoirs that produce predominantly from fracture systems.
However, fracture identification and evaluation using conventional resistivity and only compressional-wave
acoustic logs is difficult in part because fracture recognition is very dependent on the dip angle of fractures
with respect to the borehole.

Fractures are physical discontinuities that generate acoustic reflection, refraction, and mode conversion, all
of which contribute to a loss of transmitted acoustic energy. In particular, compressional- and shear-wave
amplitude and attenuation and Stoneley-wave attenuation are significantly affected by the presence of
fractures. Compressional waves are primarily affected by oblique fractures, those with dip angles between
15° and 85°, while shear waves are primarily affected by horizontal or near –horizontal fractures. On
conventional velocity logs, fracture-induced attenuation may be evidenced as cycle skipping, variations in
the Vp/Vs ratio, and on VDL presentations, as chevron (crisscross) patterns caused by mode-conversion
interference.

Recently developed anisotropy analysis methods use crossed-dipole shear, Stoneley-wave, and acoustic
imaging data, individually, or in combination to provide reliable identification and evaluation of in-situ and
induced fractures.

The governing physical principle is that waves (specially shear waves) are attenuated when traveling across
fractured sections in a well.

Decrease of velocity Reduction of the high Low Energy of the

of P and S waves frequency components P, S and St waves

Figure - Geothermal example showing how Monopole signals are affected when crossing a fractured
section. Notice how fracture zones reduce acoustic velocity, and attenuates high frequency contents.
Energy is also reduced.
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A more complete way to analyze fractures is to measure the anisotropy created by them on the shear wave
energy (splitting). XMAC can detect azimuthal anisotropy, providing the fracture’s azimuth (strike).

Dip Acoustic
Anis. Fastsh
Analysis Image
Azi.
5700 ’

Fast AZ =
Frac Strike

Fracture Fracture
5725 ’
Intensity = Strike
Anisotropy NNE/SSW

30o 5750 ’

Figure - Fracture analysis example from XMAC log data. The anisotropy and fast azimuth are shown
along with a dip analysis. An acoustic image from a CBIL is shown at the right. Note the coincidence
between the fracture strike and the fast azimuth strike direction from XMAC.
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Fracture detection and Orientation in Cased Holes

Fractures are physical discontinuities that generate acoustic reflection, refraction, and mode conversion, all
of which contribute to a loss of transmitted acoustic energy. In particular, compressional- and shear-wave
amplitude and attenuation and Stoneley-wave attenuation (recorded in open holes only) are significantly
affected by the presence of fractures. Compressional waves are primarily affected by oblique fractures,
those with dip angles between 15° and 85°, while shear waves are primarily affected by horizontal or near –
horizontal fractures. On conventional velocity logs, fracture-induced attenuation may be evidenced as
cycle skipping, variations in the Vp/Vs ratio, and on VDL presentations, as chevron (crisscross) patterns
caused by mode-conversion interference.

This anisotropy analysis methods uses the shear wave splitting phenomena to provide reliable identification
and evaluation of in-situ and induced fractures.

Anisotropy can be detected by XMAC both in open and cased holes.

Open hole Cased hole
Acoustic Images
Fast &
Slow Anisotropy
0 (%) 30
Waves

X0 Orthogonal
fractures
DEPTH
(ft)

X1

Figure - Notice the anisotropy in the mid section, where “single direction” fractures exist. In the top section,
where no anisotropy is detected, orthogonal fractures are seen in the image (since there at fractures at 90
degrees, no shear wave splitting occurs). Also notice that anisotropy measurement was not affected by the
fact that the well was cased (gray) or not (green)
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Hydraulic Fracture Evaluation

Fractures can be detected behind cased hole. This fact makes the XMAC Elite an excellent service for
hydraulic fracturing evaluation.

Fractures are physical discontinuities that generate acoustic reflection, refraction, and mode conversion, all
of which contribute to a loss of transmitted acoustic energy. In particular, compressional- and shear-wave
amplitude and attenuation and Stoneley-wave attenuation (recorded in open holes only) are significantly
affected by the presence of fractures. Compressional waves are primarily affected by oblique fractures,
those with dip angles between 15° and 85°, while shear waves are primarily affected by horizontal or near –
horizontal fractures. On conventional velocity logs, fracture-induced attenuation may be evidenced as
cycle skipping, variations in the Vp/Vs ratio, and on VDL presentations, as chevron (crisscross) patterns
caused by mode-conversion interference.

Figure - In this example, a hydraulic fracture showing the fracture tip move upwards from the perforations.
Tracer analysis confirms the XMAC data analysis. The acoustic data shows the fracture extending higher
than the tracer analysis. Keep in mind the difference in depth of investigation (a few inches for tracers
versus some feet for XMAC Elite). The frac plane could have probably moved away from the borehole
wall as it extended upwards. Note that the frac azimuth can now be easily spotted.
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Permeability Index

A formation permeability index can be reliably estimated from XMAC Stoneley wave data using modeling
and inversion techniques. Stoneley waves provide a dynamic measurement of permeability. Other methods
only infer permeability from static measurements. However, many factors affect the Stoneley wave such as
borehole rugosity and mudcake rigidity. By isolating the permeability and non-permeability attributes of
the Stoneley wave, we can determine the dynamic measurement of permeability. A modeled Stoneley
wave reflecting the non-permeability attributes of the borehole and formation is computed and compared
with the measured data. Inversion is the used to determine the Stoneley wave permeability.

NMR and Acoustic wave measurements can provide permeability profile data on a foot-by-foot basis,
either independently or in combination. However, resulting permeabilities are based on two very different
physical phenomena. Neither permeability value is absolute unless calibrated with core or other reliable
well data. When the two profiles are in agreement, greater confidence in the derived permeability is
achieved. Understanding the differences when they do occur can also lead to a better understanding of the
formation. While Stoneley waves are influenced by both, matrix and fractures, NMR measurements are
mainly dependent on the matrix porosity. Differences between Stoneley and NMR permeability can often
be explained as fracture permeability.

30 NMR perm
20 0 Dft 30
D f ms 25 Core perm (unfil.)
0 20 DT t 25 Stoneley perm Msd. Ston. Syn. Ston.
D T ms 0.00 10 [us 450 [us 450

XX5

Stonele

DTS

NM

GR

XX10
 Figure - Here we see a comparison of permeability from Stoneley with a curve from NMR and with values
Baker
fromAtlas
core measurements. As one can observe there is good agreement between the Stoneley and NMR
data, and the core values show reasonable agreement over much of the interval.

Thin Bed Analysis

The vertical resolution of array tools is typically 3.5 ft but higher resolution is desirable for thin-bed
evaluation. Waveform matching (multi-shot) processing techniques use the redundant information
contained in overlapping receiver sub-arrays to improve vertical resolution. Recent techniques obtain
vertical resolutions up to 1.0 ft

DTC and DTS can be processed to 1ft vertical resolution compared to the standard 3-4 foot vertical
resolution. This analysis technique, can be performed on standard XMAC-Elite acquired data and allows
existing data to be re-interpreted. This technique can also be applied in cased holes.

Figure - In the above example, turbidites are seen in high resolution DTC/DTS, and confirmed by the
image log.
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Thin Bed Analysis combined with Vp/Vs ratio computation

G 1’ VRM
350 DTS (0.5ft) (Conventional-
160 DTP (0.5ft) (Conventional-
3.5’
Resistivity
5 Caliper φN (Dashed) V
P/
V
S
-

DTS
Conventional

0.5’
V
P/
V
S
-
Conventional Slowness
WAVETBAN Slowness Hydrocarbon
3.5 Ft. Aperture
0.5 Ft. Aperture
DTS
(0.5 foot)

The vertical resolution of array tools is typically 3.5 ft but higher resolution is desirable for thin-bed
evaluation. Waveform matching (multi-shot) processing techniques use the redundant information
contained in overlapping receiver sub-arrays to improve vertical resolution. Recent techniques obtain
vertical resolutions up to 1.0 ft

DTC and DTS can be processed to 1ft vertical resolution compared to the standard 3-4 foot vertical
resolution. This analysis technique, can be performed on standard XMAC-Elite acquired data and allows
existing data to be re-interpreted. It can also be applied in cased holes.

When Vp/Vs fluid identification analysis is utilized over the same data set, before and after resolution
enhancement, hydrocarbon points can be differentiated. This is particularly useful in gas/turbidites
environment
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Drilling Applications
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Stress Induced Azimuthal Anisotropy (Main Stress Direction)

(us/ft)

FAST
200 300

DEPTH Fas
(us/ft)

G Fast Wave
Fast AVE_ANIS
ANIS- FAST Vs
(ft)
120 370

(us)

0 20 0
Slow SLOW
(API
120

Slow Wave (us)

370

200 300
(deg 0 (% 1
1200 (us) (m/s

X
60

Shale:
no stress-
induced
anisotrop

X
80

S an

Formation anisotropy, the directional variation of physical properties, can be the result of depositional
processes (intrinsic) or tectonic processes (stress-induced). Formation anisotropy is evidenced through
variations in permeability, rock strength, fractures, and borehole stresses. Stress-induced anisotropy is
known as azimuthal anisotropy, where parameters differ in an azimuthal direction.

Analyses of in-situ anisotropy (primarily stress-induced) are made using direct or derived shear-wave
velocity and provide the magnitude and azimuth of anisotropy, i.e., the size and direction of the maximum
and minimum horizontal stresses. These results are used in well design and well placement for optimum
reservoir drainage, to detect and characterize fractures in open and cased hole, to predict borehole
instability and sand production, and in the design and evaluation of well-completions (hydraulic fracturing).

Stress-induced anisotropy is measured by cross-dipole acoustic logging. As in the example, the anisotropy
is significant in sand but disappears in shale. The anisotropy results provide the maximum stress azimuth
and the anisotropy magnitude is a measure of formation shear stress (or stress difference). On the center
example, anisotropy is shown in the form of anisotropy map. In the same well as the center example, an
image log was run over the anisotropic area, and large breakouts were detected. Notice that breakout
orientation (DTSslow direction), coincides with the dark areas in the map, as expected. The anisotropy map
shows FAST AZ at 90 degrees from the breakouts shown in the image log.
Baker Atlas
Induced Fractures (Circulation Loss):

The dispersive nature of Stoneley waves makes them sensitive to fluid movement and thus, to open
fractures. The effects of open fractures on Stoneley waves are amplitude reduction, increase in Stoneley
slowness, occurrence of mode conversion, and occurrence of Stoneley reflections

Stoneley Model
model reflected
Anisotrop Dep. Frac.

Induced
Fracture

FA

Figure - Notice the strong reflected Stoneley waves and strong shear anisotropy (bright on the map)
coincide with induced fractures shown in the image log. Fractures Azimuth from Images (brown rose plot
in the middle) coincides quite well with Fast azimut rose plot (FAZ – shown by itself on the left).

Stress-induced anisotropy is measured by cross-dipole acoustic logging. The anisotropy analysis results
provide the maximum stress azimuth. The anisotropy magnitude is a measure of formation shear stress (or
stress difference).
Baker Atlas

Geomechanical Applications
Baker Atlas
Rock Mechanical Properties

Determination of a reservoir’s mechanical properties is critical to reducing drilling risk and maximizing
well and reservoir productivity. Estimates of rock mechanical properties are central to drilling programs,
well placement, and well completion design. Mechanical properties include the elastic properties (Young’s
modulus, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and bulk modulus) and the inelastic properties (fracture gradient
and formation strength).

There are three elastic moduli that correspond to each type of possible formation deformation. Young’s
modulus (E), Bulk modulus (K) and Shear modulus (µ). An additional parameter, Poisson’s ratio (σ), is a
measure of the geometric change of shape under uni-axial stress. These four elastic parameters are
interrelated such that any one can be expressed in terms of two others and can also be expressed in terms of
acoustic-wave velocity (compressional and shear slowness) and density.

Shear and compressional velocities are a function of the bulk modulus, shear modulus, and density of the
formation being measured. The Vp/Vs ratio, combined with formation density, ρ, is used to calculate
Poisson's ratio, Young’s modulus, the bulk modulus, and the shear modulus. Whenever possible, log-
derived dynamic rock properties should be calibrated to core-derived static (laboratory) properties because
the static measurements more accurately represent the in-situ reservoir mechanical properties.

The elastic moduli and Poisson’s ratio are used in a variety of applications. These applications include
predictions of formation strength, well stimulation (fracture pressure and fracture height), borehole and
perforation stability, sand production and drawdown limits in unconsolidated formations, coal evaluation,
and determining the roof-rock strength index for underground mining operations.

Continuous profiles of static mechanical properties and rock strength can be computed using acoustic
logging and other openhole data.
Youngs/Bulk/Shear modulus Pressure Gradients Lithology

Poisson’s ratio Drawdown Pressure

Gamma Ray/Caliper

Figure - This is a mechanical properties log showing several of these elastic properties. Borehole pressures
above the maximum gradient will hydraulic fracture the formation. Borehole pressures below the minimum
Baker Atlas
gradient will cause the formation to fail (breakout or even collapse). A gravel-pack was recommended for
this pay zone to avoid sand production problems predicted by rock a failure model incorporating
compressional and shear slowness data.

Borehole Stability applications

Borehole boundary stress analysis generates solutions including mud pressure window, best drilling
trajectory, etc. Stability contour analysis for any well trajectory allows controlled breakouts to enhance cost
effectiveness by reducing the need for additional casings.

Breakout

Fractures

Depth in meters

Figure – The figure displays acoustic and resistivity images from a STAR tool. The left two pictures are
acoustic and resistively images of the same depth, when no breakout nor tensile fractures are present.
Notice that the acoustic image shows nicely the surface geometry of the borehole and the resistivity image
nicely brings up the lithologic variations. On the right, are acoustic and resistivity images from deeper
depth in the same hole, when both breakout and tensile fractures exist. Notice that breakouts and tensile
fractures are 90 degrees from each other, and separated two thin layers of shale, which is washed out. As
these breakout and tensile fracture images are reflections of local failure of the formation, stress exceeding
strength, the information given here can be used to estimate in-situ stress or formation strength, if one of
them is known.
Baker Atlas

-175
180
175 170
σ Hmax =8000 psi @NS
-165 -170 12000
σ hmin=7500 psi @EW
165
-160 160
-155 155
-150 150
-145 145 σ v=10000 psi @ Vert
-140 140
-135
9000
135 Pp = 4600 psi, UCS = 8200 psi
-130 130 Mud Weight = 10.5 ppg (5450 psi)
-125 125
-120 6000 120 Strength
-115 115
Max_Tan Stress
-110 110

-105 3000 105

-100 100

-95 95

-90 0 90

-85 85
-80 80

-75 75

-70 70

-65 65
-60 60
-55 55
-50 50
Mud Weight, PPG
-45 45
8 9
-40 10 11 12 13 14 15
40 16 17
2200

-35 35 1550

-30 30
-25 25
-20 20
-15 -10 10 15
-5 5
2400

0
Frac-Propagation
2600

N
2050
2800
Measured Depth (Sub Sea), meter

2550
3000
3200

3050
3400
3600

3550
3800
4000

4050

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Borehole Deviation from Vertical, degree

Figure - Top left: Stress distribution around the borehole. Used to determine mud windows by showing
minimum and maximum stress at a given depth.
Bottom left: Mud window plot, showing the minimum mud weight required to avoid breakout, and the
maximum mud weight needed to avoid induced fractures. Many times, a controlled breakout situation is
acceptable, to avoid setting an extra casing. Breakouts below 90 degs. are considered “controlled”.
Breakout larger than 90 degs would create well collapse.
Black and red curves show maximum and minimum allowable mud weights. The fact that they cross in
several sections of the well, tells that this well can’t be drilled in a stable condition. If a controlled (60 deg)
breakout is allowed, the red curve shifts to the blue curve and now the well becomes “drillable”.
Top right: Maximum. minimum and confined stress around the borehole
Bottom right: Minimum required mud pressure for no breakout generation, for every deviation and azimuth
at a given depth of the borehole.
Baker Atlas

Maximum/Minimum Allowed Mud Pressure

This figure displays is a maximum allowed mud pressure contour plot. Each point represents a well
direction. The contours show that if one wants to drill a horizontal well in the direction –for example 10
degrees, the maximum allowable mud pressure would be of les then 5000 psi to avoid fractures. Although a
well with 40 degrees deviation and 60 degrees azimuth will stand mud pressure up to 10,000psi.
A minimum required mud pressure contour plot at the same depth (not displayed here) , shows that if a
horizontal well is drilled in the direction of “-10 degrees”, a minimum mud pressure of about 5800 psi is
needed to avoid breakout. Although a well with 40 degrees deviation and 60 degrees azimuth provides the
lowest bound for mud pressure, we also have identified that this direction is not suited for production
drawdown. This analysis incorporates acoustic and other openhole data.
Baker Atlas
Mud Windows

The three contour graphs display maximum and minimum mud window. The minimum MW graph (top
left), would recommend a vertical well to be drilled, where mud pressure at that particular depth, could go
as low as 2,000 psi. The maximum MW graph (top right) would recommend a deviated well (DEV=45 degs,
AZ = ~400 degs), where mud pressure could go as high as 4200 psi (vs. 3100 psi on a vertical well).
The graph on the bottom shows the optimum mud window, where reaching 1600 psi for a deviated well
versus just 600 psi for a vertical well, making the deviated well a much safer (drillable) option.

Mud windows can be shown continuously (for a given well trajectory), or at a certain depth (in the form of
a contour plot like the ones above). This analysis incorporates acoustic and other openhole data.
Baker Atlas
Over pressurized zones detection

Normal overburden pressure, will create a linear trend of Δtc vs depth. When the trend is non-linear, like in
the displayed example, the shift to the right of the Δtc is a sign of the presence of an over-pressurized zone.
The amount of shift can be related with a pressure increase and the increase can be accurately computed.

Figure – DTC vs depth graph showing a deviation from the natural trend (light green) over an
over-pressurized interval.
Baker Atlas
Design of optimum mud window with controlled break-outs

Normal overburden pressure, will create a linear trend of Δtc vs depth. When the trend is non-linear, like in
the displayed example, the shift to the right of the Δtc is a sign of the presence of an over-pressurized zone.

Figure - The effect of over-pressurized zones can easily be noticed in the log above.
In this mud window log (red = minimum MW , blue = maximum MW), an over-pressurized zone creates a
“negative” mud window condition, indicating that this well can not be drilled in stable conditions. Special
mud will need to be used to avoid fracture (move blue curve to the right), or different trajectory would have
to be chosen.

Breakout extension contour graphs can be generated showing the angular extension (in degrees) for
breakouts, at a given depth and mud condition. Interpreting such graphs can help define a new well
trajectory with controlled break outs. The result of such an interpretation of above mud window log, would
be to move the red curve to the left, i.e. create a larger mud window by allowing some
“controlled”breakouts).
Baker Atlas

Figure - Swabbing/piston effects while moving pipe or turning on/off pumps, can create pressure spikes
(positive or negative), large enough to break down a formation (if positive: fracture and then fluid loss, then
the lack of column will collapse the well stucking the pipe; if negative: collapse the formation and stuck the
pipe). This is very important way to drillers and also show synergy with ECD subs (Inteq’s MWD)..
Baker Atlas

Reservoir Engineering / Production

Applications
Baker Atlas
Sand Production Prediction

During the exploration phase of the field is very important to asses the need for gravel packing (or other
sand control measures) by the use of logs. This is much more economical than using DSTs, and requires a
much simple logistics (logging tools vs DST equipment), more so in remote operations.
During the development phase, water cut effects will have to be assessed, as well as the effect of the
pressure drop (depletion). Oriented and other perforation strategies can be used to minimize those effects.
During the field development phase, water cut effects on sand production can be evaluated. Water will
more likely finger through the softer sections of the rock. Water cut will increase several fold, the chance of
sand production, then perforating soft areas near water table levels, should be carefully studied, sine the
problem is not reversible.
Sand production occurs when the draw down pressure is large enough to have the formation fail, and it gets
worse when the flow rate of the produced fluid is large enough to drag the loose grain or even to loose
those grains from the structure (friction effect). Completion strategies should be evaluated to reduce the
draw down (reduce fluid velocity and/or increase flow are for a given flow rate).

Non-Darcy Darcy
Critical Drawdown Pressure, psi
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
8650

8550
8660
8670

8600
8680
8690

8650
8700
8710

8700
8720
8730
8740

8750
8750
8760

8800
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Figure - The graphs above show the calculated critical draw down for a given fluid, assuming Darcy or
Non-Darcy (turbulent – bubbling – etc..). Notice that if Darcy flow can be established, a much larger draw
down can be accepted without sand production. This can be used as justification for Big Hole or Super Big
Hole perforating or even Gravel Packing.
Baker Atlas
Perforating for Sand Control and for Hydraulic Stimulation

Hydraulic Fracture
Max. Horizontal
Stress Natural fractures
And Micro-fracs
0H
Fast Shear
Fast Shear Wave

Breakou
Slow Shear Wave

Figure - X oriented perforating is available for the following:

Cross-dipole analysis on XMAC Elite data can yield valuable information for perforation strategies.

Perforating for Sand Control and Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation:

XMAC anisotropy measurement provides the direction of maximum horizontal stress. In the example
figure, the advice is to use the orange perforation orientation (X-pattern perforating) shown in the slide,
parallel to σmax. In most cases X-pattern perforating will provide a large enough shot density to allow for
draw-downs below critical drawdown pressure. At the same time it will increase tunnel-to-tunnel
separation compared to the 0-180 degree phasing. This will avoid tunnel interference leading to a potential
collapse of the formation or tunnel integrity. For hydraulic fracturing, the advice is to perforate parallel to
σmax. This will reduce the tortuosity pressure drop, thus leaving more energy available for fracture
development.

As a further benefit, while hydraulic fracturing, a large amount of fluid will move through the perforations.
The more holes are available the smaller the pressure loss (larger open area). If a 0 or 0-180 degree charge
phased gun is used, shot density rarely goes over 4 or 6 shot per foot. By using an X-pattern, more charges
per foot can be accommodated, reducing the pressure drop by increasing the area open to flow. Casing
damage while perforating can be decreased by using the X-pattern perforation procedure.

The σmax direction value is a product derived from an XMAC anisotropy measurement.

Perforating in naturally fractured reservoirs:

The red X-pattern is recommended.. This orientation will connect as many natural fracs as possible. Again
σmax direction is detected by XMAC anisotropy measurement.
Baker Atlas
Perforating Optimization:

DP

Drawdown generated by
different gun systems

BH
SBH

Figure - Once the maximum allowable draw down has been established (see Sand production Prediction
Critical Drawdown Determination above) , WEM can be used to calculate the open area need (gun type) to
stay below said raw down with the expected production rates. The product is the recommendation of a gun
with optimum charges, phasing, shot density and entry hole size, as well as perforating conditions (over or
underbalance, WL or TCP, etc..)

Oriented perforation can be used to avoid perforating the “likely to break out” sections of the well.
LMP uses XMAC as an input and can also be used to avoid perforating in zones that are determined to be
“too soft”.
Geomechanical data and data from XMAC is used as an entry to WEM to calculate charge penetration etc.

In this example, DP charges are ruled out since the tunnel draw down will be much larger than the
recommended <200psi.

Looking at production, the use of BH or SBH will provide about the same production, but the SBH is the
only one that will stay below the 200 psi drawdown.

Tunnel/Hole plug ins produce an increase in “per hole” flow rate, that in turn produces a larger drawdown,
that in turn produces sanding...This is known as the “sanding spiral”.
Baker Atlas
Oriented Perforation (1 of 2)

Oriented Perforations have several applications in today’s oilfield scenarios. Sand Control, hydraulic
fracturing optimization and connecting natural fractures are some of the more common ones. The product
below can be used to define the extension (angle) of breakouts (to be avoided by oriented perforating) for
different well trajectories at a certain depth.

Oriented Perforation

Figure - This contour graph shows the break out extension (in degrees) for different well trajectories. This
graph helps select the direction for oriented perforating.
Baker Atlas

Oriented Perforation (2 of 2)

In wells were the combination of borehole trajectory, mud pressure and regional stress do not generate
break outs, XMAC can still detect the fast azimuth, unlike image or caliper logs.

In this example perforations were oriented towards the fast azimut (~N90E degs). Data was integrated with
NMR, Imaging, Resistivity, GR and SBT.

Figure – In this composite plot, XMAC was used to determine the main horizontal stress direction, as well
as mechanical properties, mud window and lithology.
Baker Atlas

Maximum Permeability Direction

Another application for the maximum stress direction obtained from X-MAC anisotropy map is to know
the field preferential permeability direction. The case below refers to a reservoir where permeability is
related to the in-situ stress system. The direction of σmax can is detected by XMAC anisotropy
measurement, and is supposed to coincide with the maximum permeability direction.

Figure: In this example, water injection strategies were defined based on the direction of the preferred
Permeability (parallel to σmax). XMAC, STAR Image Log, CBIL Image Log and Diplogs were run in
several key wells, and the sweeping strategy (what well injects and what well produces) was optimized.
After 10 months of injecting water, the recovery was much better than the common for the area. New
locations were selected for infield drilling (injector and producer wells) using this data as well.
Baker Atlas

Conventional Cement Bond

The Acoustic Cement Bond Log is a valuable source of data pertaining to the effectiveness of the cement
sheath surrounding the casing. These data are obtained by evaluating the effect of the casing, the cement
sheath, and the formation on an acoustic wave emanating from the Cement Bond Log instrument. The
Amplitude Curve of the reflected acoustic wave is maximum in unsupported casing and minimum in those
sections in which the cement is well bonded to the casing and the formation.

Part of the log presentation is a recording of the reflected acoustic waveform either as a half-wave or full-
wave (Signature) or a Variable Density Display. These waveforms are used to identify the wave path and
confirm the interpretation of the Amplitude Curve. When complete bonding is indicated, the through-the-
formation wave is identifiable and can be used much like the open hole acoustic log.

Service applications are determination effectiveness of cement bond in casing-formation annulus,

identification areas of zonal isolation and detection of presence of microannulus