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PET524-8-immiscible PDF
PET524-8-immiscible PDF
uox│x uox│x+x
z y
x
As an example, the mass of oil entering and leaving the element is given by:
Entering: o uox x Ax t o uoy y Ay t o uoz z Az t (9.1)
Oil can accumulate by: (1). Change in saturation, (2). Variation of density with
temperature and pressure, and (3). Change in porosity due to a change in confining stress.
Thus we can write,
o SoV t t o SoV t (9.3)
9.1
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Substitute Eqs. (9.1-9.3) into the conservation of mass expression, rearrange terms, and
take the derivative as t, x, y, z 0, then the phase dependent continuity equations
can be written as;
ouox ouoy ouoz o So (9.4)
x y z t
wuwx wuwy wuwz wSw (9.5)
x y z t
The oil and water continuity equations assume no dissolution of oil in the water phase.
That is, no mass transfer occurs between phases and thus flow is immiscible.
The next step is to apply Darcy’s Law to each phase, i. For example in the x-
direction,
kix i i
uix (9.6)
i x
where uix is the superficial velocity of phase i in the x-direction, kix, is the effective
permeability to phase i in the x-direction, and is the phase potential. Substitute Eq.
(9.6) into (9.4), apply Leibnitz rule of differentiation, and combine terms, results in,
Even though Eqs. (9.7) and (9.8) are written in Cartesian coordinates, they both can be
solved for a particular geometry. The solution will provide not only pressure and
saturation distributions, but also phase velocities at any point in the porous media.
To combine Eqs. (9.7) and (9.8) requires a relationship between phase pressures
and between phase saturations. The latter is easily understood from the definition of
saturations in Chapter 4, So + Sw = 1.0. The relationship between pressures was
developed in Chapter 5, and is known as capillary pressure.
P P P or P P (9.9)
c nw w o w
9.2
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
poi poL
qo
D
qw Pwi PwL
L
9.3
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
gap
Pc=0
Po
Sor
P Sw
Pw
Pc=0+ Swc
0 L 0 L
Figure 9.4 Pressure and saturation profile through a core of length, L, with capillary end
effect.
Mathematically, we can describe this effect by investigating Darcy’s Law for the non-
wetting phase.
k nw A p w pc S w
q nw
nw x S w x
(9.14)
9.4
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
inlet
pc
outlet
0 Sw
9.5
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Sor A Sor B
Sw Sw
Swi Swi
Sor C Sor D
Sw Sw
Swi Swi
0 x/L 1 0 x/L 1
Figure 9.6 Progression of water displacing oil for immiscible, 1D
9.6
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
9.7
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
pc pc S w
(9.30)
x S w x
In linear displacement, dpc/dSw 0 at moderate to high water saturations as observed by
the capillary pressure curve such in Figure 9.7. As a result, dpc/dx 0.
pc
0
S w
Pc
Sw
Figure 9.7 Capillary pressure curve illustrating flat transition region at moderate to high
water saturations.
9.8
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
If the derivative term is negligible, and flow is in the horizontal direction such that no
gravity term is present, then the fractional flow equation reduces to,
1
fw (9.31)
k
1 o w
k w o
If we define mobility ratio as,
k w o
M (9.32)
ko w
then fw = 1/(1+1/M).
f w f w S w
(9.36)
x t S w t x t
Substitution of Eqs. (9.35) and (9.36) into Eq. (9.33), results in the frontal advance
equation.
dx q f
T w (9.37)
dt S w A S w t
9.9
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Equation (9.37) represents the velocity of the saturation front. Basic assumptions in the
derivation are incompressible fluid, fw(Sw) only and immiscible fluids. Furthermore, only
oil is displaced; i.e., the initial water saturation is immobile, and no initial free gas
saturation exists; i.e., not a depleted reservoir.
The location of the front can be determined by integrating the frontal advance
equation,
xS w
1 f w
t
dx
0
Sw
A 0 S w t
qT dt (9.38)
qT t f w
xS (9.39)
w
A S w S
w
We can evaluate the derivative from the fractional flow equation (Eq. 9.31), either
graphically or analytical. Figure 9.8 illustrates the graphical solution.
Swbt
fwf
fw
Swc Sw Swf
9.10
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Vw S w Adx (9.40)
x1
Np
breakthrough
Qi
Figure 9.9 Typical oil recovery performance plot for immiscible displacement
A solution for waterflood performance was developed by Welge in 1952. Define
the volumetric average water saturation as,
x2
S w Adx
Sw
x1
x2
(9.42)
Adx
x1
For constant cross-sectional area (A) and porosity (), Equation (9.42) reduces to,
x2
S w dx
Sw
x1
(9.43)
x2 x1
9.11
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
The integrand can be expanded and the equation rearranged such that,
x2 S w2 x1S w1
2
1
x2 x1 1
Sw x dS w (9.44)
x2 x1
Substitute the frontal advance equation (Eq. 9.37) for the integral and solve,
qT t f w
2 2
x dSw
1 A 1 S w S
dS w
w
(9.45)
q t
T f w 2 f w1
A
Thus the general Welge equation is,
x2 S w2 x1S w1 qT t f w2 f w1
Sw (9.46)
x2 x1 A x2 x1
A useful simplification is to consider x1 = 0 at the inlet and x2 = L at the outlet end of the
core,
qT t
Sw Sw2 1 f w2 (9.47)
AL
where fw1 is assumed to be one at the inlet.
Define the total volume injected, Wi, = qT*t, and the pore volume, Vp = AL. Combining
gives the number of pore volumes injected, Qi,
Wi
Qi (9.48)
Vp
Consider a special case immediately before breakthrough. In this case, S w2 = Swi and fw2
= 0. Subsequently, Eq. (9.49) can be written as:
Swbt Swi Qibt (9.51)
and the cumulative oil displaced:
N p Vp Swbt Swi (9.52)
9.12
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
dN plim N p Wi Wi N p Wi
fo2 (9.55)
dWi Wi 0 Wi
where dNp is cumulative oil produced and dWi is water injected during t. Alternative
expressions for dNp and dWi can be written as,
dN p AL dS w
(9.56)
dWi AL dQi
which results in a useful expression for fo2.
dS w S w S w2
fo2 (9.57)
dQi Qi
The slope of a plot of average water saturation vs PVs of water injected provides an
estimate of fo2 (Figure 9.10).
Sw
breakthrough
Sw2
0 Qi
9.13
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
To estimate the permeability of each phase, begin with the Darcy multiphase flow
equation written in terms of pressure drop.
L
qT dx
p (9.58)
k k
0
kb A ro rw
o w
Pressure drop is measured across the core during the constant rate test. From the single
phase, steady state experiment we obtain,
qb b L
kb A (9.59)
pb
qT pb dx
L
qb b L 0
p (9.61)
1
dx
1 0
x
(9.62)
dx
0
9.14
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
d 1
21 1 Qi (9.65)
dQi
The derivative can be evaluated from the slope of a plot of the inverse of average
apparent viscosity vs. PVs water injected as shown in figure 9.11.
-1 breakthrough
Qi
Figure 9.11 Plot of inverse of average apparent viscosity vs Qi for determining fo2.
Example 9.1
An unsteady state test was performed at constant injection rate for the purpose of
determining the oil and water relative permeability curves. Table 1 lists the input
parameters for the test.
Swi = 0.35
Vp = 31.13 cc
w = 0.97 cp
o = 10.45 cp
q= 80 cc/hr
pb/qb= 0.1245 psi/cc/hr
9.15
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
cumulative Cumulative
wtr injection oil produced p Qi Swave fo2 Sw2 fw2 kro/krw
Wi, (cc) Np, (cc) psi (PV)
0.00 0.00 138.6 0.000 0.350 1.000 0.350 0.000
3.11 3.11 120.4 0.100 0.450 1.000 0.350 0.000
7.00 7.00 97.5 0.225 0.575 0.585 0.443 0.415 15.166
11.20 7.84 91.9 0.360 0.602 0.154 0.546 0.846 1.963
16.28 8.43 87.9 0.523 0.621 0.083 0.577 0.917 0.980
24.27 8.93 83.7 0.780 0.637 0.038 0.607 0.962 0.425
39.20 9.30 78.5 1.259 0.649 0.019 0.625 0.981 0.208
62.30 9.65 74.2 2.001 0.660 0.009 0.641 0.991 0.103
108.90 9.96 70.0 3.498 0.670 0.005 0.653 0.995 0.053
155.60 10.11 68.1 4.998 0.675 0.002 0.666 0.998 0.018
311.30 10.30 65.4 10.000 0.681 0.001 0.669 0.999 0.013
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
Sw ave
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Qi
Figure 1. Plot of average water saturation vs. pore volume water injected. Slope provides
exit end fractional flow of oil.
p fo2 fw2 Qi average m*
psi (PV) -1 2-1 Sw2 krw kro
138.6 1.000 0.000 0.000 13.50 13.50 0.350 0.000 0.774
120.4 1.000 0.000 0.100 11.73 -17.80 13.50 0.350 0.000 0.774
97.5 0.585 0.415 0.225 9.50 -10.68 11.90 0.443 0.034 0.514
91.9 0.154 0.846 0.360 8.95 -3.14 10.08 0.546 0.081 0.160
87.9 0.083 0.917 0.523 8.56 -1.90 9.56 0.577 0.093 0.091
83.7 0.038 0.962 0.780 8.15 -1.24 9.12 0.607 0.102 0.043
78.5 0.019 0.981 1.259 7.65 -0.76 8.60 0.625 0.111 0.023
74.2 0.009 0.991 2.001 7.23 -0.37 7.97 0.641 0.121 0.012
70.0 0.005 0.995 3.498 6.82 -0.20 7.51 0.653 0.129 0.007
68.1 0.002 0.998 4.998 6.63 -0.07 6.98 0.666 0.139 0.003
65.4 0.001 0.999 10.000 6.37 -0.05 6.90 0.669 0.141 0.002
9.16
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
16
14
12
10
)ave
8
-1
6
4
2
0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Qi
9.17
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Step-by-step procedure
Measured data includes cumulative water injection (Wi), cumulative oil produced (Np)
and pressure drop (p) as shown in Table 2.
Step 1:
Calculate the cumulative pore volumes of water injected, Qi from Eq. 9.48.
Wi
Qi
Vp
Step 2:
Calculate the average water saturation from Eq. 9.50.
Np
S w S wi
Vp
Step 3:
Calculate the exit end fractional flow of oil from the slope of Figure 1.
S w
fo2
Qi
Step 4:
Calculate the exit end water saturation from Eq. 9.49.
Sw2 Sw Qi fo 2
Step 5:
Calculate exit end fractional flow of water by,
f w2 1 f 02
Step 6:
Calculate the relative permeability ratio as shown in Table 2 from Eq. 9.54.
ko 1
o 1
kw S w 2 w f w2
Step 7:
Find the average apparent viscosity from Eq. 9.63.
qb b p
1
qT pb
9.18
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Step 8:
Find the slope of the average apparent viscosity vs Qi plot, Figure 2.
1
m*
Q i
Step 9:
Calculate the exitend apparent viscosity from Eq. 9.65. Results shown in Table 3.
21 1 Qi m *
Step 10:
Calculate the individual relative permeabilities with respect to the outlet end,
where Sw2 is known,
o f o 2
kro
21
f
krw w 1w 2
2
Results are shown in Table 3 and Figure 3, respectively.
The following data were obtained in a laboratory experiment to determine the relative gas
and oil permeability. Plot kro, krg vs. So.
9.19
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Solution
A laboratory experiment was run with a constant pressure drop between the inlet and
outlet. Measured were time, cumulative gas injected, and cumulative oil produced. Also
known are the oil and gas viscosities, pore volume of the sample and the single phase oil
rate prior to gas injection…saturate the core with oil, steady state process, at irreducible
water saturation.
Step 1: Plot cumulative oil production (Np) vs time. Determine oil flow rate by,
dN
p
q
o dt
Step 2: Calculate the cumulative gas injected in terms of mean pressure and expressed in
pore volumes.
G 2Pi
Q (pv) i
i V (P P )
p i o
Step 3: Calculate the average gas saturation by,
N
p
Sg S gi
Vp
Step 4: Determine the oil cut from the slope of a plot of average gas saturation vs Qi
9.20
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
dS
g
fo
dQ
i
Step 5: Determine the relative permeability ratio,
k rg 1 f g
o
k ro f o o
Step 6: Calculate the saturation at the outflow face
S g 2 S g Qi * fo
Step 7: Determine kro by Darcy’s Law,
q o ( t ) o L
ko Ap q o ( t ) q o ( t )
k ro
k q oi o L q oi 0.4
Ap
k rg
k rg *k
ro
k ro
n
9.21
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
80
70
60
50
Np, cc
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
time, secs
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
Sg (ave)
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Qi, pv
9.22
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
1.0
0.9
kro
0.8
0.7
Kro or krg
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 krg
0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
So2
Figure 3. Oil and gas relative permeability curves as a function of exit end oil saturation
9.23
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
Sor
w) Sor
o )Swi
w) Swf
Swi
kw
D w
w Sor
(9.67)
ko
d o
o S wi
Note both permeabilities are evaluated at the endpoints, Swi and Sor, respectively.
If no sharp front is evident, we define the “apparent mobility ratio”, Ms, as:
krw o
Ms (9.68)
w S wf
kro S wi
where the water mobility is evaluated at the average water saturation behind the front.
The apparent mobility ratio is a measure of the relative rate of oil movement ahead of the
9.24
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
front to the water movement behind the front, assuming the oil and water pressure
gradients are equal. Therefore, if
Ms < 1 oil rate > water rate….high displacement
Ms = 1 oil rate = water rate
Ms > 1 oil rate < water rate….poor displacement efficiency
The result is displacement efficiency (ED) decreases as apparent mobility increases as
shown schematically in Figure 9.12.
Ms
1
ED 3
5
Qi(pv)
where i is the mobility of the injected fluid evaluated at the average saturation of the
injected fluid at breakthrough, and d is the mobility of the displaced fluid evaluated at
the average saturation of the displaced fluid. Typical values are Ms of 0.2 to 10 for water
displacing oil, up to Ms of 1000 for gas displacing oil.
Wettability
The shape of the relative permeability curves are influenced by wettability, subsequently
impacting mobility ratio and fractional flow. Figure 9.13 illustrates the effect of
wettability on the fractional flow of water.
9.25
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
fw
=180°
=47°
Sw
0.4 47°
Incremental due
to wettability 0.3
Np
180°
(pv)
0 Qi(pv) 2.5
9.26
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
=0.5
0.4 =40
Np
(pv)
0 Qi(pv)
fw
o/w= 100 10 1
Sw
9.27
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
o=1.8cp
Incremental due
to oil viscosity
Np
(pv) o=151cp
0 Qi(pv)
oil
wtr
9.28
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
wet rock the oil is trapped as globules or ganglia. But for oil wet rock the oil is trapped
as a film on the grain surfaces. The importance of understanding the residual oil
saturation is it establishes a maximum efficiency for oil displaced by water on the
microscopic level. Furthermore, it is the initial oil saturation for the next possible phase
of development; i.e., EOR.
The measure of the effectiveness of the displacement process is defined by the
microscopic displacement efficiency, ED.
9.29
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
50
So,%pv
0
10-8 NCA 10-3
9.30
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
initial flowing gas saturation is proportional to an increase in trapped gas saturation and
thus a reduction in residual oil saturation.
10
Sor,%
0 30
Sgi,%
9.31
Chapter 9 – Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids
necessary to estimate the operating conditions to obtain stabilized flow. Two examples
from Willhite (1986) illustrate the point.
Example 1
A reservoir is 1000 ft long, and was flooded at an average frontal velocity of 1 ft/day.
The porosity of the reservoir is 19% and the displacing fluid viscosity is 0.7 cp. Estimate
the scaling coefficient and determine whether the displacement was stabilized.
Solution
In oilfield units, the value of uT = 0.19 ft/day (=1 ft/day*.19). Thus,
LuT w (1000)(0.19)(0.7) 133 ft 2 cp / day
This value is an order of magnitude greater than the critical values observed in lab
experiments, and therefore flow is stabilized.
Example 2
It is desired to conduct a laboratory waterflood experiment under stabilized conditions in
a core 2.54 cm in diameter and 5 cm long. The porosity of the core is 15% and the
viscosity is 1 cp [1 kPa-s]. Estimate the volumetric injection rate in cubic meters/second
if the critical scaling coefficient is 5.85 x 10-9 N.
Solution
LuT w (0.05m)(uT )(0.001Pa s) 5x105 uT
Substituting the critical value, results in uT = 1.17x10-4 m/s. Subsequently, the
volumetric rate becomes,
q uT A 1.17 x10 4 (0.0254m) 2
4
8 3
q 5.93x10 m / s
9.32