Contents

WORK5
3 DMRSION .... 77
3.1 Overview... 77
princi
3.2 Generol 77
3.3 Intokelocotio 18
3.3.1 Charocteristics 18
3.3.2 Exomple 20
3.4 Intoketypes 1

vll
tf'
t,'

66

vlll
 for groveltrop, settlingbosin
5.6 Checklist

6.5.4 Quickmethodfor smollschemes

with crossflow
turbines................ .............
95

ix
7.

10
11

APPENDICES
AppendixA
AppendixB
AppendixC

LISTOFPHOTOCMPHS

Ph0t02.2 0bstructions
cousedby debrisfollingfromon unstobleslope......... .....................
9

Photo3.2 Sideintokeof the Golkotmicro-hydro Boglung,

scheme, Nepol .........22
Photo3.3 Whereon intokeis liobleto ottroctflootingdebris,o troshrockmoy benecessory
(SriLonko) .............22

Ph0t03.5 Timberplonksplocedhorizontolly provideo low-costgotein q chonnel(Mhopung)

in grooves ...........25

Ph0t0
3.11 Gobionwollsot theheodworks
of the 30kWJhorkotmicro-hydro
scheme,
Mustong,Nepol .................
35

4.3 Stonemosonryin cementmortqrheodrqce

Ph0t0 ccnqlof the 50kW GolkotMHBGqlkot,Boglung,
Nepol.....................
38
4.4 Reinforced
Photo coverslobsprovideprotection
concrete fromfollingdebris(Bolivio) ...................
38

Photo
4.6 Timberconolwith brocingsupporting
the sides,Thuptenchuling
........ ..............
39

4.11 Overflowfromthe foreboydischorged

Photo overo rockcliff,Dhodingmicro-hydro,
Nepol ..........
50
Photo wheretheexcess
4.12 Spillwoyon o crossing into q gully,
flow is dischorged

Photo pipesprovideqn overflowfromo timberchonnel(Mhopung)

4.13 HDPE ....................
53

4.15 Ghqndrukmicro-hydro
Ph0t0 heqdroce
crossing,
Ghondruk,
Nepcl ............
54

shouldbeprovidedqt low pointsin pipelinessothe heovydebriscqnbe

4.u Flush-outs
Photo

Photo heodrocepipeolongunstqbleolignment,Ghondrukmicro-hydroscheme,
4.18 HDPE Nepol ......56
4.19 Bendprepored
Photo by cuttingondweldingtheHDPE pipeot Ghqndruk
heodroce ......................
56

xl
Photo4.21 JoiningHDPEpipesby pushingth€mwhile hot
usedto join HDPE
Photo4.22 Collors pipes 57
Photo5.1 colkotgroveltrop .... ' . . . ' ' , ,. . . . . . . . . . . '.'.'.' .' .7. .1
Photo5.2 Slidinggot€ot settlingbosinentronce,Peru ?5
....___...........
Photo5.3 Jhorkotsettiingbosin....... . . . . . . . ...7. .6
Phoro5.4
1'7
Phoro5.5 s e ( l i n gD o s ront J h o r k o.r. . . . . . . . . . .
Photo5.6 sqll€riChioiso setllingbosin
Photo5.7 c h o n d r u k s e f i l rbnqg) i n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Photo5.8 crovel trop. settlingbosinond foreboyofJhonhemini'hydro................ 81
Phoro5.9 A dry stonemosonryforeboy showingtheconnection with thepenstock
.........,.............. 82
Phoro5.10 A cem€ntmosonrychonn€l qndforeboy ot thetopofo ste€pslope(DhqdingJ
............. .............8l
Phoro5.11 Cleoningconbedifiicult with horizontolbors 8l
Phoro5.12 submerged troshrock,SolleriChiolsomini-hydro
scheme............ 84
qt
Photo5.11 overflowweirfor thesettllngbosin Jhorkot................................. 84
Phoro5.14 chondrukpeokingreservoir
duringconstruction .................
............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8. .5. . . . . .
Photo5.15 GhondrukDeokiD0reservoir .............................
ofterconstruction 85
qlignmentof the36kWJhorkotmicro-hydm
Photo6.1 P€nstock sch€me, Mustong, 87
Nepol........................................................
olignmert ofthe 50kW Borpokmicro-hydroscheme,
Photo6.2 Penstock Corkho.Nepol
Phoro6.3 Excovotion
to reduc€thecostoflh€ penstock
ondreduce theneedforonchors ...................
{Siklis) .........
.......
...88
Photo6.4 Penstock
instollotion ondrequires
is oftenchollenging sofeondcor€fulwork .... ................
89
oiignmenthighobovethegroundto ollowoccess
Phoro6.5 Penstock for people mini-hydro
0ndcottleJhonlre ...................
89
ste€lc0upling.Jhongmicro-hydro
i'iroto6.6 HDPE-mild Mustong,
sch€me, N€pol.................. 9i
..................................................
Phot06.7
Phoro
6.8
Photo6.9
P h o t 6o . 1 0
Photo6.11 P e n ( t o LPku. r o n g . . . 104
Photo6.12 An expqnsi0nj0int belowqn onchorblockto protecttheblock
shouldb€locotedjust
fromforces to resist(Siklis)
whichmqy Ilotbedesigned .................. 105
jornt,
P h o t 6o . 1 1 slrdlngexpqn5ion Jhonkre mrni.hydro 106
Photo6.14 Penstock ot Ghondruk with villog€in thebqckground
............ 108
P h o r 60 . 1 5 Tempororysupponfor siteweldingwork,Jhonl(Ie
minihydro,Nepoll08
Photo7.1 A strolqhtp€nsrock
with foursuppons th€powerhouse.....
cndon onchorblockbefore lll
Ph0t07.2 Jhonkreminihydro onchorblockfor on upwordverticolbend u1
Phoro7.3 crocking0f theuppersurfoce of on unreinforced oDchor block...... ll2
w o l lf o rf o r mw o r kJ, h u n L rme r n 1 . h y d r 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Photo7.4 U 5 eo l d r y s t o n e 113
Photo7.5 stonemosonrysuppoftpiers,lhonkre
mini'hydroscheme........... I ll

supp0nliftsthepipecleor0l on block,ollowirlg
t0 theconcrcte
Photo7.6 Theuseofon exlension
ondpreveltingcorrision
droinqge theblockondthepipe(Kiomche)
betwe€n ............................
Photo7.7 Woodensupportpiersot Komche scheme,
micro-hydro Nepol....................... ...........................
I16

mi[i'hydroscheme
ondloilroceoi thesolleriChiolso
Photo8.2 Powefhouse . . ... . . ......... .....130

Phot09.1 Unsroble
slopes (re o thr€otl0 schemc.
Thispolvefhouse wosdestroyed by o londslide
...........................................
119
ondcontr0l0f spillwovwoter............
Photo9.2 Mosonrystepsfor entrgydissipotion ...........................
140

xI
 Ph0t09.4 Stonemosonryconprovideslopestobilisotion (Barpok)
olongtherouteof thepenstock ......... ........141

LIST
OFFIGURES

Figure1.2 Heodis theverticolheightthroughwhichthewoterdrops ................

3
Figun2.1 Viewingthe sitefrom o vontogepointgivestheopportunityto ossess
the optionsfor

3.7 A tempororyweir proposed

Figure for the 18kW ThorongPhedimicro-hydro
scheme,
Monong,Nepol.............................26
Figure
3.8 Heodworks
orrongement Nepol..............
of the 500kWJhonkremini-hydroscheme, ........................27

3.10A stonemosonrypermonentweir proposed

Figure for Ghomimicro-hydro
scheme,
Mustong,Nepol................................
29
3.11A plumconcrete
Figure permonentweir proposed
for Ghqmimicro-hydro
scheme. ............
30

Figure
3.15Heodworks of the 80kW BhujungMHP,underconstruction
orrqngement in Lomjung,Nepol.................................
36

Figure lining proposed

4.3 Buriedmembrone in DesignMqnuolsfor IrrigctionProjects
in Nepol .....................
4l
;
)
)
l
I
t
6
J
Figure
4.11Heqdworks
of the 100kW Siklismicro-hydro (Siklis,Nepol)
scheme ...........................
62
0
 Figure
4.13 Cqnollining with stonemosonryin cementmortor 66
Flgure5.1 An ideolsettlingbq\rn
Figurc5.2 Follvelocityofquonz spheres
in woter
Figure5.3 A typicolsettlingb0sinondits components
.............. 72
Figure5.4 Exponsion
0ndcontroction
rolioin s€t0ingbosit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .?. .4. . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure5.5 Flushingo settlingbosinusingth€verlicolflushpipemethod
Figurc5.6 V€rticolflushpip€sectionin o settiingbosin 57
Figure5.7 Flushingsystemof jhqnkr€minihydm 81
Figurc5.8 Foreboy 83
Figure5.9 Wollsood floon ofwot€r retqiningstructur€s
Figure6.1 Typicolpenstockprofile 90
Figurc6.2 lypicol HPDEmild steelpipecoupling 9l
pressures
Ilgure6.3 Surge 93
FrguIe6.4 Jhonkremini-hydrop€nstockolignmentot downstrcomend to2
Figure6.5 Tronsitionfrom buriedto exposed jhonkremini-hydro
penstock, 105
Figur€6.6 Sliding
rypeexponsionjoint 106
Figur€6.7 Thermolexporsionofo p€nstockpipe 107
Figur€6.8 Settingout rh€ c€$tr€lin€ofth€ pensto(k6lignm€nt 108
FiguI€7.1 Anchorblocks€ction. 112
Figure7.2 Composit€
onchorblocksection 112
Frgure7.3 Arrangementofweor ploteot a supponpier 4
Figure7.4 Typicols€ctionthrougho supportpier 115
7.5 Diston(es
Figur€ ondongl€susedin onchorblockondsupportpierequotions 119
Flgure7.6 Proposedonchorblockshope 122
Figure7.7 Forcediogromon th€ qnchorblock 125
7.8 Supponpier for smollschemes
Figure with groundheightoflessthon 1 m 127
Fjgure7.9 Supponpier for smolischemes
with groundheightof 1 m to 2 m 127
Figurc8.1 Powerhouse
floorplon ofth€Jhonk€ mini'hydroscheme 131
Figur€8.2 Mochinefoundotionsection 133
Flgur€8.3 Mochinefoundotionplon...... 133
Figur€8.4 Resolution
offor€son themqchinefoundotion
........... 133
8.5 Proposed
Flgure mochin€foundotionsectionfor Exomple8.1 135
Figun8.6 R€inforced
concrctetoilrocechonnel 136
9.1 Gobionretoinirgw011..............
Figure 142
Figure9.2 Stonemosonryr€toining
woll................ 142
9.3 T€rrocingond dry stonewolls to retoinslop€s....
Figure .....142
9.4 A gobioncheckdom 0t the intok€ofjhorkot micro-hydroscheme
Fiqure 144
Fiqure10.1A Coondo
intokescr€en
.......... 145
tiqure10.2Propos€d orrongemenrfor burstingdiscinstollotionin micro-hydros(h€mes
Figur€10.3FlexiblesteelsupponpierforJhorkotmicro-hydroscheme 149
'150
Figure10.4Foundotion
for theJhorkot supportpier...........................
flexible

LISTOFTABLES
Toble1.t Dillerenc€s
betweenmicro'hydroondlqrgehydroschemes
Toble2.1 Indicotorsof slopeinstobility
Tobie2.2 Possibl€
use0fsoil& rockin micro-hydropower
.......... 10
Tqble2.3 Cqnolse€pdge
loss€s...... t2
Table3.1 cot€goriesof Nepolese
rivers 19
Tqble3.2 criteriotor sideqndbottominrcke
Selection
 Toble4.1 Roughness

Toble6.1 Advontoges of differentpenstock

onddisqdvontoges moteriol ..........
90

Toble
7.3 Unit weight(y),ongleof friction(Al ondollowoblebeoringpressure
for diflerentsoiltypes ..........
121

USTOFWORKED
OUTEXAMPLES

USTOFBOXES
gobionconcrtePVCsheet
Box3.1 Composite

Box9.1 Useof mosonrygrid to stobilise

theJhonkemini-hydropowerhouse
orecslope ........743
 1. Introduction

1.1Hydropowerond micro-hydropower to q turbine.Micro-hydro

penstock qreolmost
schemes
olwoysrun'of-th€-river.
Hydropower
is thegenerotion
ofpower(mechonicol
ond/or
electricol)using
thefollofwoter In thecottextofN€poi,
o
hydropower
scheme
with on instolled
copocity
oflessthon100 1.2Aspectsof civil engineeringworlc
kWis clossified
osmicrohydro. Schemes
in the rong€100-1000
kWoreclossi{led
osmini hydro,ondshoresomeofthechoroc- Thedesignondconstruction
0fcivil€ngineering
workshove
teristics
0f micro-hydropower
schenes.Apqftfrornthepower someimportantchorocteristics:
outputofschemes,
some0fthemojordifferences
between
lorge Theyoredepeodent
0n conditi0ns
ot thesite.Notwo
ondmicrohydrocreshownbelowin TobieLl. sltesorcthesome.
Theyolwoysinvolvestructuresthot orein contoctwith
SOMIDENNITIONS theground.Design
engineers
moy hcvecontroloverthe
. Civilengineering
is the opplicotionofscienceto the mot€riols usedin corstruction, but hovelilnitedconrr0l
pr0ctic0lbuildirg
ofsofeondcosteffective structufts. o v e rt h eg r o u n d
o n w h i ,h l h e\ t r u ( l u r es l 0 n d sT.h e y
. A structure
is on ossembly
of motenclswhichserves
the tokeoccountofthegroundconditions,
musttherefor€
pueose
forlvhichit is designed
(occommodote
people, ondmoy hoveto consider
olternotive
sitesto ovoid
conv€y
Ilou trofiic,etc.)ondc0rries
theossocioted stobilityprobleIns
l o o d sA. c r v rel r , g r n e c r si nr g
r u r, u r er ' s p r r . f i c o l l y Theyoiteninvolveo number0fpeople
workingon
to fulfil o purp0seond/0rpe orm o functionqt
designed design,
supervision
ondconstructi0n
ot thesite.Vorious
0nopproporequolityondto qn occeptoble timescole skillsond moteriolsoreinvolved,usuollyovero period
ondcost. of severoi plonning,
months.Therefore communicotion
r Civilrvorksarecll octivitiesnecessory
for the buildingof ondoccount0bilityorevery importont.
structures. Foilureofcivil workscon bevery dongerousond very
. Sforoge
schemes mokeus€ofo dom to stopriver flow expensive.Similorly,poorperformonceor over-design
up q reservoir
building 0fwoterbehindth€dom.The oreuneconomicol.
wotrristhenreLeosed whenpoweris
throughturbines
n€eded. On€importontpointshouldb€recognisedi
complete
r Run-oiriyer
sche mesdo not stopthe river flow,but stondordisotion 0fcivilworksis not possibl€
dueto the
divertp0n oftheflowvio o heodroce
insteod ond vori0tionin siteconditi0ns.
Insteod, stondord
0pprooches
to

Tobltl.l Differenc€s
b€tweenmicro-hydro ond lorge hydro schemes

DESCzuPNON MICROHYDRO
SCHEMES LARCEHYDROSCHEMES
'IYpe
N'lostly
run-ol:river Bothrun'of'riv€rondstoroge
Pow$generotion Electricol
ond/orrnechonicol Electricolonly
Noture
oi intoke Usuollyt€mporory0r semi-permonent Pefmonent
funnels
& underground
structuri,s Rore CoII]mon
Penstock
oliqnment Verticol
& Irorizontol
bends Fewerverticolbendsondusuollyno h0nzontol
bends
surgeshoft Rore,fbreboy octsossurgetqnk Comrnon
Distribution
system (i.e.notcoonected
Isolot€d to the
nnri^fn1 ol,.fr,.,rv n ri.l r Ilostlygridconnected
Unlined
conol Cor0rnon Rqre
 designoreused.providingmethodsond crireriqthot enobleo HEADRACE
designto b€odopt€d
to conditions
ot o site Thisis o conqlor o pip€thot conveysthe woter ftom the
Ofcourse,
scfe.occurote
ondeconomic designis essenti0l heodworksto the foreboystructure.Theheodroceolignmenlis
in civilengineering
but,becouse o procticol
ofsitevoriotions, usuollyon evento gentlyslopingground;o heqdroce pip€is
understonding
ofdesignis olsocruciol.Fqilures
in civilengi- generolly
notsubject hydrculicpressure.
to srqnificont
neeringdonot usuclly0ccurthroughon errorin colculotions
but becouse
of o seemingly
nrinor€ventor cjrcumstonce
lvhich FOREBAY
drdnots€€n1
imponont.A thoioughunderstqnding
is needed
of to thepenstock
Thisis o tonkot th€entronce pip€.ihe foreboy
whichelemenls
orecriticql. tonk ollowsfor fl0w tronsiriorIfrom openchonnelto pressure
flow ond providesstorogewh€n thereoreflow fluctuotionsin
the turbine. It conolsoserveos o finol settlingbosifl. ln fqct,
1.3 Componentsof micro-hydro schemes sometimes
thesettlingbosinondtheforeboystructur€s
om
combined.
no two microhydrosites0resirlliLqr,
Alth0ugh oll ofthem
require
specific
commoncomponents ofdifferent
dimensionsto AND ESCAPES
SPILLWAYS
conveythestreomw0terto thepowergeneroti0nunitsond Spillwoys in h€odroce
orcopenings conolsthot divert€xcess
b c L kr i l o t : ? s l r e o m: h e ' ci o r : : p o n e notD
' ' s h o l l rnn F r g u r e flowsond0nlyollowthedesignflowd0lvnstr€qm.
Notethot
1.1.Thccivilconponents
or€brieflydiscussed
below: someliteroturemoy us€th{ termsspillweir0r overflowt0 r€f€r
to the spillwoy.Escopes
oresimilor structuresbut their function

I
HEADWORI(s is t0 diven flowsfrom the heqdrqceconolsin cosethe upstrcom
Structures
ot theston oithe scheme
or€collectiv€ly
cqlledthe getblocked
sectjons suchosif thereorel0ndslides.
heodworks. In micro-hydroschemes,
the heodriorksohvoys
includethediversionweir, intokeond groveltrop.A spillwoy CROSSINGS
ond o settlingbosinoreqlsousuollyot the h€odworks. Thes€orestructur€sthot conveythe flow overstreoms,gullies
or ocrossunstobletelloin subjectto londslid€sond €rosion.
DIVERSIONWEIR culverlsdnd susp€xded
Aqueducts. crossings
oreexamplesof
A diversionweir is o low structure(smqlldqm)plocedocllss suchstructures.
the river which divertssomeofthe dv€r flow into the
hydropowerscheme. Theweir conbeof o permonent,semi- PENSTOCK
permon€nt
0r temporory
n0ture. Thisis o pipethot conveyswot€r und€rpressur€from the
foreboyto the turbine.Th€penstockpipeusuqllystortswher€
INTAJC the grcundprofileis steep.

I
Thisis ot the riverborlkupstreomfrom the diversionweir
wherew0teris initiollydrownintoo c0nduit(conolor o pipe). ANCHORBLOCI(
Usuolly0 flow contrclstructuI! ond o coorsetroshr0ck0rc An onchorblock{thrustblock)ison encosement of o penstock
ot th€inroke.
incorporqted design€d
to constroirl
the pipem0vem€nt in qlldiltctiors.

I GMVEL TRA"P
Thisis 0 bosin(pond)
clos€to theintokewhercgrovel0ndoth€r
coorsemot€riolsoretroppedondthen remov€d.In the obs€nce
ofthis structur€grovelcons€ttleolongthe gentlers€ctionof
the heodroce
or in the settlingbosin.
Anchorblocksoreplocedot oll shorphorizonrolorldverticol
bends,sincethereoreforcesot suchbendsthqt will t€nd to
movethe pip€0ut ofolignment. Anchorblocks0reolso
required
to resist
penstock.
oxiolforces
in longstrcightsections
of

SUPPORT PIER
SETTUNGBASIN supponpiers(olsocolledslideblocksor soddles)
orcstructures
Thl5LSqLso
o bosinwheresqnd0nd0lherIine'uspended thot oreusedolongstroightrunsofexpos€d perutockpip€
porticl.spresent
in theriverwoteroresertied
ondthen (betwe€n to
onchorblocks), prevent
the pipe from soggingond
renoved.lf ollowedt0 enterthep€nstock.
suchporticles
wordd becomingoverstressed.
Theyneedto resistoll verticolforces
pipeondtheturbine0ndhenceshonen
obrodelhe penstock suchostheweightofthepenstockpipeondthe wot€r.However,
thciropLrqtl()n0l
li\'fs. porolieito the penstock
theyshouldollowm0vement olign-
ment,whichoccurs
duringthennolexponsion
undcontroction P=0xoxh x€
Pr0cesses. rvhere:
t'is thepowerproduced
in kw
POWERHOUSE Q is theflow in thepenstockpDein mr/s
ondprotedstheel€ctr0-
Thisis o buildingthotoc(omrnodotes g js theoccelerationduet0 grovity= 9.8m/s':
mechonic0l equlpment suchostheturbine,generotor
ondmoy is thegrossheodovoiloble
hq,,,, in m
include
oqro'plocessing nechonicol
units.Thcelectro equip- e is the overolls!'st€rneiliciency
mentin thepowerhouse
convensthepotentiol
0ndkinelrc
energy power
0Iwoterint0€lectficol heod,h,, ,.,is thedilference
Gross bet!\r€en
thelvoterlevel
ot thef0reb0y level(ortoilrocewoter
ondtheturbjnecentreljne
TAILMCE ifo drqfttubeis uscd).Thisis shownschemoticolly
surioce in
0r o pipethotconveys
Thrsis0 chonnel rvoterlr0mtheturbine F i g u r1
e. 2 .
(0fter
p0werg€neroti0n)
bockint0thestreqm;g€nerolly
the Nelh€od,h , is thepressur€
heodot theentronce
to the
s0m€ lronlwirichwaterwosinitiollywithdrown.
str?0m lurbjne.Thotis lhegr0ssheadmirus conveyoncelosses
in lhe
Det0iled of th€secomp0nents
d€s.riptions includinq penstock.
Formicr0-hydropower thepenstock
schemes 1s
selection, qnd
design c0nstruction lneihod0logy
0rcdiscussed
in generolly
designed ofthegross
suchthoI thenetheodis 90'95q,r
subsequent
chopt€.s. heodmeosuredfrom the Ibrcboy(reierto Secti0n6.4for
penstock
sjzing).
lrap/ The0verollsystelnelliciency,
e",is therotioofuselul
^/)
po$,eroutputt0 hydr0ulicpowerinput. It is theprOduct
of
for severol ofthesystem.i.e.
a'/'/ s€pqrate
effl.iencies
e:€ireL eqe,,
components

wherc:
\{],,z eris thepensto.kefficrerrcy.
rypicoliy0.90 0.95
'<\,
ih =h e)
typic0lly0.65- 0.80depending
e,is theturbineefl)ciency. on
rurDlne
ryp€
erls thegenerot0r
efliclency,
typicolly0.65 0.90depending
o ns i z e
pLis thr lronsmissi0n rncluding
emciency trcrnsforners
il
Anchq used,typicolly0.85 0.90
l

F0rpreliminory
plonningof rnicro-hydropower
schemes

A in Nepolit is comm0nto ossume

0.5to 0.6.However,
instollotions
on overollsystemefficiency
it moy beoslow as0.3lor verysmoll
ondoshighos0.7f0r lorgerschemes.
0f

Therefore
ot
detoil€d thepower
desiqnstogeit is imponontto recolculote
outputbosed
on theoctuoldesign0ndmonufocturcrs'
dotofor
theproposed
equipment.
Toilroce

l)oul?l.l Components
ofo micrchydrosaheme

1.4 Thepowerequotion
'Iltepowerovoiloble
fromc hydropowerschemeis dep€ndent
onthevolume llowingin thesystemondils dropjn heighr.The
Rloti0nship by lhepo!verequotr0nl
lsexprcssed F i g , . r p l l H c o d .r h e \ e r t o l h . g l . l r h r c u ! h w h . , l| , h d r p r d r o p .
 2. Siteselection
ond planning

2.1 0verview ondgrcntsby fundingcrgencies

subsidy ondbonksorebosedon
thisrepoft.Thrreorefrequent between
m€etings theconcerned
Th€selection sjtein m0stmicro-hydropower portiesduringthisstoge.F0rthelowerel]doi microhydr0(soy
0fon0ppropriote
schemes process.
isoniterotive In theNepolese usuolly iessthon20kW).usuollythemonufocturers
context, undertakeboththe
somecommunitymembers rvhohovehodprevious to
exp0sure designondinstoLlotion.
micro-hydrgpolver
tcahnology fundrng ogenIies.
oppiooch Aponfromsocioeconornic
foctorssuchcs theneed1br
consultqnts
or monufocturers
dependinq
upontheirflnonciol electricity, ondsupply0nddemond,
0lI0rd0bility, technjr0lly
ps0urces
ondthesize0fthescheme.
Thf r€chnicions
ofthe theselection
ofon 0pproprioie on thefoll0wing
sitedepends
ogency undertoke
concemed o sirevisitto ossess
whetherthe two foctors:
siteisfeosible
f0ra microhydroirstollotion.Bosed
on the . Streomilolv
feosibility
reportsubmitledby th€setecirnicions,
th€commu. . Topogrophy
nitymembers ondothers
involvedln theprocess
decjde
t0pr0ceed
whether f.rflliefwith I nedi\ /lJpmpnrof rhe in ChopterI, thepowerovoiloble
Asmentioned fromo
scheme. schemeis o functjon0fboth the flow ond
micro'hydroporver
0nceth€ is modeto proceed
decisi0n wjth thescheme, the heod.Theheoddepends
on the topogrophyi\,ficro'hydro
ondifit isintheupp€rronge0f Dicrohydro(soyobove20kw) becomes viobleoniyifthe combinotion
technic0lly ofheadond
then0 detoiled oftheprotect
survey or€qis undcrtoken
onda floworesuchthorthedemondof therorgeted con
conrnrunity
detqiled rcponis prcpored.
design Th€sor)cti0noi loons, bemet.Urdsrn0rmolcircumstqnces. florvr,ithe
Ihelow scoson
 n v ( r s l r 0 u lbdeu 5 e dw h i l e ( 0 1 , u l l l r n
I hge p o w p0r - l p u l I l hovenotbeengouged, streomflowdqtoorenot usuolly
hovell le c0ntroloverthellow
shouldben0tedthot designers qvqiloble. it js imponontto tolk to l0c0l
Therefore,
ovoiloble
in thestreonl.
Horveve(
theyh(ves0meconlr0lover peoplet0 geto lir€lofth€flo0dlev€Ls
for rorellood
lht'topogrophy.
Theyconchoosedillerentolignnentsfor lhe everts(soy20yeorst0 50yeorsreturnperiod).

I topogrophy
ondpenst0ck.
intoke,heodroce l heyconolsomodifythelocol
throughexcovotion,
building0fstructures
ondby
. oim to rqisetheunderstonding
Overoll,
ofchonges
in thesiteovertime.
ondoworeness

II undertqking
s0ilstobilityenhoncemenl
meosures.
AlthoughtheplonningofDricrohydrocivilworksdoes
not rBquire work oflorgeprojects,
thedetoiled theprinciples
orc 2.3 Selectionof olternotive lovouts
tht s0De0ndcoreneeds
to betokento foll0wsomebosicrules.
Properplonningondco-0rdinoti0n
in th€initiolstogeofthe 2.3.1 AN OVERVIEWOFTHE SITE
proj€ctwill keepcoststo o mirrimumond reducedeloys. Thiswill involveviervlngthe sitefrom o physicoLvontoge
point
ofheodond flow orebeyondthe scopeof
Meosurement osshownin Figure2.1,ondtokingtim€to consider
theprocti-
but full desc ptions0fthemethods
thpseguidelines usedconbe qndconstruction
coldesign loyouts(i.e.
ofthe olternqtive
foundin o numberoftextsincluding
Rei 1. potentiolsites).Eochpossible
selected loyout will require
work on diflerentpqrtsofthepotentiolsiteond
construction
the surveyorshouldth€rcforcnoteon which pon eochcompo-
2.2 Principlesof site investigation neniofthescheme
will belocctsd.Theoverviewshouldnote
thot moy 0ffectthed€signofth€scheme,
feoturcs suchosslope
is thepreliminory
Siternvestigotion workc0rriedoutt0 stobility,ondlond us€ond ownership.A sk€tchmop of€ochsite
estoblish
thesuitqbilityfor construction
ofthevori0usoptions plonshouldbemodeosshownin Figurc2.2.
(orthemostfecsible
optionrI rt is opporentr
tlrroughthe
rnvestigotion
of soils,slopestobjlity,
floodl€v€ls,
surfoce woter 23.2 LOCATIONOFCOMPONENTS
movenentqndsubsidence. Thisis discussed
loterin this Foreochoftheolternotive du ng ihe sitevisit,
loyoutsselected
chopter locotions
ofeochcomponent
shouldbeidentified
ondth€n
In mostcivil€ngineering
work,theunexpecred in rhesiteplorlosshownin Figure2.2.Norethot
hcppens. included
oimsto predictwhotthismightbesothotthe generollythe locotionof th€ intokeis the key cornpolrerlt
Sit€inv€stigotion in
conprepore
engineer o designthot will deolwith it. determiningthe siteloyout,sinc€th€r€is usuollyonly onemost
It shouldb€notedthot th€meosurement
ofheodond opproprioteintokelocotion.Ther€fore
the intokelo(otionmoy
flow servesto estoblish
the0pti0ns for development
ov0iloble of determinethe qnd
locotions qligrlmentsofothercomponents.
thesitef0r micro'hydro. thenqssesses
Thesiteinvestigotion the lntokeselection
is covercdin Chopter3.
suitobiljtyofthesitef0r eocholternotive.
Thesiteinvesrigotion onceoll olternotives
hovebeenidentified,themost
process
helpsto choose theoptinlunrloyoulwheremorethon suitnbleloyoutshou)db€chos€n.Ap0rtfromtheprojectcost.
on€opti0nopp€ors to beteosible.Sitecondrtions
oreols0 ore(henlqLocriteriothot shouldbeusedto select
thefollowirrg
recorded
duringthesiteinvestigqtion
stogesothot thereis themostsuitoble
loyout:
odequot€informotionfor the detoileddesignphose. . Thecombinotion ofheodondflow ofeocholt€rnotive
Ther€is usuollyo limit t0 th€ time ondfundsovciloble shouldb€ suchthot the requiredminimum power
for siteinvestigotions.
lt is olwoysdimcultto know wh€n outputis feosjble.
odequote
workhosbeencomp)eted.
Thekeyistowork o shouldbegivento the simplestloyoutin
Preference
efficielltlyond to think corefully0boutwheremor€thorough termsofdesignondconstruction.
invesiigqtion Theprinciples
is required. ofsit€investigotjon0re: . Theshonerrheqlignmentofthe scheme
is,thelessthe
. Takeyour time and bethorough.A returnvisit to coll€ct for construction
requirement suchq
H€nce,
moteriols.
informotionmissedth€ first time is costly,ond inod- scheme
conbeconstructedf0sterondot o low€rcost.
equotecivild€signev€nmorcso . Thepowerhouse
shouldbe os closeos possibleto the
. walk oll over thesire.Goino fulloppreciotionofthe loodcentre.It is odvisobleto keepthe tronsmissiolline
optionsovoilqble. lengthlessthon 2 kilometrcs.
. Tolkto localpeoplaespeciol)y
thosewho hovecorried . Finolly,techDic0lporometerssuchos overo)lslope
work in theor€o.Since
out construction mostofthe floodrisks,ondothersite-specific
stobility, issues
should
ondth€middiehilisofN€pol
riv€rsin th€ mountoins beconsider€d.
 Y'r.
{tl uft
\ l\,
[ ..r

fd6
dr.-

nk t1/
r)
## a.-)

Flgurc
2.1Viewing
4
thesitefrotno vontogepointglvesthe opportunityt0 ossess
the optionsfor the loyoutofo scheme
\,

a
o ro E
Yi llqge o aa
q req
Trqnsmissioa lj

Tqi lrq.'
PoWerlrouse- Qve\
oc,F, Q,li!n
Rive r tzr rq.a spillrrzo
lrriqq{ioa c-qnq

.! Fore-bqv

Corn fisld
Corn Fi
Sgttt:"_g !SS;n
S Pi llwa

lleqdrc<.e. C-qnql
Grava-l {t

_5lT E Pt,qN
Figur€
2.2 Atypicolsiteplon
rl

2.4 Geotechnicolconsiderotions o Belowtheproposed

locotionofo settlingbosinor o
foreboytonk.
2.4.7 GEOLOGY o Alongtheproposed
penstock
olignment.
Thegeology
ofthesiteis criticolto thedesign,
costsondfuture r Aboveondbelowthe proposed
locotionofthe power-
performonceof the civil worksof micro-hydro
schemes. house.
mopsofcertoin
Geologicol qreqsofNepolore qvoilqble
qt the
Deportment or TribhuvonUniversity's
of Miningcnd Geology Threotsin theseoreoswill eithertokethe form of
geologicol
librory.It is worth checkingwhethersucho mopis weokening
ofthe supportoroundthe foundqtionsthroughlond
ovoiloblefor the oreoof interestsincethis will indicotethe slippingowqy0r collopsing,
or domoget0 structures
through
generolgeologicol condition ofthesite. follingdebris,osshownin Figures2.3ond 2.4ondPhotogrophs
Geologicol ofo siteconbegrouped
chorocteristics in the ofslopeinstobiiityorepresented
2.1ond2.2.tndicqtors in
followingwoy: t o D I ez . I .

zones-Lorgeoreos
c Majorweakness ofgeologicol
instobilityin the oreqswherethe clvil structures
oreto
belocqted.
o S/opestability- Thedegreeofstobilityofthe hillsides
of
the site.
. Sorlandrockfypes- Foundotion
conditions
ondliobility
t0 seepogeunderminingond subsidence
oround
structuresplonnedfor the site.

2.4.2 MAJORWEAKNESS
ZONES
Themoin tectoniczonesof the Himcloyosgenerollycorrespond
figure2.3 Threotto structures
from belowdueto londslip
to thephysiogrophic
divisions
ofthecountryondrun in
northeost-southwest
direction.Mojorweokness
zonessuchos
thrustsor fqultsseporote
thesezonesfromeochother.In
qdditionthereoremony other"minor"weokness zoneswhich
couldsignificontlyimpocttheproject.If qvoiloble,
o geologicol
mopof the oreowherethe micro-hydro is proposed
scheme
to ovoidplor:ing
shouldbeconsulted civilstmctures
0n these
mojorthrustsondfoults.If circumstonces
dictotetheinevitobil-
ity ofplocingthescheme
in suchzones,
experthelpfromo
geologist
shouldbesought.

2.4.3 SLOPESTASILITY
In geologicol of Nepoloreyoung
terms,thehillsondmountoins dueto follingdebrisfrom obove
Figure2.4 Threott0 structures
Theycouldbelikenedto o pileof sondin thot the
ond unstqble.
olongo slopeeosilyresultsin the slidingofthe lond
excovotion
wheno furthertriggeringmechonism
obove,especiolly occurs
(porticulorlyduringthe monsoon).
Commontriggering
orethefollowino:
mechonisms
. Surfqcewoter
r Groundwoter
r ofslopeby excovotion
Undercutting

Thestobilityof slopeswill qffectthe designof oll

of o micro-hydro
components scheme qndshouldtherefore be
onolysed porticulorlyin the followingkeyoreos:
thoroughly,
o Aboveondbelowproposed conoiroutes.
Photo
2,1 Tension
crocksolongoslope Photo2 2 Obstructions
cousedby debrisfollrngfrom on unstobleslope

tlbk 2.1 Indicotors ofslope instobility

sEcnoN
0FsroPE INDICATOR OFINSTABILITY
LJpper,
middleor lowerhillslopes Tensioncrqcksqlongslope(Photogroph
2.1),groundshelvesshorply,trcesleoningdownslope
qt boseofslope,displocement
or bendingupwordsfrom thebose,woter springsor seepqge
of pqths,fenceor posts.
Bpos€d
foces
of londslides presence
Freshrockfocesexposed, ofsoft,weotheroblerock,openjointsin rock,tension
qnd
crocks,overhongs looserock,woter springsor seepoge
ot bqseofrock foce,
debriswhich movesunderfoot,
Frcshd€brisot boseofslope,treerootsexposed,loose
profilessteepen
towordsboseofslope,debrislitteredwith deodor ovenurnedwoodyplonts
ond orossclumDs.

'lle .
followilgfeotures
ofthe slopeor rockfoc€indicot€slop€ W€ll.pock€dd€bris,especiollywith fin€moteriol
stobilitf p0ckedinto voidsbetweencoorsemoteriol
. complete
vegetotion
cover,includingtreesstonding . Well-estoblished
treesond shrubs
verticolly . Nooctivegullying(olthougho stoblegully system
. even,slopeprolile
Stroight, moy bepresent)
I Rock
surfoc€s with moss,lichenor 0 weotheR
covered
skin TheincRosedImowledgeofthe sit€goinedftom 0 thorough
. Hod,impemeobl€
rock investigotionofthe slopeswill influ€ncethe designofthe
. Rock
withnoor fewjoints whol€scheme, poniculorlythe locotionofprincipol
. Closed
mckjoints srruclurEs.
 frOmthprnvesligotion
Therecommend0ti0ns ofsl0pe 2.5 Hydrologyond wster ovoilqbility
stobrlity5houldiollo!\,rwo bcrsic
rules:
. Neverconstruct
on fill,thot is,lond\,vhich
hosbeerl 2.5.1 PRf,DICTION
METHODOLOGIES
builrup or filledusingexcovot€d
moteriol. Hydrology
dictotes
thesizeofvorioLrs
micro-hydr0
conponents
. Avoidthelocoli0D
of structLrrcs
closet0 londslide
zones thepenstock.lt
liketheturbine,chonnelond olsohosgfeot
influence
on theschenebeingdesigned overor undercopocity.
2.4.4 SOILAND ROCKTYPES Theg€ncrolpro(ticejn Nepoltor mlcro-hydro
sch€m€sis t0 visit
shouldinvestigote
Thesurveyor whot locola0nstrLrction th€sjtedufLngdry secson
ond meosure
the flo!v.Thescheme
is
moteriqLs
suchossoilondrockoreov0iloble
ot site.Possible thendesigned
bosed0n thjsflow Thismoy leodto situotions
0represerted
uses0fsuchmoteriols in Toble2.2. whercthellowsorelessthonthedesignflow ondconsequently
Thetypeof soilor ro(kolsoofleclsthf lourdotionoi orppr0ducing
turbines lessporverthonexpecledThefoctthot
\ r f l r t u r e . 0 n d l l - p L utny 0p lef.o rp x o n r p. .l ,f h e . o it)1 p e , . n r on y n l c r oh y dr o. h r n r ? 5
. r LN e p orle p o ng r n r r olro nw o y
sondyloom,o lorgertbundoti0n
depthis .equired.
0n the belowtheiostolled
copocityis strongevidence
of this.It is
oth€rhond,structures
moy bebuiltdirectlyon hordrock imperotive whetherthe flowwosmeosured
t0 understond in o
with0utonyexcovoli0r). liningnl0vnotberequjred
Similorly, yeoror in on overoqe
drierthonriyeroge yeor,becouse
ofthe
ccnolif rhesoiltypeis cloyHDw{rv€r,
for heodroce liningwill th0tthishoson selecting
influence the designflorv.Tobeobleto
berequired
ifthe oLgnmcntrsthroughsondysoil. produceo design
flow osoccurqlelyospossible.o prediction
is coused
Subsidence by thelocotion0fqcidsubstonc€s studymustbeundertoken.
in thelocolgroundwoter
octingon solubl€
rockssuchcs Mostpotentiolmicrohydropower
sitesorclocoted
on
by thepresence
limest0ne. of rockswhichorelioblet0 splilting ungouged wheresitespecific
cotchments hydrologic
dotois
ondl0liotioir,
oi bVundcrEround cdverns \rhichcreproneto yieldfromung0uged
lo.king.Toestim0te corchmerts, two
Thepresence
coLlopsc. of thickloyersof loo!csqndysoil(Ioy qre to predictfl0ws.These
techniqLles currentlyovoilqble ore
olsoLeod
to subsidence. knownosth€WECS/DHM andqre
ondlheMIPmethods,
qreidentilledby corefulobservo-
Thesechorocteristics present€d
in thesubsequent to predictflowsin
discussions
ti0n0fthesite.Limesione
0utcrops,sinkh0les (holesof 2-10nr ungouged in Nepol.
cotchments
in diom€ter
whichlorrrlwhentheiim€storle
beneoth
diss0lVeJ, fiow€v€r,
o( o rcgi0noitroiningworkshop
on low flow
cousing t0 collopse),
thes0ilobove theoppeqronce olstreoms meosur€ment
ondonolysls
orgqnised
by ICllr{OD
in April1999
or otherseepoge or crocksin theground
fromdepressions in I(othmondu,
Nepol,it wosreported
thot boththeWECS/DHM
surfoce
oreexcmples
0l choroctriistics
ro lookfor. ondMIPmethods yieldfromungouged
for estimotrng cotch-
refers10theoctj0nof surfuce
Undermining woteron the mentshodmojordrowbocks,
onduseofthesemethods
hodto
tbundqtions
0fsrrucrures.TheiDtokeofthescheme
ondthe beex€rcised
with extroccutlon-It wasrecommendedthot rhe
penstock
oreporticulorly
proneto undcrminlng
wheresurloce WECSiDHM berevielved,
sludies ondestimotionoftheporom-
woterthreqtens
thestructures,
but theh€odroce
conolis olso etersbeupdotedfrom time t0 time. In this regord,DHN'I
is n0w
vulnerqble. colloboroting
with WECS Io rsviewthe pr€viousstudies,ond
improve0ndupdot€thepor0nleters
by usingmorestotions
with Longer ofdcto.[t wosstressed
records rhot with Nepo]
focingblg problemsin estimotingthe d€signlow flowsfor o

Toble2.2 Possibleuseofsoil qnd rock in micro.hydropower

N'IE OFSOIL POSSIBLE
USEIN TRIATMENT
BI]FOR-L
USE
ORROCK Ii'IICRO.HYDRO
CIVILWORKS
Sond Concrcte Musrbe selected
or thoroughlywoshedto befreefrom orgonicmotter,fine
ponicles,
cloylumps0Ddexcessive mico.
crovel Ag!reg0te
in concrete sonedondwoshed.
Muslbecorefully
Bedmoteriolindroins Mustb€wosh€d.
Rocks Cdbions
ondmasonrv N{uslbeselected
for c0rr€cttypeof rock,densityond size.
Clov Conollining Testing
ofcloycontentrequired
to ensur€
thot it will serveoson
impermeoble
loyer

10
v0rietyof opplicotions
includingmicro-hydropower,
o Ielioble MIP:TheMIPmethodopproochbosedon wodrngmeosure.
method
wosurgently required.
In thisc0ntext, thelnstituteof mentstak€n0n on int€rmittentb0sisconnotbeexpected
to
U.K.is undertoking0 projecttitled 'Regi0nol
Hydr0logy, Flow give0 goodestimotionoftot0lflowin themonsoon months,it
Regimes
Estimotionf0r Smoll-scole
HydropowerAssessment con,however,giveo reosonobleopproximotionofthe divertoble
(REFRESIiA)"
in coilcboroti0n
with ICIIUoD
ond DHII from 1999, flowsin thesemonths.In thervetseoson
months,NllPwouldbe
which
oimsto provrde
o relioble
methodfor estimoting
the to underestimole
expecred WECS
tlqures,
whichshouldmore
hydrologicoiregime
ot ung0uged
sitesin theHrmoloyon
r€giOn 0ccurotely
represent
totolflow In thedry seosorlillPond
is scheduled
0fthecountryRIFRISHA to b€rtody in oboutfivo shouldbothproviderotolflowestimotes.
!VECS TheMIP
ye0rstrme. prOcedure,which€xplicitlyodvocot€s
theuse0floc0ldototo
odjustthe regionolhydrogroph,shouldgiver€osonobly
WhcslDepotr|Jfjent
of Hydrotogy and occurote estimotes
throughrhedry seoson monthsthotore
Meteorolry pHMl method micr0hydroprojects.
criticolin ossessing
ThewoterqndEnerg-vconlnrissi0n (wECs)
Sccretoriot cudDHN{ Not€drotneithertheWECS/DHM norihe MIPn€thOds
(Rel4)
method lsb0sed0n 0 series
of regression
equ0tions
thot rverederivedfrom doto for high oltitudesnow'fedcotchments.
orcderived
fromonolvses
ofoll thehvdrologi[ol
records
ir0m moreweightshouldbegivento theresults
F0rsuchcotchments,
Nepol.
Thefindingsofthisl"gfession onolysishov€b€enusedto of sitemeosurem€nts.
produce
€quotionsfor predictingdifferenthydrologicporonr- It mustbe€mphosi5ed
that onecongeto fe€lfor 0nnuol
suchosthel0!vflols, floodflowsqnd floiv durotion
eters iloodsby meosuring
f)oodlev€lsot sjte.Siltonddebnsdepos-
jsbeyond
rurves.lt thescope ofthisboQkto exploinin det0il itedolongtheriverbonksor l€veljustbelowth€vegerction
theWICS/DHIVI
meth0d.Reodels to consultthe
oreodvised growlh0reirdicoti0ns
ol llooddepths.Bymeosuringflood
Rfercnce. 0f \\ hr.\ oreprovrded
detoils in Chop'erI L Appen- deprh,widthondoveroge gr0dientoftheriverot theintoke
dixAdescribes
thismethodwith qn exomple. orco,it is possible thefloodflowusingI'lonning's
to calculote
equotion,described Il is beyondthescope
in 4.3.2. ofthisbook
lledium lrrigation Project method (MIPI thedifferent
to dcscribe methods ofrivergouging:
pleos€
s€e
lh€MIPmethod pre5€ntso technique
ibr €slimctingthe Re[.I or Rel.2 fbr guidonce.
0fnonthly ilowsthrouqhout0 yeor'forung0uged
distributloi,
l0t0tions.
Th€lvllP
m€thod0lOgy
useso dut0hqse
consisting
of 2.5.2 PROCEDURX TO ESTABLTSH fiE DESIGNFLOW
DHM spotmeosurenenrs. wddjnggougings
The0ccosionol | 0 flow n.eosurement
l. C0ndLr( ol srleduringthedry
conducted
byDHMincludeonly 1owllows ondtheseflowsd0 Jeo\onrNov(mber\1oyJ.Pr|.fcroblyrn February
lor
notrPpresent
thenoturolc0ndjtionssincetheyoreresiduol snow-fedriversond li{orchiAprilfor 0therrivrrs. Noteif
ior differentpurposes
llowsamoiningofterobsrroction like theyeoris drierthonoverog€, or wettcrlhon
overoge
iriq0tion.
MIPpr€sents
non-dimensionol
hydrogrophs
of meqn overogeThisconbeestoblished
by tolkiogto rhelocols.
rnonthly
fl0wsforsevendifierentphysiogr0phicregi0ns.These Consider
ifthereorEsjgnificont by 0ther
obstroctions
hydrogrophs
presentnonrhly fl0wsoso rotio ofthe flow in wqterusers,suchosjfigoti0n onddrinkingwoter
April(0ssumed onnuolflow). Foropplicotionto
IOwest schemes ol thep0intwhereth€gougingwos
upstreom
ungoug€d
sites,it is necessory r0 obtoino I0w flow dischorge conducted.
bygouging
e5tim0te ot a pofticulorsite. Th€m€osurcd flow is
thenused non dimensionolhydrogropht0
with ih€r€gionoL 2. Colculote
:
synlhesise
on0nnu0l for thesite.Appendix
hydr0gr0ph A . Averoge nlonthlyflowsby usingWECS/MIP
methods.
describes
thismethodrvjthon exomple. . FlowdurotioncurveusingWECs.
. flood0owsofdifferentreturnperiods
lnstontoneous
s,,d the MIP opprooches
Comryisonsof the WECSIDHM usingWECS.

IIDCSIDHM: 01droinogebosinsqnd elevati0n

D€lio€otion L compore
thedry seqson
rneonmonthlyflowsobtoined
(ontours
oRoft€ndistcfirdon rhecv0rlobl€mops:olso by IVECS
ondN{lPmethod.lfthe tlow meosur€d
ot siteis

ngmsions
wenderived0nlhe bosisofobserved0owsfor 0boutoveroge to thelocolpeople,
occordjng romp0re
c0tdlments rongingin sizefr0m4 up t0 54,100kTn'.Therefore, meonmoDthlyflowobtoined
thedry seoson by the
folllowsin smoller the resultswould prov€to be WICSmethodwith thot obtoinedby the lr'llPmethod,
cotchments
unnlioble. ondusethelowervolue.Ifthe fl0wwosmeosured
ot

11
 sit€du ng elthero wetterthonqverqgryeqror o drier Toble2.3 cqnql seepogelosses
thon overogeyeor,then usethe volueobtoinedby th€ N PEOFSOIL LOSS,
SEEPACE (lh/1000n'
WECS
melhod. OFWETTEDAREA)
Rock <0.5
Usethe llow durorioncurve(FDc)to estoblishthe Impervious
cloyloom 0.8- 1.2
probobility
of exceedonc€
ofthevoluefron step3. The Mediumcloyloom 1 . 2- t . 7
thepower€quivolent
FDCis usefulbecouse oftheflow cloy loom or silty soil 1 . 7, 2 . 7
ontoit, sothot it is p0ssjble
conbesuperimposed lo reod crovellycloyloomor sondy
ofl theomountoftirneeochye0rthot certoinpower cloyor grovelcen€ntedwith cloy 2 . 7, 3 . 5
levelsconbeobtoired.Thisis o usefulplonningtool, Sondyloom 3.5 5.2
oJlowing
o choiceofsizeofturbinet0 bemod€,together Sondysoil 5.2 6.4
v,/ith0n indic0ti0n voriobleflolvperform-
0frcquired Sondysoilwith grovel 6.4 8.6
onceofturbine0ndon indjc0tion
oftheplonlf0ctor Perviousgrove)lysoil 8.6- 10.4
whichwill resultfromonyportjculor
constroints choice Grcyelwrth someeorth 10.4 20.8
oftu.binesiz€.S€eR€f.l fordetails.

on whct perc€ntoge
5. Decide ofthellow es(qblished
in
st€p3 cqnbediv€ftedfor powergenerotion.
lfusinga
weir ossum€
temporory thot 50%ofrhe1l0wcorlbe A 500metrelorlgunlinedheodroceconolis to becon-
divened.lfthe rive! preseltsfarmidobledimculties, structedin sondycloyto conveyo designflow ofO.l m?/s.
ossumelessthon 500/0.
If usingo permqnentw€ir A stondordtropezoidols€ctionis pmposedwith o depth
foundedon bedrockossume954/0
ood for weir bosedon of0.2m, o bonomwidth of0.6 m ond sideslopesof1:2
olluviumfoundotion,
ollowfor seepqge
losses
ond (V:H).Colculotethe seepoge
lossin rhe conol.
ossumethot 90olo
of the flow c0nbe drvened.
Solution:
6. c0lculote losses
seepoge f0r thew0terconveyonce Thewettedperimet€r(P)ofth€ ccnolconbe colculoted
structures.
Th€seiossesmustbe deductedfr0m the flow usingthe followingequotion:
jn step5. Ssepoge
estoblished colculotion
is covered jn p = s + 2 x H x {ifM(see chopter4)
Section
2.5.3. =o.o+zxo.2xViiTZT
= 1.49m
ifthercareotherrvoteruserssuchosjrdgotjon
7. Consider Thewetted dr€o
ond drinkingwater dowlstreomofth€ diversionworks. :PxL
Estobiishth€ omountof flow that hosto ber€leased = 1..19
x 500
downstrromond deductthis omountlr0m the0ow = 747ml
ifom st€p6. Thisis thedesignIIow. FromTobi€2.1,seepage
lossir sqodyclcy is 3.5lA/1000
m'zofwettedoreo.Th€seepog€ lossis giv€nby:
A designexotipleis inciuded
in Appendix
A. q.,! = 3.5x wett€dor€oi1000
= 3.5x 747/1000
2.5.3 SEEPAGE = 2.6Vs
It i. imperolive
ro exomine
lhe soilolongther0uteo[the Whichis 2.6%of the designedflow of the conol.
proposed
conolondestimote
theomountofseepoge
thoto
cqnolmqy suffer,on imponontissuethot is oftenoverlo0ked
by
Dicro-hydrodesigners.
Thlsis especiolly
trut for micro- 2.6 Otherconsiderotions
hydropower
schemes Toble2.3gives
with longunlinedconols.
conolseepogelossesfor djffer0ntsoiltvpes.By colculotingth€ 2.5.I FLOODRISK
wettedoreofor o givencrosssection oftheconol,seepoge con
In siteinvestig0li0n,
theconcern is for the selectionoftheb€st
becolculofed
usingdotofromthetoble.[x0mpie2.1il]ustrotes optionfor thedesjgn Therefore
ofthescheme. know)edgeof
thismethod.
floodlevelsis imponontot thetwo extremes ofthemicro'hydro
scheme, theintokeondthepowerhouse, 0r ot otherponsofthe

12
 thot moy belulnerobleto flooddomogefrom the river.
scheme Another€xompleis thot on openchonn€lheodroce
moy be
Floodl€velsmoy bepr€dictedby hydrologicolcolculotion technicollyfeqsiblebut the designerm0y hoveto choose
o
dototo givethe 20yeoror 50yeor0oodlevel,0r
fromovoiloble buriedpipeifthe heodroceolignmentis r.rlong
cultivotedlond.
byronsultinglocolpeople.ldeolly,bothmethodsshouldbe used Similorly,sedimentflushingond spillwoyflows needto be
t0give0 reliobleestimote.Alwoyscllow o morginoferror so sofelydivertedowoy from cultivotedlond. It is importontto
thoto rorelloodeventis ollowedfor,ond think rorefullyobout notedown londownerswhoselorld will beusedfor structures,
howthefloodswill olTecteochofthe prcposed loyoutsfor the sothot ogreements
suchos leoseorrongements
cqn benegoti'
proJect.
Thelocotionofthe poweftousehigheroDo slopewill oted. Thesefoctorswill offectthe designofth€ schene.
theovnilobie
rcduce heodondtherfore hcveon importqnt
unpoconthe.opooryondtheeconomrcs oftheprqect. 2.5,5 HIGHAITITUDE SITES
Theseguid€lines
oreg€n€rollyopplicobleto micro-hydropower
2.5.2 CROSS
DMINAGE in Nepol,but someporticulorm€osurcsn€edto betok€nfor
Sometimes, 0fthen0tur€ofthetopogrophy,
because the high oltitudesit€sto ovoidill'efffectsfmm fr€eziDg
tempero-
he0dmc€
conolond/orthe pgnstockolignmentswill n€edto tur€s.
gulliesondsmollstreoms.Notethot dry slopesole more
cr0ss To0voidfrostdom0geto concreleond mosonry,th€
stobl€ Surfocewoter conbedivertedby
thqnsoturotedslopes. followingmeosurcsorenecessory:
v0rioust)?esof crossdroinogeworks.For
conslructing . Keepthe woter to cementrotio oslow ospossible,
exomple, uphill from the
cotchdroinsconbe constructed pr€feroblynot mole thon 0.50.
olignmentto divertth€ surfocerunoff.Cotch
rnicro-hydro . Avoidoggregot€ with o loryemoximumsize,or o lorge
droins thot divert surfqcerunoff(thuscotch
oresmollchonnels proportionof flot porticles.
it)qnddiveftit int0neorbygulliesor noturoldrqinqge. . Useo woter reducirgoir entrqiningogent(plosticiser).
Another
exompleofcrossdrqinogeworksis the useofo . Ensuregoodcompoction.
Thisis o covered
superpossoge. heodroc€conolorrongement . Donot build while night temperutuftsole below
runoffllowsoverit whereosthe design
sudrthotthesurfoce freezing.Surfocesmust be preventedfrom drying out
flowissofelyconveyed
in the conol. for ot leostthreeweel6ifthe ombienttemperotureis on
qverog€5oCor less.
2.6J WATERRIGHTS
thereconbewoter useconflictsbetw€enthe
Sometirnes Toovoidicedomogeto conolsond structurcs,the woter
pmposed sch€me
micro-hydro ond otherprior usesoFthesource foceof wollsshouldb€smoothconcreteor plost€redmosonry
stnon.For€xomple,
ifthep is on irrigotionschemedown- oDdinclinedot 0pproxrDotely l:1.Theexpondingiceconthen
stn0m0ftheproposed
micro-hydrointokethot moy r€ceiveless ise betweenthe wolls,inst€odofpushingthe wolls aport.
wot€I{once plqnt js commissioned),
themicro-hydro thelt will Heodrqce
c0nolsshouldbe designedfor o minimum
Suchw0rerrighrsissuesshouldbercsolv€dbeforc
beconflicts. velocity0f0.6 m/s. Ev€nthoughthe surfocemcy frceze,woter
themicro'hydrcsch€me.
inplementing will flow underthe ice.
It sh0uld
b€not€dthqt irrigqtionord micro-hydroccn be Therop ofrroshrqcksshouldbe belowony exp€cted
ice
c$ordjnoted
ifon cgrc€ment portiesis
with oll conc€rned to ovoidiceformingoroundthe troshrockbors. Timb€r
lev€1,
Rodred in theinitiolstoge.Thisis b€cqus€
inigqtiorLwoter is trsshrockborsmoy b€lessliobleto icing thqn steelbors.
notltquindthroughout theyeororldthercforewoter cqnb€ Th€foundotionl€velof structuresshouldbebelowthe
us€dforpowerproduction
ot othertimes. Thismoy resuitin deprhof groundfreezing.Thisis )ikelyto be oboutonemetr€
orevennopowerovoilobleduringpeokirrigotionperiod.
less depth.
fiow€ver,
ifthe elertdcityusersor€olsoownersofthe irrigot€d
lond,theyconprioritisetheir needs,suchosby irrigotingin the
oftemoons ondnightsondproducingpowerduriDgmornings 2.7 Plonning
ondevenings.
workslor lorg€projectsis 0
Th€plqnningofcivil engjn€ering
2J.{ tiND OWNEnSHIP
AND LqND USE complexprocess ond the skillsIequiredoreconsidered to beo
T1I€ shouldnotedownthe issuesconceminglonduse
surveyor seporotedisciplin€within the fi€ldofcivil engineeng. The
ondownership.Ifthe olignmenttrqvers€sthrcugho form€r's reqsonthot plonningis givenso muchimportonceir th0t the
neld,thelondmoy hoveto beboughrby the prcj€ct.
poddy projectconstructioncostconbe significontlybroughtdowr by

13
emcientco-ordinqtion
of lobou! €quipmentondmot€riols.This foctorsis os follows:
eruur€sthot the Esourcesorcusedot their moximumprcduc- . Performonce ofstoff,€quipmentond moteriols.
tlury . Avoilobility of stoff, equipmentond moteriols.
Asmentionedeorli€r.the plonningofmicro'hydrocivil . Holidoysond festivols.
work doesnot rcquirethe detoiledwork oflorgeprcjects- . Access
to the site.
However,the principlesorc the sqmeond corcneedsto be tqken . Weother,
seosons.
to follow somebqsicrules. Thepmcessofconstructingmicro- r Avoilobilityoftunds.
hydro civil works hos threeports: . Sit€geologyqndtopogrcphy.
. Unde$tandingwhot hos to be built . Existinguseofthe siteqnd its boundories.
. €quipmentond the p€ople
Estoblishingthemethod, . Publicrelotions.
required
. ondto the
Corr!'ng outthework sof€ly,economicolly PRporingo "ProjectImplementotionChort"in the
quolityr€quircdto sotisryth€ cli€nt. initiol stog€is olwoyshelpfr.[sinceit will indicotewhot
octivitiesorein th€ criticolpoth ond ollow for plonningqheod.
"Iheundentondingpqrtofthe prcc€sssoundsstroightfor- Undoubtedly, sucho chortwiU undergofrequentrevision
word,but it shouldnot be overlook€d.civen the likelynumber during the constructionphose-However,it is stil helpfulto
ofpeopleinvolved,effectivecommumcotionord cleordemqrco- formuloteo chortord mokechongesos necessqrysinceit con
tion of responsibilities in plonning.Everyone
oreessentiql beusedto monitorthe progress
of work ond plon for futurc
needsto lanowwhot they oreoccountoble
for ondto whom. octivitiessuchosprocul€melltofconstructionmoteriolsond
Thereorca numberoffoctorsoffectinghoq when ondin lobourorlqngements.A typico]implementotionchort is
whot orderthe work conbecorriedout. A checklistof these showninFigure2.5.

Activity Durqtion in months

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Publicrelotionsioworenessroisino il D
Sitesurveyincludinglowflow I
meosurement & dotqprocessing
Detoileddesign s
Finoncing
Tenderingond oword of A n
constructioncontrqct@6weeks
Fobricotion& supplyofsteelports
(penstock,
troshrocks,flushpipesetc.)
constructionof heqdroce
cqnql o N
of settlinobosin& forebov
Construction N

of mosomywol & gullycrossing

Construction s F T
Insto.llotion
ofp€nstock& construction
of o E
onchorblocks & supportpie$
Fobricotion
& supplyoftuftine. behdrive s
ond otierelectrGmechonicoleouiDment
Instollotiolof tronsmission
Iine N T A
Powerhouse
construction T I
Electrcmechonicolinstollotion qt powerhouse
Testing& commissioning A
Proj€cthondoverto theclient L

Figure2 5 A rwicol ProlectlJnplemcnlohon

Chon
74
2.E Checklistfor site selection supportpiersond onchorblocksifthe slopeis greqterthon 1:1.
Alsotry to minimisebendssinceth€sewill requireodditionol
IANDOWNERSHIE
LANDUSEA,I!DWATERRIGIITS onchorblock.
H0ve0ll issues
conc€rning
lond useond owlershipbeenduly
recorded
duringthesrtevisit? Doesthe olignmenttroverse
o former'spoddyfieldor is jt olongbqmn lqnd?Hove
through
woterrightsissues
suchosirrigotionuseb€enodequot€ly
oddressed?

INTAXE
Mokesurewoterconbedivertedqwqy from tie riverond
towqrds
theheodroce.
Doesthe river courseoppeorstobleor
it looklikeit will meonder?
does Thinkoboutfloodsond flood
levels.Doeslheriv€rcorryl0rgeboulders?
Ifso,think obout
temporory worksr0therthon o permonentw€ir.
diversion

GRAVU,
TRAP
Does
theriverc0rryo sigflificontomountofgrovelduringthe
monsoon?If soprovid€0 grov€ltrop oscloseto the heodworks
0spossible.
Conrhegrovelbeeosilyflushedinto the stl€omor 0
gullyfromthegroveltrqp?
neorby

SETruNGBASIN
'this
stuctureshouldbelocotedqscloseto the intokeqs
possible.
Thee0rlierthesedimentis removedthe lessrhe
mohtenonc€
in theheodrqce.
Ifthe sourceriver is not for owqy
tle sedimenr
c0nbedischorged
bockinto ir.

IIEADRAG
Photo:2 3 A Stroightp€nstockrun keepscoststo o mininum
Il generoJ
theheodroce
olignmentshouldbeon levelto slightly
ground.Ifthe olignm€ntis ste€p,corsiderusingo
doping
pipeinsteodofo conol.Try to get the olignmentowoy
h€odroce POWERIIOUSE
ftomtberiveroseorlyospossible
to minimis€llooddomog€. Mokesulethot ther€is enoughspocefor o powerhouse with the
Pmvide
escopes
upstreom
oforeoswherethe conolmight be requiftddimensions(to fit the electro-mechonicol
equipm€nt)
blocked
bylorddides.
tfseepoge
fiom the heodroce
cqnolcon ot the loc0tionsel€cted.Excqvotionconbe minimisedby
trigg€r
londdides,
think obouthning the conolor usingpipes. locotingthe powerhouse on l€v€lgrcund. Think oboutwher€
the toilwoterconbedischorg€d(i.€.tolhoceolignment).lsthe
FONBAY powerhouse high enoughobovethe river to besofefrom floods?
Allowonce
shonldbemodefor finol settlingofsediments.
thisstructurcshouldbelocqtedjust uphill ofthe
G€nerolly. IAII,RACE
0reowhetethegroundprofilechongesfrom Ievelto
tr0nsition Mokesur€thot th€ t0ilroceis protectedfiom the streominto
tsth€Ieo possibility
ste€p, to sqfelydischorge
the €nt[e flow which woter emergingfrom the turbineis dischorged.
The
ftomo spillwoyin coseofsystemm0lfunctiol? toihoceshouldbeorienteddownstreomto preventfloodwqter,
debris,ond bedloodfrom beingfunnelledinto it towordthe
PE{STffX powerhouse.
Tlep€Ntock shouldstort wherethe groundprofil€
olignmenr
getssteeper. 'l:2 TR,qNSIItrSSION
UNES
Anideolgroundslopewouldbebetween1:1ond
TheIlqtterthegroundslope,the lesseconomrc
lV:H). is rhe ls the vlllqgesituotedowoy from the powerhouse
site?lfso,
p€trsto&.lt
isdimcultto mqnuollyloy penstock,construct tronsmission
lines0rerequipd.Thecostoftronsmissionlines

15
qddssignificondyto the overclicostofo scheme.
ConsultR€i I Theunit rotesfor suchconstructionmoteriolsond lobour
for d€ioiis. shouldbeobtoinedwhileot sitefor esrimotingquonritjesond
costofthe schemeduing the designphose.It is moreIelevont
AVAII.IIBIIIIY OFCOI{STRUCTION to useprcvailing
rotesrotherthondistrjctrotes,whichore
MATERIALSAND IIAOUR norrnol]y
lowerthontheprev0iling
r0tes.
Constructiorlmdt€riolsfor micro-hydroschemesthot m0y be
fould at siteoresond,cagregoteond ston€s.Arcthes€mcte - STAB!UTY
ols eosilyavoilobl€0t siteor broughtfronl outside?
AIeskilled Apon from the obovecriterio,it is very impofiont for the entire
lobourerssuchos mosonscnd carpenters
ond ulskilled to be0n stobleground.Ifonly o smc)llengthofthe
scheme
lobourcrsovoilabl€at site? 0lignment is unstobie it m0ybepossible to stobihse
ir. Refer
to
S 0 c t r o2n. 40 n dC h o p r e9rr o 0 s s e ql hsi sj s s u e .
 3. Diversionworks

3.10verview loodond debrisirom enteringthe intokeosmuchospossible.

oneofthep ncipolcouses ofproblems
in theoperotion
worksfor o micro-hydropower
Thediv€fiion sch€mecontrol ofhydroporver is o poorlydesigned
schemes intakewhichmoy
theflow0fr{oterfrcmthesourceriver into the heqdroce. permitoper0tion
ofth€schem€
in theshon'termbut beyond
ThEc0mp*€o diversion weir(usuolly).on intoke,ond domogeto thesystem.
thot.cous€serious Thedesign
ofon
nvertroiDingworks.Thediversionworksorepqrt
s0metunes opproprioteintok€structurefor micm-hydrcin Nepolrequires
qndservethe foLlowingfunctions:
oftheheodworks, on odequoi€understondingof Himoloyonriven sincethey
. m0intoin
thedesign0ow with nominolheodlosses h'v, <^m,,,ni.',, f,n r', r,c

duringbothmonsoon
onddry seosoDs;
. !rcv€nt,or 0t leostminimise,th€ bedloodondother
moteriols(ice,timber,leqvesetc.)enteringth€
flo0ting 3.2Generolprinciplesfor
conol; selectingintqke locqtion
. cont0inpe0kflowsir the iver ondowoy from
sofely
th€micro-hydro
syst€msothot domogeis not coused requir€dto select0ppropridteintok€
Themojorconsiderqtions
toth€structures. locotiolsoredisaussed
in this section.It is imponqnt for the
designengine€rto r€olis€thst much conb€l€omedfrom
'Ihe
principol
mointenonce with cjvil
t0skossocioted observingthe irrigotionintokesitesselected
by locolformers.
works
isoftenthe
removqlofsedimentorlddebrisconjedby TheforDersorefomili0r with the rivemondhovethe odded
$e incoming
woter,whichconcousedomogeto the turbines odvontogethot theyhoveobserved them overc longperiodof
itbepemiftedt0 enterrhepenslock.It is therefore
should tine. In foct,someof theformermonogedirrigoti0nschemes
intokedesignpreventssqnd,bed
tlsgltiolth0ttheodapted in Nepolor€morethon 100yeorsold ond the intokesofsuch

17
siteshove focedmostproblensbroughtqboutby Himoloyon other considerations
rivers. In stroightsectionsof0 iver, the water flows poro)lelto the
Thefollowingprincrplesshouldbeconsidered
whiie bonks qnd the bedloodis transportedolong the bottom.
selectingopproprioteintokelocotLons: Thefelore
iIl stroightsectiansthe locqtionof the intokeis
governedby foctorssuchosbcnk stabilityand heodroc€
Minimol disturbs,ncc to the nstursl stste ofthe iver ollgnment.
ofhighondpermonent
Construction thqn 1'2m)
weirs1lo!g€r Ih€ locqtionofqn iltcke structuremust besochosen
ocrossthe totol width ofthe dver is g€nerollyufldesiroble, thot th€lorgestp0ssible
ponion afrhe bedload remoinsin the
becouse
domminghosthe eflect0fropid sedim€ntdeposition river ondis not dive(ed into the hecdrcce.How€vecevenc
ondchonge
ofpresent
rivercourse,leovlng
thelntokedry ond goodintokelvill not exciudeoll sediment;lhe groveltrqp cnd
useless.
Thedesignond constructionof weirsrequirescoreful seltlingbosin[unherolongtheconql(ompl€tethis.
to qvoidpreserltinq
considerotion on obstocleto floodflow in
F0rdiversionfrom o noturolpool,no weir is
the roiny seoson.
throughHDPEpipes0r o
requiredondwoter conbe conveyed
coveredmosonryflumet0 o heodroce
conol.
Forthis reoson,ottemptsshouldbemadeto locote
intokessuchthot the noturol woter levelot low flow in the
strcomis suitoblefor the intokelevelofthe con01.
Thiswill
ollow the conolintok€structureto bebuilt ot streamlevelond
the onJymeosuresnec€ssory within the streomor river bed
for th€ stobilisoti0nofthe presentstoteof
itselforemeosures
the streom. FLgure
l-1 Locotingintokeoroundo b€nd

Locotion in on srea which offers nsturol prctection

Whenwithdrowingwot€r from o streomwhoselevelmoy 3.3tntoke locqtion in relotion
increosemorkedlydudng roiny periods,it is desiroble
to locote to river chqrocteristics
the intokebehindor underlorge,permonentlyploc€dboulders
or rcck,theselimit the woter thot conenterthe intoke,ond 3J.1 CHARACTERISTICS
OF HIMAJ.AYANRIVERS
deflectfloodflowsond river bornedebrisowoy.Advontoge
con In Nepol,mostmicrc'hydropowerschemes
orelocotedin the
olsoberokenofstoblebonl<s0nd rockoutcrops. foothillsofthe HimolqyonRonge.Thisincludesthe High
Mountoins,MiddleMountoinsond the Siwqliksosshownin
Lnation on the oubide ofo bcnd to hqveq cleorunderstonding
Figure3.2.It is essentiol ofthe
Thercis o noturol tendencyofthe ver to depositsedimenton chorocteristics
of theseHimolqyonriversbeforropprooching
the insideofbendsolongth€ ive. At bends,the direction0lrh€ tbe designond constructionospectsofdiversionworks.These
flqw clos€stto theriver bedchongescomporedwjth the sudoce youngmountoinstructuEsondcon
riversflowin geologicolly
flow. A spirclflow forms,which tronsportsthebed10odto the be choroctedsed
osfollows:
innersideofthe river bend.Onoll streoDsond riversit c0nbe steepriver grodientond steepslopesolongboth river
thot grovelondsandbonksform ot the insidebend,
observ€d bonks;
i.e.the bedloqdis dive(ed from the deflectingbonk.Aso rcsult Highdegrce
ofcontinuing
ercsion
0ndsediment
ofthis whenthe river flow d€creoses,
the river width decrcos€s rr0nsporT;
from the insideofthe bend.Therefore
cn intokeshouldnot be Sm0ll€r of steepondunstoblenoturewith o
streqms
sitedon theinsideofo bend.Tominimisesediment loqdondto ol)uviolbed;
bouldery
ensureflow (tvoilqbilityduringthe dry season,
on intqkeshould quontities
Ii0bleto tronsportconsideroble ofsedirnent
besitedon theoutside
ofo bend.Thebestlocation
is about2i3 r n c l u d i nbgo u l d e d
r su r i n gl h em o n s o 0 n ; .
oroundthebendor lheoutside
t0 3/4ofthedistonce qsshown A significontflow ond s€djmentincrcosein the rivers
in Figur€3.1. Shorperbendsorcmoreeffectivein preventing du ng the monsoon.
andtheomount0fbedloodtronsported
ihe entryof sediment,
osthe divertedproponio[ ofthe totol
into the conoldecreoses Dueto theseu!ique choroct€ristics,
development
of
flow ln the dver decr€oses. hydropowerfrom the Himoloyonrive$ pr€sentsgrcotchol
 Figur€
3.2 Feosible
locotionsof mrcro-hydroschemesin Nepol

lenges.
Design
ondc0nstructionofoppropriqte
structures
to Riversin Nepolconbecategorised
occording
to thewoy
withmovement
cope qndhighsediment
0f lorgeboulders in which theyoreinfluenced
by voriouschorocteristics.
The
loods
oretwoofthesechollenges.
Riverintokesusedelsewhere typesof river thot sre mostly utilisedin micro-hydrooreshown
in nlotivelyflot ondstobleriversincludingthe Teroiore in Tqble3.1.
in thecoseof mountqinriversof Nepol.
inoppropriote

Ioble3.1 Cotegories
of Nepoleserivers
TYPEGMDIENT VALLEY
SHAPE BEDMATERTAT PATTERN
CHANNEL SEDIMENT MOVEMENT
(MArN
LOCATToN) (N: NORMAL, F: FLOOD)
1A verysteep Norrowvolley no Rocks,
verylorge Single N - Sondin suspension
(Mountqins) floodploins boulders F - ravel.cobbles
qndboulders
IB (Mountoins Norrowvolley,
Steep Rocksondbouiders, Onemoin plusflood N - Sondondgrovel
ondhill regions) irregulornorrow grovelondcobbles byposschonnel F - Includescobbles
qndsmqll
fioodpioins in shools boulders.
ic Steep(Mountoins Norrowvolley, Rocksondboulders, Severoloctivechqnnels N - Sqndondgrovel
,$ ondhill regions) irregulornorrow grovelondcobbles oswell osfloodwoys. F - Includescobbles ond smqll
{ floodploins in shools boulders.

ry A Intermediote
(Hillregions)
Outwoshriver,
confinedby
volleysides
Someboulders, Singlepluslimited
moinlygrovel
qndcobbles
N - Sandond fineto medium
floodwoys grovel
F - Includescoorsegrovel,
cobbles,perhopssmqllboulders.
28. Intermediote Dittobut less Someboulders, 24 octivechonnels N - Sandqnd fine to medium
(Hillregions) confinedvolley moinlygrovel with floodwoys grovel
ondcobbles F - Includescoorsegrovel,
perhopssmollboulders.
cobbles,
2C. Intermediate Dittobut wider Someboulders, Broided,
severoloctive N - Sondondfineto medium
(Hillregions) volley moinlygrovel floodwoys. grovel
ondcobbles F - Includescoorsegrovel,
perhopssmollboulders.
cobbles,
Ref.5
Soune:

19
33.2 EXAMPLEINTAXf,S
'typicol
intokelocotionsfor someofth€seriversoreshownin
Figures3.3ord 3.4.It shouldbenotedthot theseligures
illustroteonly possibl€
locotionsfor iltok€s, not the prefened
rypeofintoke. t_
tr00d I
Post,ua
fijver type 1A '\
Mountoinriversof Type1Aprcvidefovourobleconditionsfor
intokesin t€rmsofpermonenceqnd lqckofinterference
s€dimentirl normolconditions.
from
l
Flow dircdim
Roclcliff,
loce

Figure3-4Sitingofintoke in mouDtoinor ste€phill riversofTypelC.

(Soufte: Ret.5)

crsvel bed rtvers

Theseor€cotegory2 rivers(2A,28 & 2C)which hqvelesssteep
chonnelscompor€dto cotegory1 types.Theriverbedsore
moinly ofcobblesond grovel,tog€therwith someboulders.
Intokesitingfollowsthe somegenerolprinciplesos in cotegory
these versprovidemoreflexibiliry Forexomple,it
]. However,
Routeof
feeder cqlol
O
Iigure 3 3 Slungofinlokesrn mountoinrive6 ofTypelA
is posslbl€
osconcrete
t0 usemorcpermonentriver controlstructuressuch
or mos0nrywerrsondliver rroiningwolls.

(Soufte:ReL5)

Nver We 1B
Int0keson Type1Briversconolsobelocotedsimilorto 1A.
However.theseriv€6 provideo greoterchoiceofintokesite,ond
p€rmitmorepermon€ntirtok€ structurcs,eitherftom theside
ofthe chqnnelor osqn ongl€dor frontolinrokebuilt inrothe
chonnelIt is oftenpossible
to protectthe intokebehindo rock
0utcr0p.

fjver We lC
Phoro3 I Ar?oolrnrole in o rype28 river (Dhoding)
Intokeselectionin theseriv€n differsfrom 1Aond 18oDlyin
rcqui ng contrclof oneor moreof the chonnelsin orderto
the intoke.A possible
ensur€thqt sumcientflow reoch€s
orrong€mentis shownin Figurc3.4.

20
3.4Intqketypes Aportfromtheobovetypes,qn innovotiveintqkecolled
"Coqndq
intoke"hqsolsobeenfieldtestedin o micro-hydro
3.4.1DESCRIPTION scheme
in theUK. Thisis discussed
in Chopter10(lnnovotions).
lypes0fintokestructure
orechieflydistinguished
by the
method
usedto divertwqterfromtheriver. In micro- 3.4.2 SELECTION
CRITERIA
moinlytwo typesof intokeqreusedos follows:
hydropoweq Tqble3.2oidsthe choicebetweensideondbottomintokesfor
r Sideintqke grvenconditions.
o Bottom intoke

Toble3.2 Selectioncriteriq for side und bottom intoke

SEI^ECTION
CRITERIA SIDEINTAKE BOTTOM
INTAKE
Amount
ofwoter: Fqvouroblesiteselection
necessory Thebottomscreendrqwsoff the riverwqter up to the
(outside
ofo bend,or qn qrtificiol
bend copocitylimit of the screen(i.e.oll river flow if
by groins)if theomountof diverted screenis lorgeenough).
woteris greoter
thon50%of thewoter
supplied.
Grodient
ofriver:
r veryhigh(i > 10%) Fovouroble:mointenonce for very high grodient;conbe
freeoperotion Fqvouroble
if properlydesigned.
ol'theintokestructureshouldbeensuredmointenonce-free,
^^ f^- ^^ ^^-^:Lt^
u) lul u) PU5)lul(.

>i >10lo)
tohigh(1070 ifi < 10o/o.
Unfovouroble
o meon
grodient Fovouroble finebedloodinto the initiql heodroce
Unfovouroble:
(tVo
>i > 0.0170) conolresultsin difficultyin flushing.

Plqnofriver:
o stroight Possible qsbottomscreenis uniformly
Veryfovouroble,
looded.
r winding Veryfovouroble
ifthe riverchonnelis Unfovouroble,
osbottomscreenis not uniformly
stoble;
whenorronged
on theoutside looded.
bend.
obrqnched Unfovouroble;
donrrning
of theriver Unlovouroble.
is required.
Suspended
sediment
c0ncentr0ti0n:
r high Suitoble
in combinotion
with very Lesssuitoble
elllcientsettlingbosin. Wellsuited
o low Wellsuited

Bed
loodtronsport:
. strong Suitoble qmountof
oslongossulflcient Lesssuitoble
woterremoinsin the riverfor flushing.
r w€ok Wellsuited Wellsuited

NoptedfromRef.
3.

zl

3.5 Sideintoke
3.5,I DESCRIPTTON
thon oth€rtyPesof
SideintokesoresimpleondlessexPensive
intqk€.Theyoreeosyto build, ond
operqte mointoirlSide
intokesoresimilor to formers'troditionolintokesfor irrigolion,
ond hencethe form€rsconqurcklyleornthe principlesof
operotionondmointenonce oftheseintokesThesldeint0keof
the 50kw Golkotmicro-hydroschemeconbeseenin Photo-
groph3.2.Notethot to mintmisefloodflowsin th€ conol,the
os on extensionof theheodroceconol lt wos
intokeis design€d
felt thot the intokecouldbevuln€robleto flooddomqgeond
thereforethe coorsetroshrockis locotedfurtherdownstreom
PhoroI2 Srdeintote ofthe Coltot mrcrohydrc s.h€meBoglungNPpol
{se€AppendrxC for lh€ dro!t'ing)
sideintokesmustbes0feogqinstboulderimpoctond
floodwqterentry.Theyorem0sreffectivewhenbuilt on the
out€rbend0ftheriver(tominimisetheomountofsediment
drqwninrotheinrqke), neornorurolPoolsor sit€dln sucho
wqy thot they oreprotecledosmuchos possiblefrom river
floods(eg behindo permoDent rockoutcrop)Sideintokescon
b€usedwith or withouto w€ir
side intoke without web lnotursl Pondl
I[ somecoses,orl€xposedintokestructuremoy beovoided by
exrroctingwoter ftom behindtheshelterofo r0ckoutcrop ln
othercoses,thercmoy be 0 notur0lcleftln o rockspul 0r on
opeling b€tweeno very lorgeboulder0ndo rockwoll' thot c0n
beusedoso notur0lintoke.whereverPossible, this typeof
slnceit is the most economlcol
intok€shouldbe preferred, one,
ondscfefrom the domogeoffloodsond debrismoteriols.It olso
mointoinsthe principleof "minimol disturbonceto Ih€ nqturol
stoteof ver".
A sideintokewithour 0 weir is unLkelyto be suitoblefor
riverlypes1C,2Bond2C,dueto thestrongpossibility ofthe
river courseshiftingin the future.
side intske with weir
Thefunctionofo weir is to rolsethe woter levelin old€rto
ensuleo constontminimum depthofwqter uPstreomofthe
weir Thisollowsthe requiredflow to be div€rtedto the
heodroceoslongos thereis sufncientwoter in the river' Types
3.6.
ofweiroredescbedin Secrion
3.52 TMSHRACKSFORSIDEINTAXES
Thetroshrocksfor sideintqkesconbe mo[ufocturedfrom flot
steel,ongles,teesor rould borsweldedtogetherot flxed
intervols.Thetrqshrockqt the intok€is qlso}clown os'coorse
troshrqck"sincethe bor spocingis wider helecomporedto the
troshrqckot rheforeboy.Forsideintokes,Ihe functiol ofth€
flootinglogsond
troshrockrsto stopboulders,cobbles,
bronchesfrom enteringthe heodroc€Coorsetroshrocksfor side
intokesoreDotdesignedto excludegrovelond sedrm€nt Thisis
thejobofthegrqveltrqpondthesettlingbosin.
Th€sizeofthe troshrockshouldbe suchthot th€ woter
v€locityis opproximqtely0.6m/s (o lower velocityis uneco-
nomic,whereoso high velocitytendsto ottroct b€dloodond
heodloss)
d€bris,ond resultsin increosed
Photo.3.3wh€reon intokeis liobleto ottroct llooting debris
o troshrockmoy b€necessory (Snt.onlo)
22
 Sinceboulde$con frcquentlyimpoctthe coorse which the river woter is conveyedtowordsthe heodroce.The
uoshrock,it n€edsto berobust,i.€.thick steels€ctionsshould orificeollowsthe designflow to possthrcughit undernormol
beused.Depending
on the lengthond width ofthe opening, conditions(i.e.lowflow)but restrictshigher0owsduring
notur€ofthe sedimentloodond the requiredflow o cleor floods.Thedischorgethroughon orificefor subm€rged
spocingof50 mm to 200mm conbeused.Thesideintoke conditionis:
coorse
trcshrockofth€ GolkotMicro-hydro
Scheme
is shownin q = ncfi(r'; rt)
PhotooroDh
3.4.
v : c\E(4-hJ
where:
Q is the dischorgethmughthe orilicein m3/s
V is the velocitythmughthe orilice
A is the oreooforificein m,

dotum.
hhis thewoterIevelin theheodroce
cqnolmeosured
iiom the
somedotumosh,.
dueto grqvity= 9.8m/s,
g is theoccelerotion

hh

hn
Ptoto3.4 Coors€troshrock for 50 kW Golkor MHq Boglung,Nepol. 55 mm x l0
nI! 00tsot 75mm centreto centlP. (S€eApp€ndix C for rhe drowingl

3J3 ORItrCEDESIGN
Asideintokenormollyincludeson orificedomstpom of the
Elihrockot th€riverbonl,thrcughwhich woter is iniriolly
d$wnhto theheodroce.Sometimes,
the sideintokeisjust o
continuotion
ofthe heodroce
conolup to the riverbonk.
However,0sfor osprocticoble,
on orificeshouldbeincorporoted structurethis volueis 0slow os0.6qnd for corefullvhnished
flowsduringfloods.with qn intokethot is
tolimitexcessive
justo continuotion
ofthe heodroceconolto the riverbonl,
€ressflowconnotbecontrolledduringfloods.Suchexcess
fow col domoge
theheodroce conolond otherstructures
tlowastreom.Howev€r,the orificeneednot be0t the intoke
0n0{i.e.0ttheriverbonk).If it qppeorsth0t rheintqkeis or o
ploinor susceptible
to domogefrom boulders,thenthe
fiiEceconb€locqteddownstr€om.In suchcosesthe conol
oftheoriliceond the intokewouldbetemoororvond
noyltquft repoiroftereverymonsoon.
Anorific€isonopening (Figure
3.5)ir theintokefrom
Figure3.5 Sideintoke
C is the coemcientof dischorgeofthe orificeond is
dependent on th€ shopeof orifice.ThevolueofC decrcoses with
the omountofturbulenceinducedby the intoke. Foro shorp
edgedond mughlyfinishedconcreteor mosonryorilice
opertureit conbeup to 0.8.
(h,- hh)will vory occordingto the dischorgein the river
sinceo higherwoter levelin the ver will produceo gr€oter
heodot the orifice.
Themoximumvelocityfor o well constructed
concrete/
mosonryorificeis 3 m/s:ifthe velocityexceeds
this volue.the
orificesurfocewill bescour€d.Formicro-hydro,the recom-
mend€dvelocity(V)throughtheorificeduringnormolflow is
1.0- 1.5m/s. Stortirg with o smollorinceopeningfor normol
flow (i.e.high velocity)will limit excess
flow duringfloods,
sinceth€ dischorge throughth€ orificeis proportionqlto the

23
 squoreroot ofthe differencebetweenthe wcter levelin the river
ondthe heodroce conol(h.- hn).However,if theoriliceis
directlyot theriver (withouto troshrock)thevelocityshouldbe
lessthon 1.0m/sto ovoiddrowingbedloodinto the intoke.
qsfollows:
Thesizeof theorificeis colculqted
r Assumingo moximumvelocityof 1.5m/sthroughthe
orifice,colculotethe requiredoreoof theorificeopening
usingQ=VxA.
r F o r o r e c t o n g u l o r o p e n i n=g W
, Ax H w h e r e W i s t h e
width ond H is the heightofthe orifice.SetH occording
to theriver ond groundconditions ondcolculoteW.
. Toensuresubmerged
condition,orrongethe orifice
openingsuchthot the wotersurfocelevelot the
heodroceconolis ot or slightlyhigher(scyup to 50mm)
thon upperedgeofthe orifice.Notethot thedesignof
heqdrqce
cqnolis covered
in Chopter4. Hencethe
designof differentmicro-hydrocomponents
oreinterde-
pendent.
Nowcolculoteh, for the designflow conditions
Theh, is the woterlevelthot needsto be mointqinedin
theriver duringnormolconditions.If the octuollevelin
the riveris less,repeotthe colculotions
with lorger
width qnd smqllerheightof the orifice.If the sctuql
riverlevelis still lessprovideo weir with weir crestleve
ot h,
o Cclculotethe flow throughthe orificefor floodcondition
(h, = designfloodlevel).Theexcess flow (i.e.flow
duringfloodlessthe designflow) will hoveto bespilled
bqckinto the river or neorbygulliesin the initiql reach
ofthe heodrqce.Thisis discussed
in the nextChqoter.
An exompleof on orificesizingis shownin Exomple3.1

c suitoblesizeof on orificefor o designflow of 250l/s. Thenormol woter levelin the river is

Choose
0.8m obovethebedlevel.Thedesignfloodlevelis obout0.7m obovethe normolwoter level.Whot
is the dischorge
throughtheorificeduringsucho flood?

ii,
ll
Q = 0.250mr/s
SetV = 1.2m/s

- o
:
0.25
Orificeoreo(A)= = 0.21mz

I i: LZ

setorificeheight(H)= 0.20m oni'*iArn of orifice(U' =* = ** = t.os m

i'l. H 0.20

I Setbottomof orifice0.2m obovethe river bedlevel. Thiswill minimisethe bedloqd. Also,setthe

I,
ll
dotum ot the river bedlevel.

ff
I
conol,hn= 0.5m with respect
Setwqterlevelot heodroce to thedotumos shownin Figure3.6(i.e.
100mm abovethe upperedgeof oriliceto ensuresubmerged
condition).Notethot loter the heodrace
; canolwill hsve to be designedoccordingly.
Ir
I
I
q = 6g\Dsq- hJ
Assume C = 0.6for roughlyfinishedmosonryorifice.
Q = 0.2tx 0.6ffi3466- ss)
= 0.31m3/s or310lls
Q*ouioo = 250l/s:Therefore orificesizeis 0K.
Dischargethroughtheorificeduringfloodflow:
h,- hn: 0.8* 0.7- 0.5= 1.0m;
Qn*o= 0.21x 0.6{2x9.8x1.0 = 0.56mrls
Qn*o= 550l/s
Thedimension oftheorificeondthelevelscreshownin Figure3.6.Notethot theexcess floodflow
conbedischorged vio o spillwoyst thegroveltropor onothersuitoble
locotion.A secondoptionis to
instollonotherorifice{double orificesystem) downstreom.

24
 Floodlevel(1.50m) whetherthe river is eroding(o generolloweringofthe river-

# bed),oggroding(o generolbuildingup ofthe riverbed),or

shiftingits course.Theheodworksdesign,ond in pqrticulorthe
choiceof weir,must tokeoccountofpossibl€futurechong€s.
Normalwatorlevol(0.80m) Whenit becomes qpporentthot o weir is required,the
s
for bothpermonentond
followingfoctorsshouldbeconsidered
tempororyweirs:
. lf0 weir ocrossport ofthe river l€ngthis sumcient,then
0.40m it shouldnot b€ext€nded0crcssthe €ntircwidth. Aport
s7 from 0ddingextrocostit olsoencourog€s
sediment
Oriflco 0.20m d€positionupstreomofthe weir-
. Thew€ir h€ightshouldbeoslow ospossible (i.e.weir
cr€stl€vel= h,,just sumcientto m0intoin the w0t€r
Rlverbed lsv€l(0.00m) / Datum
levelin th€ intoke).Thismokesthe structur€more
stoble,lesssusceptible
to flooddomogeond olso
Notto scalo minimises
sediment
deposition.

Fioupl6 Dimensions
ofth€ orillceond levek
3.5.2 TEMPOMRYWEIRS
A tempororyweir is typicollycon-
structedusingbouldersplccedoctoss
pon or oll of the river width. A diqgonol
olignm€ntmcy r€ducethe Rquircd
heightofthe w€ir obov€the riv€rb€d.
Thisis the tr0ditionalmethodusedby
Nepoliformersto feedirrig0tionconols
or woter mills (ghqttos).
ond is used
quiteextensivelyin micm-hydroschemes
in the
in Nepol.Formicro.hydrcschem€s
lowerrongesuchosthoseusedfor ogro-
processing
only,this typeof weir is often
oPProPnqte.
Thoughq tempororyweir is
simpleand low cost,it hoso few
Iimitotions:for exampleit is not possible
1.5Timberplonksplocedhorizonrollyin groovespmvideo low-costgotein o chonn€lIn this cose,
Plloro to divertoll oftheriverflow evenin the
th€dnb€rshoveb€€nlift€dto oct oso restrictingorillce(Mhopung) dry seoson.Therefore
this t]?e ofweir is
b€stsuitedto situotionswherethe dry
the plont'sdesigndischorge.
seosonflow ofthe river exceeds
3.6Diversion
weirs

3.5.IGENEMI.
A weiris Rquiredifthe flow cqnnotbe divertedtowqds the
sideintolewithoutroisingthe river woter level,especiolly
duringthelowflow seoson.Th€weirmoybe oftemporory
or permonentconstruction,A tempororyweir
semi-permonent
istheprefened
optionfor micro-hydroschemes.
In pl0millgo weir,ottentionmust begivent0 the
geomorphology
ofthe river,ondony chcngestiot moy be
tokingploce.Alwoysconsultwith locolpeoplero esroblish Photo
3 6 A lemporory
weirino Type28river{Dhqding)
 Duringthe high flows,evenif the weir is woshedowoy,it moy permqnentstructures.Thisis becquse
mostriversflowing
still bepossibleto divertthe requiredflow towordsthe throughthemountoins ondthemiddlehillsof Nepolcorry
heodrqce sincethewoterlevelin theriveris high. lorgeboulders
duringthe m0ns00nond therefore
ony
A proposcllor c tempororyweir constructed ofstone structurebuilt ocrosssuchriversis not likelvt0 survtve.
mqsonryin mud mortoris shownin Figure3.7. Thisis
intendedto ollowdiversionofo higherproportionof thedry 3.6.3 GABIONWEIR
seqsonflow,but wouldstill getwoshedowoy duringthe Gqbions
hovebeenusedextensively
in the post,for both
qnnuolfloods.Constructing tempororyweirswith boulders micro-hydroondirrigotionintokeweirs,but the resulthos
oslorgeqsconbehqndledmonuollyond includingcut-off not beenvery encouroging.Thegobionwiresorevulneroble
wqllsand ripropconminimiseflooddomoge.Asconbeseen to domogeby bouldersmovingduringfloods,ond oftero few
rn Figure3.7,cut-offwollsoredownwordextensions
of the qrebrokentheentiregobionstructuremoy collopse.
weir ct th€ upstreomond downstreom
focesthot reduce Gobions unsuitqblein river Types1Bqnd 1C.
oretherefore
posttheweir. Ripropis on engineering
seepoge termusedto However,
if thereis no significontbouldermov€ment
denotetheplocingofo loyerofboulders
for scourprotection. olongtheriverstretchot the intqkeoreoo gobionweir moy
Theomission
of scourprotection
wouldresultin scouring
of bepossible.Ifproperlydesigned qndconstructed,the
theriverbed,
eventuollyleodingto thefoilureof theweiritself. odvontogeofo gobionstructureis thot,unlikeconcreteond
Oncetheriverdischorge
decreoses, o temporory weir mosonrystructures, it contolerotesomegroundmovement
conbeusuollyreconstructed
ot littlecost.Therepoirond without significontdomoge.TheJhonkre mini-hydroweir is
mointenonce
workon o temporory
weirconbeminirnised
by on exompleof o gobionweir structure(seeFigure3.8ond
buildingtheweirusingrockoutcrops,
Iorgeboulders
ond Box3.i).Theweirdesignshouldincludechecking:
othernoturolprotection
oftheriver.Goodmonogement
of o sofet!ogoinstscour(byfounding0n rockor lcrge
coshfor theonnuolweir "rebuild"
is required. boulders, o 'counterweir'down-
or by constructing
ln rnostcoses,
o tempororyweir is suitobleonlyfor the streomto lorm o stillingpool)
diversionof flowsbelow1 nrr/s.Thisfits well into themrcro- seepoge
control(byusingon impermeoble
mem-
hydrodischorge
ronge,sincethe moximumflow in micro- brone)
hydroschemesrorelyexceeds500l/s. Formicro-hydro a st0bilityogoinstoverturningond sliding
schemes,
o tempororyweir is the preferred
optionovermore a sofetyon beoringcopocityofthe foundotion.

Temporcyweir,
stone

-0225-cb-ssT--rc
Locolionof

All dimensions
orein mm.

F i g u r e 3 . 7A t e m p o r o r y w e i r p f o p o s e d f o r t h e l S k W T h o r o n g pmhi e
c rdoi - h y d r o s c h e m e , M o n o n g . N e p o l
Notethecut'olfwqllsond ripr(p at downstreom foce.

LO
 o{ @
o(9
(o
o t\

MMO MS

H D Pf l u s h o i

140fflnfr HDPE
for irrigotion
F o reb

lti
7/
Grovel t ro
4, I

I
I

I nt o k e

G o b i o nw e i r
Pool

,\
€r\
Qt

iiigure3'8[leodw0rksofrongcn]ent0|the500kWJil0nkrenlinjItydrosc1teme,Nepol.Notethottheintoke,settlingbcsin
structure ond there is no hecrdroce.the topogr0phy is such thct 0 pel)stockolignnlent could be storted riitht 0t the heodworks.

27
 Figure 3-9 Crosssection ofJhonke Mini'hydro drversion welr

ll tr rl
E&(

Photo 3.7 Diversion weir of rhe Jhonlce Mini-hydro Sch€me

The500kW Jhonlar Mini'hydropow€rSch€me,locot€d0n theJhonlqeriver, Dolokha,Nepol,wos designedjointly by BPC

Hydroconsult qndDevelopment ondConsulting Services(DCS).Theconstructionwqsundertokenby DCS.Asconbeseenin the
sectionthrough the weir, to minimise seepogein the dry seoson,o heovygrodepolFhene sheethosbeenfixed qt the upstEom
foceof the gobionw€ir' T0pr€v€ntthe sheetftom being puncturedby bouldersond other debris,stonebockfll hos be€n
incorporoted in front ofit. Alsoto preventthe gobionwiresfrom beingnickedby rollingboulders,150mm ofploin concreteis
plocedolongoll exposed
surfoceofthe w€ir.
Dudngo 1995monsoonfloshflood(esdmoted to b€ o 1:30yeqrreturnperiodflood),this weir wos portiolly domoged.It wos
thenrepqired.Sincethen,theweir hosfocedtwo onnuolfloodswithout onyrepoirs.occosionql
repoirofthe concretetopping
ondtlle gobionwires (i.e.duringtheonnuolmointenonce
oreexpected period.

28
3.6.4 PERMANENT
WEIR Evenif qll of theoboveconditionsoremet.further
Sometimes
if thereis o scarcity0f woter,especiolly
duringthe shouldbegivenfor remotesites(3-4doyswolk)
considerotion
lowflowseoson,ondthe river doesnot corrylorgebouiders,o of the costonddiflicultyinvolvedin tronsporting
becouse
permonentweil moy bebuilt ocrossthe river. Micro-hydro cementond reinforcing
steel.Besides
consideringthe foctors
in thehigherronge(50kW or obove)ondmini-hydro
schemes mentioned
eorlier(useof lorge weir
boulders, ocrossport 0f the
(100kW to 1000kW) oftenhovepermonentweirs.
schemes riverif possible
ondlow weir height),lor permonentweirs
weirsoregenerollyc0nstructed
Permonent of moss scourprotectionshouldolsobeprovided.Thetoeofthe weir
(1:1.5:3
concrete plums),or stonemosonryin 1:4
with 400/o (i.e.,downstreom
foceof theweir)is mostsusceptible
to
cement
mortor.A reinforced concretesurfoceloyermoy be scouringsincethereis o dropfrom the crestofthe weir.
to protectthe weir fromdomogeby boulders
considered moving ogoinstscouris providedby cut-offwollsond
Protection
in flood.A permonentweir shouldonlybeconsidered
if oll of plocingboulders(suchosstonesoling)or ripropdownstreqm
of
oremet:
thefollowingconditions the weir cs shownin Figure3.10.Thecut-offwollsolsoreduce
r Lorgeboulders do not movein the riverot the weir site. underthe weir,which conincreqse
seepoge the flow ovqiloble
r Theriverbedis stoble(noteroding,oggrodingor t0 the intokeduringthe dry seoson.Figure3.11showsonother
shiftingcourse) optionfor 0 permonentweir in cosebedrockis foundqt the
o Thereis o scorcityofflow,especiolly
in thedry seqson. proposed
site. Whenthe weir is on bedrock,
deepcut off wolls
r Skilledmosonsorelocollyovoiloblefor bothconstruc- ondriproporeunnecessory.
As shownin Figure3.11,shollow
tionondmointenonce. cut olf wollsondonchorrodsconbeusedto fix theweir on the
r Thereoresuflicientfundsfor bothconstruction
ond rocksurfoce: theanchorrodsshouldbegroutedinto therock.
work.
futuremointenonce An ulternotivedesignis described
in Box3.2.

Stonecementmosorry(

200rhk.Rcc
T 12@ ZOOdc bothways t
12C-
V

o.45
v

-2.OO
V

I lmo I 3560 | tooo I

Note:All dimensions
orein mm. levelsorein m.

Figure 3.10A stonemos0nrypermonentweir proposed for Ghomimicrotydro scheme, Mustong,Nepol.The1:3slopeollowsrollingboulders to tr0veldOwnstreom

t h r o u g h t h e w c i r o n d t h e R C C b l o n k e t h e l p s t o s t r e n g t l i e n t h e w e i r s u r f o c e o g o i n s t o b r o s i o n d u e t o rA
o l lsi o
nngo
b toeutlhdeecrus t. o l f w o l l s o n d r i p r o p o t
downstreom foce.

29
 concrele( | : 3 :6, 4OoloPlums)
Ph.rm
2OOlhk RCC(t : 1.5:
t500, Tl2 @ 2OOczcbofhwoys
r-1 t20
-3- v
v
€A.,.
o.@

16 onchor rod
lonS @ 3 OOc,t,gorted
with l: I :O.4(cement,sond
rvoler)qrot | .
Note:All dimensions
ore in mm, levelsorein m.

FigureI 11 A plum concretepermonentweir proposed for chdmi micro.hydroscheme The lil slopeollowsrolling bouldersto trov€l downstreomrhrough the
w€r ond th€ RCCblonkethelDsIo str€nath€nIh€ weif surfoceoooinsrobfosiondueto rollino boulders

lnPeru,rTDGhosbeenusing
on opproochto design
ofintokeswhich usesplonksslottedin piers
perpendiculorto the dil€ctionofflow oftheriv€r
Shortreinforc€dcon(etepiersor€constructed ot o
spocingof2 metres.Eochpierhosverticolgrooves
olongits full depth.Thentimberplonlsoreins€fted
betweenthepi€rsby insertingth€ endsofplonks
ontothe slots.Duringthe roiny s€oson,
oneor more
sponsconberemovedto regulqtetheflow ot the
intokeoriliceqndto ollowriver-bomedebristo llow
olongit without cqusingdomogeto thewhole
stntcturc.

Photo3 8 slort€dconrrerepiers

30
 3.6.5 HEADOVERWEIR
Asstoted plocingq weir ocrossthe riverroisesthewoter
eorlier,
level.Anyexcessflow thqt is not withdrown into the intoke
overtheweir is givenby the
flowsovertheweir. Thedischorge A broodcrested weirhosbeenplocedocross o riverfor a
iollowing
equotion: micro-hydro intqkeosshownin Figure3.12.Theweir
= C* x L t
(hou.noo)t heightis 0.5m sndthelength5 m. Howhighshouldthe-
Q *., x
where: floodprotectionwoll befor o 20yeorreturnfloodof 11
*,/j?_ ,
Q= Dischorge
overtheweir in mr/s
L*", = Lengthof weir in m C* = 1.6for bmodcrested
weir
= Heqdoverthe weir crestlevelin m
hou.nop Flood level
I

C*= Weircoeffrcientwhich voriesoccordingt0 the weir profile.

weir profilesis shownin Tqble3.3. In micro-
C*fordifferent
theweir is usuollybroodwith roundedgesqndtherefore
hydro,
C*is1.6..

Table3.3 C...for different weir profiles

Ptofileof crest of welr cw

n broad;sharp edges 1.5

weir
Figure3.12 Broodcrested

ln broad;roundedges 1.6 h -/
"ovenop
\
a
c. x Lr.o
J*'
,

A roundovedall 2.1 Notethot C* is 1.6for broodcrestedrveir

_r
t 7l \0'657
=(--i;Fl
h"""n"o = 1.24m
sharp-edged 1.9
Heightoffloodprotectionwollsfromriverbedlevel= 0.5
h rounded 2.2
m + ho",noo = 2.Oa
* 0.3m (ollow300mm of freebootd)

rool-shaped 2.3
3-Z Bottom intokes
Theweir equotionis olsousefulin colculotingthe flood
ot theintakeifthe flooddischorgeis known or cqnbe
levels 3.7.I DESCRIPTION

calculotedbosedon the river hydrology.Oncethe floodlevels Thebottomintoke,qlsoknown os o Tlroleonor trcnchintoke,is

oreknown,thefloodprotectionwolls ot the riverbonkconbe o grille-likeopeningthot coptureswoter from the b€dofthe
Forhrown dischorge
designed. overtheweir,theheodoverthe river ond dropsit directlyinto the heqdroce.Theflow generolly
weir(ondhencethewoterlevelot the intoke)conbecolculqted posses throughon openingin o wing woll of the intqke
theweir equotionosfollows:
byrewriting structureondowoy from the river. in somecosesthe grillemoy
covero smsllchomber,but generollythe bottomintqkeis
.! l Q f:" ' I --l designed to the directionof the river
oso trench,perpendiculor
"ovef,op
\ c* x L*",, I flow.
Thebottomintqkeis mostoppropriotein Iocotionswhere
movement
sediment
thereis no opprecioble olong the riverbed,
of heqd over o weir con be seenin Exomple3.2
Colculotion
becouseit withdrowsbottomwoter in preference to surfoce
woter.This type of intokewos first usedfor smollhydroond
irrigotionsystemseorlythis centuryin olpineoreosofEurope.

31
 proctice
Worldwide in
in smollrivers
showsthot it is 0pplicoble ofintokeis covered,it wouldb€dimcult to r€moveony grovel
wherethefollowrng
ondhilly regrons,
mountoinous conditjons the
thot obstructs flow. It shouldtherefor€be excludedThe
spqcingofthe flots or qnglesdep€ndson the prtdominont
exlst:
. steepriverbedofborerockor boulders whjchror€ly porticlesiz€ofthe sedlm€ntscoffiedby the river flow (i.e.bed
3
€xce€ding
move(theyor€suitoblefor flowvelocilies lood)ond the provisionfor o settlingbosinln the conol
m/s); syst€m.Thelorgerthe spocing(oPening), the lorgerthe
. Minimolbedloodofsondqndgrovel: pofticl€sthot will enterthe heodroce.on the oth€rhond,if
. surplusIlow ovoiloblefor continuolflushing Todote the Openilgsoretoo norrcw,theP is o high chonc€of
oniyo fewbottomintokeshov€beenconstructed in frequentcleoningofth€ troshrock.It
cloggingnecessitoting
formersorenot lom ior with them.
Nepol,s0Nepqlese is 0lsoimportontto plocerhetroshrqckssuchthot the bors
Thed€signofbottomrntokesmust bedonecorefullyto or€olongthe dircctionofflow This mlrumisesthe risk of
ovoidbecomingblockedwith sediment.Bottomintokes clogging.
for ThomeondJhongmicro-hydroschemeoreshownill
Photogroph3.9ond3.10.

w
wrth the griu
Phoro310 Bottomintok€with gnu rPmoved(Jhong)
(Jh0n9)

PhotoI9 N€pol
BotronrintokeofThomemkro hydroschem€, on€ofthedrowbocks ofthebottomintokeis the
cloggingoftroshrock onddry leov€s.EsPeciolly
by pebbles
3.7.2 TRASHRACKS FORBOTTOMINTME therivermoy corryq lot ofl€oves,
duringthedry seoson,
of bottomintokesconbe
thetroshrocks
Srmilorto sideintokes. which becometroppedin the trqshrqckond reducethe flow
monufqctured from flot st€el,ongles,teesor roundborswelded the troshrockneedsto becleoned
throughlt Therefor€
togetherot intervols.Thesectlonchosenmust bestrong periodicollyduringthe dry seosonDuringmorlsoon,this is
enoughto withstondimpoctby ony bedlo0dmovingdunng not o problem;the river Ilow sweepsthe grqvelond leoves
floods.lrs shopeis olsovery imponont,stncethis qff€ctsthe beforeth€y conclogrhe troshrocks.
chonces ofclogging.Roundbors,for exqmple, oremoreProne
b€couse
to clogging, theopeningin themiddletssmqllerthon 3.73 DESIGNOFBOTTOMINTAJG
on thetop. Fromthepointofviewofclogging, th€secti0ns Thefoilowingequotionis usedfor the designofo bottom
listedbeloworeorrongedin theorderofbestto worstl intok€:
Tees
2
Angles cpbr.fih
Chonnels
Flots where:
Roundbors Q^= designdischorgeinto the intokein mr/s,
b = widthofthebottomintokein m.
cleorspocrng
Therecommended theseflots,
between L = l€ngthoftherroshrock in m. ln proctice,
it is recom-
onglesor borsis 6 to 15mm ondo commonly usedsPocilgis mend€dthqt thetroshrock length(L)beincEosed by 20%,i.e.,
12mm. Thercosonwhy theseborsorecloserthonthoseofthe Thiswillensur€thot therewill beodequc
L=1.2xL.".,r,,.d. te
sideirltoketroshrock is thqrgrovelolsoneeds
t0 beexc]uded flow whenthe troshrockis portiqlly block€dby wedg€d
forthistype
fromthebottomintake.Sincetheinitiolheodr0ce ondbrcnches.
stones

32
 .>
L-
",k Tqble 3.4 1 vclues for p
1"

ho= Initiolwoterdepthin m in the riverupstreomof the 0o 1.000 140 0.879

intqke. 20 0.980 160 0.865
h, = ho* vo'/29.Notethqt osconbeseenin Figure3.13h, is 40 0.961 180 0.851
cctuolly
theinitiolwoterdepthin theriverplusthevelocity 6o 0.944 200 0.837
heodoftheriver(v"'/2g).Forsteeprivers,theflow velocity 8o 0.927 220 0.825
should
bemeosured sincethevelocityheodconbehigh. 100 0.910 240 0.812
=
X, 0 function
ofthe inclinotionofthe troshrqck(p)cs shown 720 0.894 260 0.800
inTqble
3.4.
c = Conection
foctorfor submerced
overfqll. Notethot to solvethebottomintokeequotion,eitherthe
lengthor thewidth ofthe intokeopeningneedsto besetqnd
= 0.6 , cosrj20 theotherdimensionconthenbe cqlculoted.Theselection
of
oneofthesedimensions on the siteconditions.For
depends
0 = cleqrspocingof thetroshrockborsin m. exomple,
if the lengthof the trashrockis too smqll,the
=
d centre t0 centredistoncebetweenthetroshrockborsin m, heodroce
ccnolwill requiredeeperexcovqtion
in the riverbed,
p = ongleofinclinotionofthe troshrockwith respect
t0 the whichmoy bedifhcult. Generolly,
thelengthof the bottom
horizontol
in degrees. intqkeshouldbeequolto the width of theheodroce
canol,ond
p = c0ntroctiOn for the trqshrock,whichdepends
coefficient on thewidth shouldmotchthe river chonnel.
theshope
oftheborsosshownin Figure3.12.Alsoin thefigure, It is importontthot the culvertbeneoththe troshrockis
Q istheriverflowupstreomof the intokeondQ. is the excess steepenought0 conveythe moximumconceivoble sediment
flowin theriverdownstreom
of the intoke. loodto thegroveltrop:o grodientofot leqst1:20is recom-
mended.Thegroveltrop moy requirecontinuous
flushing,
which meonsthot sufhcientheodond surplusflow hosto be
ovoiloble.Thedesignmust beobleto corryond spilibockto

lll o.zs-o
es
fin'
III \ t ooa
???loso_oeo
t
TTTfooz-
o6s gqg
ITI J o?o-o
es
conlrrctlon corf f lcirnt g

Figun3.13 Symbols
usedin the bottom intoke equ0tions
theriverthe moximumflow enteringthe intoker.rnder
flood Enoineers
desioninrt
o botton intokeshouldrefert0
conditions. References
3 ond5 for furtherinformotion.

A suitoblesitehosbeenlocotedfor o bottomintoke.Theriverwidth ot thisoreois 5 m ondthe depthis 0.5m (i.e.h. :

0.5m). A velocityof 3 m/swos neosuredot the intokesite. Thedesignflow (Q^)requiredfor powergenerotionis 0.40mr/s.
on qppropriote
Select sizefor thebottomintoke.

Designcqlculotions

Choose20rnmdiometer roundborsfor th€troshrock.

p = 0.85for roundbors(fromFigure3.i2)Setthecleorspacing
between
thebors,
o=12rnm
Centre
t0 centredistonce
between
bors,
d : 3 2m n t
Settheinclination 0 : 8" (Theinclination
ofthe trcrshrack shouldbeequolto or slightlygreoterthonthe
ofthetroshrock
rirtor nrnAionl\

Forp = 8u,X=0.927

2
h -_ .y.h
3'"t'

h, = 0.5+ 3'z129
= 0.96n'-

0rh --
2
x0.927x0.96: 0.59m ffi ----1r
3
o B o t f c r ni n t r k e
c : 0.6 ;* cos'tf) -
u Dors qf p iTtri c,'c
0

I 0.012 \
c=0.6x1 _ lxcos'j(8'1:9.22
\ 0.032 I

N o wu s el h eb o t t o nirn t o k ee q u o t i o n : 3 . 1 4 D t n r e u s i ofnosr t h 0b o l t o r ni n t o k eo f t i x t r m p l3e. 3

Figure

2
n - - - , , k r L f t u L \ lEg-n, -
Ya-
3

2
:
\ 4. 3 ^ x 0 . 2 2 x 0 . 8 5 x b * L . , E i g S * O S S
Q

Q^=0.42xbxL
With QA= 0.40Inr/s:
the width ofthe troshrock,b = 2 m L = 0.9512
Select = 0.48m.
0.40 thelengthby 200/o:
Increose L= 0.48x 7.2= 0.57m. The
bxl= 0.95mr
0.42 proposeddimensions
of the bottomintokeoreos follows:
-*
0,95 b = 2.0m (0trightonglesto theflow)
Widthof theopening,
^F I -
ut L r
D
L = 0.6m (porollel
Lengthof theopening, to theriverflow)
Troshrock =
borsize 20mm diameterroundbors
= 32mm centretOCentle
BorsPocing

Theplonof thisproposed
bottomintakeis shownin Figure3.14.

t/
 Notethot in this exqmplethe width ofthe troshrockis less
thontheriverwrdth,which is occeptoble
becouse
only 50lo
0fthe
riverflow is required.Wheremostof the flow is to bediverted,
width shouldbe€quqlto th€ mv€rwidth.
thetroshrqck

3.8Rivertroining works

A floodprotection
woll olongthe riverbonkmoy berequiredif
thereis c highprobobrhry
offlooddomogeto the inrliol heqdroc€
ond0therstructures suchosth€ groveltrop ond settlingbosin.
Suchwqllsoreqlsocqll€driver lroining structurcssincethey
theriverchonnel.Thewoll heightshouldbegr€oter
confin€
th0n0rotleostequollo thedesignfloodlevel.
Thefoundotionofony ver troiningwollsmust be
protected
fromunderminingby the river. Thisconbedoneby
oneofthefoilowingmethods.
(o) Foundingthe wqll on rockor lorgeboulders.Forgobi0l Photo3.11 Gobionwqlls ot $e heqdworksofthe 30kwJhorkormicro-hydro
wollsit mqy benecessqry
to first build up o levelbose scheme,Mustong,Nepol

usingstonemosonryor mossconcrete.
ft) Foundingthewoll belowpossrble
scourdepth.
(c) Usingo gobionmottressolongthe dver sideofthe woll.
Thismethodis not opprcp otein dv€rscorryingo he0vy 3.9 Checldistfor diversion works
bedlood,becousethe gobionwireswill bedomogedby
boulders
movingduringfloods. Referto Toble3.1qnd find out whqt cotegorythe
sourceriver follsin.
0n olluvioldvers(i.e.deepdepositionofsondondcobbles), Referto Tqble3.2ond decideon whethero sideintoke
gobionfloodprotectionwolls oreusuollymoreoppropriotefor or o bottomintokeis suitoble.
the grould ofolluviol fivers
sch€me.Thisis becouse
micm-hydro Is o weir r€quiredor is it possibleto divert the dver
tendsto chongeondfl€xiblestructuresconcopebetterin such wot€r without one? Remember the conceptof
conditionsGobionwollsmoy requireonnuolmqintenonce "minimol disturbqnceto the nqturol stoteofthe
(especiolly
oftermonsoon) thereforeskilledmcnpowershould wot€r".
eitherbeqvoilobleql site0r somelocolpeopl€shouldbe troined Doesthe river courseopp€orstobleor doesit looklike
phose.
du ng theconsrruction it will meonder?Think 0boutfloodondfloodlev€ls.
Gobion
wollsconolsoseNethe functionofretoiningwolls Also,ifthe river cqrriesIorgebouldersduringthe
theslopesbehiDdit. Ifslopesot lhe olluviol
ondstobilise floods,qnd o weir is requiEd,think obouttemporqry
oreunstobl€,
riv€rbonk th€n gobionwolls conolsobedesigned diversionworksrotherthon o permonentweir
3.11showstheuseofo gobion
osntoiningwolls. Photogroph Tominimiseflooddqmqgethe intokelocotionshould
wollto stobilise
thebonkslope.Referto Section9.4for rctoining besuchthot it is possibleto setthe heodroceolign-
wolldesign. ment immediotelyowoy from the ver course.
on stqbleriverbonks,suchos exposed
bedrock,
o mosonry qlongo river bend,
Ifo sideintokehosbeenselected
wollcqnbebuilt providedthot rheriver do€snot corrylorge Iememberto locoteit on the outsideofthe bend.
thot coulddomogemosonrystructurcs.In lorge
boulders Hovethe floodlevelsond historyofthe river course
hydopowerondirrigotionprojectsevenconcrete
floodboder beendiscussed
with the locolcommunitymembers?
w0llsoreusedbut usuollysuchsolurionsoreeconomicolly Firlolly,considerth€ costofdifferentoptions.Is it more
obl€for micro-hydroschemes.
unjustifi economicto constructtempororydiversionworksqnd
Figure3.15showsthe useofo gobionwoll to preventthe incur someonnuqllobourchorgesor to choosemore
riverbypossing
thediversionweir ond domogingthe heqdroce permonentdiversionworks?
pipeduringfloods.

35
-
Efiq
..t]
lI
i,l

Weir

lntoke

Gobion
Fro
@4oOnrn clossII

F i g u r e 3 . l SH e o d w o r k s o r r o n g e m e n t 0 f t h e 8 0 k W B h u j u n g M H P , u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n L o m jNuontgi c, N
e tehpeofl .o o d p m t e c t i o n g o b i o n w o l l s o n d r i p r o p o t
downstrcomfoceof the weir.

36
 4. Hecdrace

4.1Overview 4.2Conoltypes
Theheqdroce
ofo micro'hydropower
schemeis o conolor o Heodroce
cqnolsconbeclossifiedoccordingto the moteriols
pip€th0tconveys
woter from the inloketo th€ foreboy.The usedto constructthem. Vorioustypesofheadroceconolused
olignmentis usuollyon evento gendyslopingground
heodroce in micro-hydroschemes
oreosfollows:
by grovity.A h€0drocepipeis generolly
ordtheflowis coused
notsubjected
to significonthydr0uhcpressurc. 4.2.1 EARTHCANAIS
c0nolsoregenerqllylessexpensiv€
Since th0n pipes,they Th€s€oreconstructed
by simplyexcovotingthe grcundto the
on usedmoreoftenfor heodroces
in micro-hydroschemes.The requiredshope.Suchconolsoreusedon stobleond gently
generol
ruleis to useconolsosofterlospossible
ond ro usepip€s slopingground.seepogecon behigh in suchconolsdepending
ordy
forthedimcultstntchofth€heodroce
olignment,
suchos on soilrype If thercoresignsofinstqbiliry in o heodrace
t0n€go(i0te
cliffsor unst0bleoreos. section,or ifseepogefrom the conolis Iikelyto contributero
Micro.hydro heodroceconolsqresimilorto fqrmer slopeinstqbililysuchoslondslides,
this typeofcqnolshouldnot
m0n0ged
smollirrigotionconolsin thof theyoredesigned
to b€s€l€cted.
However,
for heodroceolignm€ntson stobleground
keep frictiononderosionto q minimum. Howev€r,
s€ep0ge, whereseepage
is not likelyto couseinstobiliryeorthconolsore
thett0r€olsosomebosicdifferrnces
osfollows: the mosteconomicoption.
. lnigotionconolsoreusedonly 3-6monthsin o yeor qsq
Wherecloy is locollyovoilobleit couldbeconsidered
whereosmicro-hydro
schemes
rcquirewoter throughout lining to reduceseepoge
from eonh conols.How€ver,
o scheme
theyeor usedo cloy Iiring protectedby srone
in Syongjosuccessfully
. In inigotionconols,somevoriotionin flowsdoesnot pitchingfor the peokingreservoir(whichwosfencedoff) but in
crcoteproblems,ond tempororyrepqirs(e.9.plocingof th€ heodrqcecqnolthe Iining wos destrcyedby cottle.
ondleqvesot o leokingsectionofo conol)con
bronches
bemode,Theheodroce
conolin o micro'hydroscheme
needs
to bemol€relioble.
r Thelossofheodov€rth€ l€ngthofthe heqdroce
should
b€minjmisedsothot poweroutputcqnbeoptimised.

Some textsuselhe term powerc0n0U

micro-hydro
conduitfor€itherthelengthbelweenrhe intokeond the
sdtlingbosin(whenthrsstructureis seporotefrom the foreboy)
0rforthe€ntireheodroce.
ln this rext theterm heodroceis used
inollcoses.
Thevelocityin th€ iniriol heodroc€
l€ngrhr€edsto be
to corrygrovelond sedimertup to thegrovelrrop
highenough
Photo:4 1 EorthChonnel(Dhoding)
ordsettlingbosinrespectively.
wherethel€is o s€porote
seftling
bosinondfor€boy,
thevelocityin the heodroce
between
these conbeloweredsinceit will corry sedimentfree
structures 4.2.2 STONEMASONRYIN MUD MORTARCANAIS
Ilow. Ifon eorthc0noldoesnot oppeorto befeqsible,the s€cond
optionto beconsidered
shouldbestonemosonryin mud monor
type.Compored
to 0n €onh conol,therewill belessseepoge
from this typeofconal.Forsimilor llows,the crosss€ctionof
this typeofconolc0nbesmollerthon the eqrthcon0lbecouse q
(withoutcousingerosion)os will
highervelocityis occ€ptobl€

3?
bediscussed
lqter An exomple
ofo stonemosonryconolin
mud monor conbe seenin PhotooroDh
4.2.

Photo4 2 A rorsedmosonrychonnelsupplyingo mill (Mustong)

4.2.3 STONEMASONRYIN CEMENIMORTARCANAIS

In termsofcost,this is usuollythe leostpreferobl€
optionfor o
heodroceconol.Th€odvontqgewith this typeofconolis thot
is minimol (i-e.significontlyl€ssth0n stonemosonryin
seepoge
mud mortor conols).A stonem0sonryin cementmortor conol
shouldbeusedot locqtionswherethe soil typeis porous
(leodingto lossesofunocceptoble
omountsofflow) ond/or
s€epoge
is likely to trigg€rlondslides.
Formicro'hydr0sites
locoted3-4dqyswolk from the roodhe0d,
the needfor o long
cementmortor conolconmok€o micro-hvdroschemeuneco-
concrptecoverdobs provideprotectionfrom follingdebds
Photo4-4Reinforced
nomicdueto the high costofcement. (Eolivio)
An exomple
of o sron€mosonryin cementmortor
heodroce
conolconbeseenb€lowilr Photo0roDh
4.3.
4.2.5 OTHERTYPESOFCANAI
4.2.4CONCRETE ln certoinor€0stheremoy olsobeother typ€sofconol thon

CANAI.s thos€mentionedqbove.Forexomple,on irrig0tionc0nolin

Mostmicro-hydro Ecuodorconstruct€d
ofusedoil drumscut into two semi-

schemes
do nothove circulorholvesconbeseenin Photogroph4.5.Sucho conolmoy
heodroce
conols beusefulfor shortond diflicult sectionsor for oqueductswhere
construct€d
of useddrumsore€0silyovailobleond economicol.

concPtesincethey Anotherexompleis the useoftimber conolosconbe

orcvery exPenslve. seenin Photogroph

4.6.Thisrequir€sthe useofhordwoodond

Th€reis virtuolly no skill€dlobour Similorto oil drums,timbercqnolsconbe

through possible for shon crossingsond oqueductsor wheretimberis
seepoge
suchconols.some- obundontond inexpensive.

times,rcinforced ofother typesofconol or€ pEsentedin Boxes

Exompies

concreteconolsore 4.1to 4.5.

usedfor short
crossings.
Generolly,
Photo4 3 Stonemosonryin cementmortor prp€s
HDPEheodroc€
heodroceconolofthe 50kw colkot MHB oremoreeconomlc
Colkot,Boglung,Nepol
thon concrcteconols.

38
Photo4 5 An oil drum rrrigotionconol,Ecuodor Photo4 6 Timberconolwith brocingsupportingthe sides,Thuptenchuling

39
Ferrocementpilot projectshovebeenpromotedby the
Andhi KholoIdgotion Pmject(A(IP)ond the Internotionol
Lobou Orgonisotion(lLO).Fefiocemetrtstructuresore
modeof thin cementsondmortor (1:2to 1:3)withthin
steelmeshosreinforcement.ILOhos usedferrocementfor
Iining frigotion conolsin th€ SindhuDnoodRehobilitotion
Proj€ct.
Th€ILOferrocementconol costwos US$31per lineor
meEeond the cementmosonrydesigl of similor copocity
wos US$28 (1989prices). Thetlo justifies the odditionol
costby ottributing it to befter durobility snd little
mointenoncewhidr fe[ocement conolsrequA€.other
odvontqgesore smoothfinishing which reducesheod
losses,
resistonce
to obrosion,ondvery low seepoge
Iosses.
Thef€rrocementflum€ usedin AKIP(designedby BPc
Hyftoconsult)isshownin Photogroph4.6
ondFigure4.l.
colvonisedsh€etswith intermediotesteelfromeswerc
usedfor the formwork. Multipleloyen of 10mm to 15
mm thick,1:3cementsondmortor wereplocedonthe
formw0rk. TheEnol insideloyer (i.e.woter retoidng
surfoce)wos preporedusing o mix of 1:2cementsond
mortor. Golvonisedthin wiE mesh(olso}amwn oschicken
wire mesh)wosplocedbetweenecchloyeros
reinforc€m€nt.
TheAndhi Kholoferrocem€ntflume hosbeenfunctioning
w€Usinceits commissioning
in 1993.Thisdesignwos
I : 2 C E M E T T TS A T O ,M O R T A R
moreeconomicol
thqn theconventionql
stonemosonryin
cementmortor co[ol with drop structufts. However,it
shouldbenot€dthot theconstruction
off€nocement
conolsrequir€sskilledond well troined monpower
(mqsons)to ochi€vethe requir€dquolityof work ond
Y ' 3 . 5X 2
thereforemoy only bejustified where o very long ccrol is
to beinstolled in poor soils.Furthermore,ifskilled lobour
is expensive,ferrocementconolsmoy costmorethon th€
conventionol
design,osinth€ coseofSindhuliFlood
R€hobilitqtionProiect.
Fioure 4l Andhi Kholo Proiectfermcem€nt llume

40
ln theAndhiKhololdgotior Project(AKIP)
designed by BPCHydroconsult,
soil-cementwos testedoson optionfor ir gotion
conols.Th€soifcementwos pr€pqred usingo mix ofonepon cemelt ond oneport sqndto ten portsoflocol red coloured
cloyeysilt soil.Theredcolourof the soilindicoteso high iron content,which r€octswith cementto form o hord loyeron the
excovoted
surfoceofthe conol.
werctestedin 1990ond 1991.Thefirst testusedsorlwhich wos grqdedusingo 4-mm
1^,/oopplicotionsof soil-cement
sleve,with l0rg€rlumpsondsoilbrokenup with o tomperAftermixing the dry ingredients
ofcement,sondond soil,woter
wosoddedondrnixedthoroughlyuntil themortorreochedthedesiredconsistencyforplostering.
Theexcovoted
surfoceofth€
corol which contoinedpermeoble
soilondgrovelwqsfirst modemoistbysprinklingwoter ondthenthe mix wosopplied
firrr y to o thicleessof
40 mm qnd pocked
tightly to eliminot€oir
pockets.Thesurfocewos
trowelledsmoothqnd
therlcuredfor q week.
In 1991,
o 15mm
si€vewos usedto grode
the soilovero test
sectionof 140mu Loter
moredemonding
conditionswereusedfor
o furth€rtestovero
sectionof25 m length,o
grcdientof 1:20qnd q
velocityofopprox.1.3
m/s. A sectionof the
AndhiKholosoilcement
conolccnbes€enin
Photogrqph
4.10. Photo410 Soilc€m€nrlined conols€ctionot AndhiKholo,Nepol
Todqte,the
performonce linilg ot AndhiKholohosbeengood.The1990testsectiondeveloped
ofthe soil-cem€nt somecrocksofter o
week.oppor€ntlyduetoon excessofwqterin themix, whichthencousedcrqckingqsthesoil-cement
driedup ondhordened.
Thesecrockshovenot worsened.
The1991sectionhosnot shownoly crocking.Thelining inst0lledirl th€ st€epconolsection
hosolsobeenperformingwell.
Th€odvontqgeofthis techniqueis thqt it is low cost.Befween20yoond40%ofthe cementrequted for o conventionol
qreeosyto leornoIIdore similorto thoseusedfor troditionolhousescon-
concretemix is replocedby soil.Theprocedures
structedin the AndhiKholooreo.How€v€r, one pr€pquisitefor this typ€ofcorol is thene€dfor high iron contentir the soil
usedtopr€porethemix.other soilswill not performwell.Arotherconclusion
thqt hqsbeendrown fiom th€ AndhiKholc
expeienceis thot soil-cement
conolsorenot oppropriotefor turbulentflows.Th€yoresuitobl€whereseepoge
controlis
requiredond thegrodientis gentle{velocitylimitedto -1.0 m/s.)

42
Themethoddeveloped hereis generollyknown os th€ 'formersm€thod'for constructingconols,
by IT Peruondd€scribed
Theformersmethodp€rmitssovingsin time ond moteriqlin constructingconcretechonnelsby reducingthe needfor
pouringconcEteinto conventionolformwork. Precis€
plocementof formemond linestied betwe€nthem enoblethe
to beploster€dto the insidesofthe trenchond lirishedwith o trcw€l {se€Figup 4.4).
concrpt€
Th€methodinvolvesplocingo loyerofconcret€on the bottomond sidesofthe conolto form o uniformthicknessond
o smoothfinish. L€v€llirgond finishingth€ surfoceis doneoccordingto th€ former.

Procedutt
. Settingout for the forme$.
Locqtepegs€very10metrcsul
stroightsectionsond every5
metPsin curv€dsecttons,
toking
into occountthe slopeofthe
d€sign.It is preferoble
to useo
builder'slevelto ochievethe
Iequircdprecision. Figure4.4 Formersmethodoflining conols

. Fixingthe formers.LocoteformeEon eochpegot right onglesto the centrelineofth€ conol,verticolond exoctlyin line.
Theyor€fixedto th€ pegsusingNo.16goug€wil€ ond noils,ofterwhich intermedidteformersoI€ locot€devery2.5
metr€sin stroightsections,the requir€dslopeb€ingchecked with d pipelev€lto give 5 mm dropev€ry2.50metres(o slope
of 2 ir 1000).Eochformeris checkedfor lin€,Ievel,thot it is p€rp€ndiculorto the conolcentrelineond fixedfirmly.
. Liningthe conal.PRporeo 1:1.5:3
concrete
mix
Aftermokirg the dry mix, tuming the mix o minimum of thrc€timesto mix thoroughly,oddwoter,which should
hqveo quontityno gRoterthon on€'holfofth€totol weightofth€ c€ment(i.e.for mix with 1 kg ofcementput % litre of
woter). Nextthe sidesofthe conoloreplosteRdondcompocted.Thepegsoretok€nout ofter the linish is completed.
TheBIine sondis sprinldedwith cem€ntto giveo mix of 1:3ond o plosterirgbo0rdis usedto giveo smooth,impermeoble
the someprocedupis followedfor the bottom. Tofinishthe
firish to the lining.Whenthe sidesofthe conolorecompleted
€dges,corcis r€quiredto ensurethot the formersrcmoinin line,Theyshouldbecheckedusingo cordor rule.
. L\trscting thefoBn€rs.Form€rssre tsk€nout oft€r24 hoursio coldclimotes.Tomokeextroctioneosy,o loyerof oil or
petro)is ploced0n the formersbeforec0rryingout the Iining.Thisolso0ssistswith the pRservotionoftbe formers.CoIe
shouldbetokento ovoiddomogeto the €dgesofthe lining whenthe formersole tokenout.
. Curingtheconcrefe.Tor€ochthe requiredstrengthond durobility,freshconcreteshouldbecured.Thisis ochievedby
filling rhesuffoundswith woter sothot the liningsremcinsookedfor o p€riodofo minimum of 10doys. Thisiseosyto
c0rry out by locotingruns or eorthbonksot eochend,which retqinthe woter. Duringr0iny periods0 spjllwoyconbe
formedto ollow excess
wot€r to €scope,
which will olsooffero checkon the slope.Thecuringof concreteis very impor-
tont ond shouldnot beoverlooked.
. Exponsionjoints.Exponsionjoints thot or€left whenthe form€rsor€tok€nout - €very2.5
orerequiredi[ the spoces
orldvorioblein curvedsections.Thes€permitthe concreteto expondond controctwithout
metrcsin sroight sectiOns
crockingthe linings. Tofill th€jointsthe followingwork is required:
o) Cleonthejointsofdebrisond unwontedmoteriolswith on ongulorpolettewhosedimensionsoresuitobiefor the
widthofthejoint.
b) Primeth€ iBsidesurfoce0f th€joint with o solutionof tor with kerosene
ln propc ions l:3 sothot it hosthe
viscosityofpoint. Thissolutionshouldbeoppliedwith o brush.
c) Ploceo hot mix oftor with line sond,in proportionsofl conoftor to 4 consofsond. Firstheotthe tor ond then
groduollyoddthe sondwhile mixing until it hosrheconsist€ncy ofblocksugor Thismixture is pldc€dfirst ot th€
ondthenot thebottom.lt is plqced
slopingsidesofthechonnei with th€angulorpol€tte.
in loyersondcompoct€d
Thefinishedlevelofth€joint shouldnot exceed
thelevelofthe conolliring.
 4.3 Conoldesign bockfillproperly
behindthewqlls,osshowrin Figur€4.5.
Recommended
sideslopesfor differentconoltypes0reshown
{.3.1 DESIGN
CRITERJA in Toble4.2.
Thefollowingcriteriooreusedfor thedesignofheodroce
ccnolsi

Cspocity
Theheodroce
c0Dolshouldbeobleto corrythedesign
flowwith
odequotefreebocrd.Fr<eboodis th€ dillsrercein elevotion
between
theconolbotlkt0pondtir€d€sigrwcterl€vel.
Duringmonsoon,
theriverwoterlevelishighond
therefore
llowshigherthonthedesignllow conenterthe
intoke. Spillw0ysand €scopes
cr€ requiredto dischorge
the F L r r r .sl l d J Jr | " u l ) , o c h r r l i . r o r f l g ) d l . L l p T . or dnuoll s
excess
flows.Similorlyif fqllingdebrisor otherobstructions
blocktheconol,theentireflow needsto besoleLy
dischorged Stobility
intoo neorbygullyor stlloInbefore funherjnstobjl
it induces Notonlyshouldtheconolbeon stoblegroundbut theor€os
{ ity problems. obove0ndbel0wtheolignment0lso!eedto b€stoble.when
I. det€rmininq
theconclrouteot site,thesignsofstobjlityond
{li
Velocity instoirilitydiscussed
in Chqpt€r2 shouldbereferredto.
ltj
Thevelocityshou)dbeIow enoughto elsureth0t ths bedond Theconoldesignshouldqddressstobilityissuessuch
thewqlls0ftheconoiorenot eroded.Therec0mmended os prot€ctionogoinstrocl'folls,londslidesond stormrunoff.
i moxlmumvelocityf0r differenttypesof conolis shownin Tcbie coveringconolsby plocingconcr€t€slobs(or flot ston€s)ond
I 4.1.Ifthe velocityis toolow 0quoticplontsondmosswill stort somesoilcover(to obsorbthe impoctoffolling rocks)conb€
li, i0 grow on the conolond reducethe crosssectiono)0reo.A on oppropriote
solutionifo smolllengthofthe conolis
; ti,
r' {i f r mininum velocity0f0.4 m/sshouldbemointqinedto prevent vulnerobleto rocHolls.Exomplesof concrcteslobsconbe
't thegrowlhofoquoticplonts.Also,theveiocityin theheqdroce seenin the superpossoq€
drowingsofthe colkot sch€mein

ili to behighenoughto
coaolup to thesettlingbosinneeds Appendix
C.
li pr€v€ntsedirnentdepgsition.
Economics
Eeodloss ond seepsge similorto onyorherengin€edng
strucrure,
thedesignofth€
eorlierhe0dloss
Asmeotioned ondseepoge needto b€mini conolshouldbe suchthot th€ costis minimised.Thisis
'.1 is governedby the conalslope.Seepoge
mised.Heodloss cor be importontin thecoseof o longheodroce
especi0lly conol
l; controlledby choosingthe constructionnloteriois(eorth,mud sinc€optimisingthedesignwill resultin substontiol
soving
or cementmonorconolsetc.)oppr0priole for rheground in thetotolprojectcost.Designoptimisotionor minimisirtg
conditions. costsrequiresk€epinglhe conololignmelt qs shortos
possible longerlengthsoreneeded
lunless to ovoidunstqble
Side slopes oreosondcrossings)os
w€lldsminimisingexcovotion
ond
the optimumcrosssectionolshopefor o conolis o
Theoreticolly, theuse0fcorstruction
moteriols,
€speciolly
cementond
sinceit ccn conveythe moximurnflow for o given
semi-circle, stones.FOrexomple,in 0 mjcro-hydroschem€,cement
trosssectronoloreo.Sincelt rsdlmcult(o (onstructo 5€nli. masonrycanolcouldbeusedonly ot sectionswherethe sojl
l,
circulorconol.in proctice, sh0pe(whichis closeto
o tropezoidol is porousond/'ors€epoge
is likely to triggerlandslides.ln the
o semi-circ)e)is
used.F0rmosonryconqlsin cementmoftoror sqmescheme, eorthond stonemosonryin mud monor
ploil concereconclsthot qrecontinuous,Iertongulorshopes conolscouldbeusedot sectionswh€reprobl€msqssociot€d
(i.€.,verticolwolls)orerccommended
unlessthe bockfillconbe with seepoge
oI€ not expected.
wellcompocted or excovoting
therequired
tropezoidol'shope
is
tropezoidolcementmosonryond pioin 43.2 MANNING'SEQUAIION
possible.Thisis becouse
concrete wollswill hoveto depend
conqls'sid€ on thebockflll Thedesign conolis bosedon Monning's
ol 0 heodroce
for support.Thewolls moy crock0t lhe conoib€dlevel equqtion.Monning's€quotionsfor flow ond velocityoreos
(cousingseepoge)
sinceit moy bedifncuhto conpoctth€ . follows:
 AR4'VS
2%=2l1OO=0.02=1in50
n
2 in 1000= 2/1000= 0.002= 1in 500
RPlF
1 . 5 0=, 61 . 5 / 1 0=0 0 . 0 1 5 : 1 i n 6 7
I1
3.5in 1000= 3.5/1000= 0.0035= 1 in 286
wher€:
Q is the flow in th€ conolin mr/s R is the hydroulicrodius. R = A/P
V is velocityin the conolin m/s P is the w€ttedp€rim€terin m. Thisis the totol length0f
coeflicientofthe conol(olsocolled
is the roughness the bottomond th€ two sidesofth€ conqlup to the
Monning'sn)whichis d€pendent 0n themoteriolsofthe woter surfoc€level.
typ€sofconolis given
cqnol.Thevqlueofn for differ€nt
in Toble4.1. {3J SEDIMENT
DEPOSMONIN CAI{AIS
is the crosssectionoloreoup to the woter surfocel€vel Thevelocityin eochs€ctionofthe heodroc€conolshouldbe
in m'?. high enoughto trcnsportony sedimententeringthot section.
is the slopeofthe energygrodeline. Theinvert slopeof Betwe€nthe intokeond the groveltrop o velociryof 1.5- 2.0m/s
the conolis usedfor s sinceit is porqllelto the energy Betweenthe groveltrop ond the settlipg
is recommended.
grod€lin€ 0t loog€rlergths. Forexomplei:500(1 in 500) bosirlo lesservelocityis possible,
but the sedimenttronsport
irv€rt slopeis I m ofdrop in l€velin 500m ofhorizontol copobilityshouldbe checked
usirg o simplifiedversionof
conollength. Shield'sformulo: d= 1lRs
where:
percentqge
Sometimes (0/o)
or froctionsorc olsousedto d is the sizeofporticletronsportedin o conol,in m
denotethe slopes.Forexompleo slop€of 10lo
meonsthot th€r€ R is the hydroulicrodius,in m
in lev€lof I m every100m of horizontol
will beo difference c ic rh,.nh^l hd <l^n,

distonce. Ifthe groveltrop is designed

to settleporticleslorger
Theequivolentsofthe slop€in froctionsor decimolsore thon 2 mm, thenth€ conoldownstftomofthe groveltrop must
givenby the followingexomples; b€obleto tronsportpofticlesup to 2 mm.
 Tqble4.1 Roughnessco€mci€ntqnd o-llowqblemqximum velocity

Seenotebelowfor advicean chanftelswherethe waterdcDthis lesstha7 onemetrc.

CHANNELTYPE DESCRJPTION MA)C
vELOcITY(mlsl
Eorth chonnel Clay,lvith stolesondscnd.ofierogeing 0.020 0.8
or scndylooms,mqintoined
Grovelly with mtnimumvegetotion 0.030 0.4
lired wjth coors€
st0nes,
mointolned with rninlmunvegetotj0n 0.040 1.0
Forcqnolslessthon1 metr€deep,usetheequotionin N0te'1.1for n e.g.:
(us€ful
Vegetated to stobilise
soil); woterdepth0.7nl 0.050 0.8
rvoterdepth0.3m 0.070 0.8
Heoviiyov€rgrown,woter depth0.1metrcs 0.150 1.0
Rock cut Smoothond uniform 0.015 1.5
Joggedondirregulor 0.045 1.5
Veryjogg€dondifngulqr 0.060 1.5
Mosonryqnd Stonemosonryin mudmorto(dry st0nemosoory 0.015 1.0
concrete Stonemosonryin cementmortorusingrounded
ston€s 0.030
1:4cementscndmortor l.l

1:3cementsondmortqr
Stonemosonryin cementrnort0rusingsplit stones(drcssed) 0.020
1:4cementscndmortor 2.0
1:3cem€ntsondmortor 3.0
wlth l:2 pointirlg 5.0
(occording
Concrete to finish) 0.013- 0.017
ploinconcrete
1:3:6 1.5
1i2:4ploinconcrete 2.0
1:1.5:lreinforc€d
concrete 1.0
1:l:2reinforced
concrcie 5.0
Cementpl.rster 0.013 3.0
1:l
1:2 5.0
wooden conols Ploned,
welljointedboords 0.011 3.0
Ilnhlnnpa h^^r/( 0.012 3.0
Olderwoodenconols 0.015 1.0
M€tol conols Ail types 0.020 3.0
Mountoin str€oms DominoDtbedmoteriol:
Crovel(upto 60mm) 0.03
Cobbl€s
{up to 200mnr) 0.04
(up to 600mm)
Boulders 0.05
Lorgeboulders (> 600mm) 0.07
Note4.I Roug,ilrl€ss
efi:ct [or shoi]owchannels

Resecrch
ot Wogeningen
University
in th€Netherl0nds
demonstroted
thottheroughness
is increqsed
for chonnels
under1 metrcin
depth,becouse
oi rhe turbulencecreotedby the sideondb€dsuifcces.Thercsecrchshowedthot the follorvingequotionsconbe
usedto hnd rhe roug\nesscoriirii.,r. i.\i\\,i dt!'.f. cl\cler
welltnointoinrdchannels u'ith littleveget{rtio!: n - o . o 3 i \ E H < 1 m
with sironvegetotlorl:
Chonnels n=0.0{/\F H<1nr
Heovilyovergrolvn chonnels: n = 0 . 0 8 / { FH < l m
In proctice ir o er t0 protectthebonksof conols.
t0 lllointoinshortveg€totion
it is sensitrle

I
i,l,
 Toble4.2 Re(omm€ndedsidc slopesfor heodroceconols
CANALMATERIAI stDEsLoPE(N = h/vl
R0ck/conglomerqre
(hordt0 loose) 0 (verticol)
to 0.5
Iirm cloy 0.25rc 4.5
Loom 1 . 0t o 1 . 5
Sondy
cloy,scndylocnr 1 . 5t o 2 . 0
Siltysond,sondyeofth 2.0to 2.5
loosesordy€orth.porouseorth 2.5to l
Grovely
e0rth,srilTorlooseconglomercte 0 . 5t o l
Grovelond
bouldermixedwIh eonh(softondIoose) ro 2
1..5
Stonemosonryin mud rnortor SecNot€2
Stone
mosonryin cementmortdr S€eNote2
Ploin
IonrrPie 5(eNote2
Notesl
1. These
voluesorcfor conolsexcovoted
in s0ilofl0w nl0isture
cortentwith wotertoblebelowconalbed.slopes
needto be
flottened
ifthesecondirions
or€notochiev€d.
qsr€tciningwolls)orot theslop€reronmended
2. Thesidesoflinedconolsrtlcyb€v€nicol(designed for theuDderlying
so)l

43.4 DESIGN
PROCEDUR"E 3 . UsingTable
4.2decide
0n thesideslope(N).NoterhotN
theheodroce procedul"
canoldesign is osfollows: is th€ratio0fth€horizontol
lengthdivrded by th€
L Decide
on coDoltypeospersilecondrtious
ie.g.eorth =
verticolheightof tbesjdewoll (i.e.N h/v ossholvnir)
corol,st0nemosonryin mud monoror stonemosonry Figure
4.6).
rn cementmofior). Colculctetheoptin]umconolheight(H).conolbedwidrh
2. Choose velocity(V)suchlhot it is lessthonthe
o suitqble (B),ondth€conoltop widrh(T)usingtheiollowing
mcxinurnvelocitygivenin T0ble
4.1.N0telh0t equotions:
unoccept0ble
heodl0ss
moy resultifchosenvelocities
ore
closeto m0ximumvelocityAlsochoose thecorrespond x=2 \'[+Nj 2N
ingroughness (n)fron Tobie
coelllcient 4.1.
r-A
lhen colculote (A)fromthe
crosssectionolorpo ,,
o VX+ N
followingequotion:A =f
B=HX
T=B+(2HN)
Free boord
conol,N = 0 ond
Notethot in coseof o rectongulor
X=2,s0:

i^
H=/,!ondT=t=21H
\2

for o rectongulor
I{ence, conolthehydroulicolly
optimumshop€is wh€nthewidthis twicetheheight.
These
symbols shownLnFigure
oreschernoticolly 46
lfon optimunlcor)olshopeis not possible
dueto
(suchosnorrowwidtholongo
conditions
sitespecilic
clifl)theneitherthewidthor th€heightshouldbe
to 5uiithesit€conditions.
selected Thentheother
lel conbecolculoted.
dunension
Toensure stobleonduniformflow in o longconol,the
4.6 Symbolsusedrn conolsizing
Figurp velocitymustbelessthcn 80%ofthe"criticolvelocity
 l ^'="
limir"V, =J , whereV. rslh€critiLclvel0ciry with o known designflow (Q),selectthe oppropdote
thot for o rectongulorcqnol V. = fit sideslope(N)0ccordingto thetyp€ofconolchosen.
Ifthe conolvrlocityjs greoterthon0.8Vthenrcpeot Thenfix eitherB or H ondcolculote
the0therusingthe
colculqtionswith Low€rvelocity. dboveequotion.FinollyfromTobl€ 4.1,checkthot the
velocity(V = Q/A)is l€ssthon lh€ moximumvelocityfor
thewettedp€rimeter
6. Colculote (P)using
rhefollowing theconoltype.
equotion: 10.Col(ulqte
rhesizeof thelorgestpq(iclerhorwill be
P = B + 2H .',i11,11, notethot for recrcngulor
conol, trqnspolted
in th€conol:
P=B+2H d = 11RS
7. Colculote
thehydroulicrodius(R)osfo)lows; Ifthis is lessthonthepossible sizein theconol,repeqt
thedesignusingo higherveLocity.
8. Theslope(S)cot now be foundfrom Monning'sequo- 11. AlLowo freeboord os follows:
tion: 300mm for Q < 500lis
400mm for 500lls< Q < 1000iis (suchflowsore
/ nt \'
S= I I unusuolior micro'hydro
schemesJ.

Nowoll dimensions
required
f0r thec0nstruction
ofthe Suchfreeboord
ollowsfor:
ranol oreknorvn. . Unc€rtojDties in thedesign{e.9.thevo)ueof n'moy
diff€rby 5oloto t0% from estimote).
= L S (Lis thelengthoftheconolsection).
9. Heodloss . Woterlevelbeingobovethe designleveldueto
S is fixedby th€conolroute,
Sometimes whichhos obstructlon
rn theconolor durrngemergenr
ies.
oireodybeendecrded ondsurv€yed. Another €xornpie
of . D€t€riorotion
of th€conolembonkment.
fixedslop€(S)situotionis whenon existing
inigoti0n
conolis proposed
to beusedfor o miclo hydroscheme thqt possible
12. Check floodflow in conolconbeoccommo'
(ondhigherflows0swell0sl€ssleokoge orcrequir€d). d0tedwithout usingmorethon 5070ofthe freeboord.
In suchsituotions
different
cr0sssectio!l01
0reosshould 13. Findthetotolh€odloss.If thisis toohighor toosmoll,
(i.e.triol qnderror)suchthat thev€locityis
beossumed repeot
thecolculorion(
with o dlferenrvelocLty.
lessthon the ollowoblemoximumvelocjtyfor the Considerusingdifferenttyp€sofconol keepiugthe
designflowondihe type0fronolproposed.
Thisconbe overollcostin mind.
doneby r€writingMolroing's
equotior)
osfollows:
Avoido conolwidthoflessthon300mm osn0rrow
^ (BH+ NHl" \!
v- r -xl c0n0lsconb€eosilyblocked.
Alsofbr stonemqsonryconols,
+N1I
n[(B+ 2]r\(r smollersizesoredifficullIo construct.

Th€existingirrigotionconolot Colkotneedsto bemodilledqso heodrace

conolfor o pow€routpurof 50 kW Theexisting
inigotion conol'scornmondol€o is 20hectots. Thecommunityhosrequ€stedthot the conolbe sizedsuchthot it would b€
possibleto ir g0tethe fi€ldsond produc€
50kW simultoneously.

Thefollowinginformotionwqs coll€cted
throughsiteinv€stigqtionond d d€toiledsurvey:

Grossheod{h) = 22m {forebgyto powerhouse)

lntoketo 130m downstreom:1:50slope(s)with on€dropsrructur€.
131m to 231m downstreom:
1:92slope.
232m to 405m downstreom:1:365sl0pe.
406m to 730m downstreom:l:975slopewith 3 crossings.
731m to 1119m dowostredm 1:400
{for€boy)r slop€with on€crossing.

48
 siteconditionsdictotethot the entireheodroce
olignmentbeconstructed
out ofstonemosonryin cementmortor_
Notethot I m goPhosbeenprovidedot chongeo[slopes.Thisis the tronsitionollengththot connectsthe rwo diflerert
slopes.
ln this exomPle,
the lequireddesign0ow will becolculoted0nd theheodroceconolfrom chojnoge406m to 730m will b€
slz€d.

D€signfl ow colculotions:
overoll€mciercy(e"= 0.55)
Assume550/0
=
P Q g h€, (powerequotion)
Q=P/(she")
= s0l{9.8x 22x 0.55) = 0.421mr/s
Therefore
flow requiredfor pow€rgen€rotionis 421l/s
Assum€on ir gotionrcquirement
of1.5i/s/hofor existing
ilrig0t€dlond.
kdgotiond€mond(Q)= 1.5l/s/ho
x 20hq
= 30lis
Tot0id€signflow for the hecdrocecqnol = 4zl Us+ 30lls = 451lls. Thertfore use o d€sign llow of455 lls to sizetlle
heqdrqce conol.

conol sizing
c0n0ltype:sronemosonryin cementmortor
n - 0.020
for dRssed
stonemosonry{fromToble
4.1)
Q = 0.as5mr/s
s = l/975
FromToble4.2choos€N = 0.5(1h/2v)
Setlh€botlomwidih {B)= 0.450m which is thesizeof the existingirrigotionconol. ThismiDimisesexcovotionworks.
Nowusethe foll0wingform ofthe Monning'sequotionwhereonly thewoter depth,H. is unknown:

^ (BH+NHz)5',\i;
Y r ,-tr3
n l ( B + 2 H ! (+l N 1 l

rx\tiE75
+0.5H11
10.450ii
u,r')) = - -=-
o.o2o[o ''(r+051
4so+2H ]"
Bytriol ond€rrormeth0d,the obov€equotiotis bolonc€dwhenH = 0.268m for o flow 0f455lh.
Therefore,the wqter depthwill beobout768mm. N0wcheckthot rhevelociryis lessthon the moximum ollowoblevelocity
of 2.0m s ffomToble4.t.
v= Q/n \

0.455
(BH+NH1
0.455
(0.450x0.768
+ 0.5x0.768')

or V = 0.7m/s < 2.0misOK.

Thedrowingqnd dimensionsfor this conclsertionconbese€nin Drowing420/04/2A01

(ConoltypeB)ofAppendixC. Not€
thot theoriginoldesignwos bqsedon on ossurned
volueof0.()17for Monning'sn, givingo woter depthofZ05mm, rherefore
octuolfr€eboordmqy belessthon recomm€od€d. Theoth€rconols€ctions ofthis schemeconbe verilledby simiior colculo-
tions.
 Notethot whentheconololignmenthosoL€odybeenflxed(i.e.fixedconolb€ddope,s) osin thec0seof theC,olkot schem€,
thereis little controlin thevelocity.Thevelocityconbeslightlymodifiedby chongingthecmsssectionoloIPobut it will b€
difficultto mokesignificontchonges.Forexomple, thevelocityin the U92slopeconolsectionofthe C,olbtscheme is obout
2 m/s. However, thiswosfoundto bemol€economicol (i.€.reshoping theexistingconol)thon r€oligningtheconololignment
to reducetheslope.Thisimpli€sthot thesteeper sectionsofthe conolmoyrequiremoremointenonce work thon thegentler
sections.Thisis oneEosonfor plosteringtheinsidesurfoces of th€conol.

Also,noteth0t earthinigotionconolsor€gmerollyste€per
sincelf (mughnesscoefficient)
is higher.whensuchconolsor€
modifiedosheodroce, theybecomesmoother(useofcem€ntmortor,ploster,bettershope,etc.)ondhenceconhovehigher
vdocities.

3.4 Spillwoys Theexc€ss flowsrhot oredischorged vio o spiliwoy

shouldbesofelydivertedinto the streom neorbygully such
or
3.4.1 IOCATIONOFSPIIIWAYS thqt theydo not couseony ercsionor dqmqgeto otherstruc-
Asmentionedeorlier,spillwoysorerequiredin heodroce
conols tures.Sometimes,
this moy requiRthe constructionofo
flowsduringthe monsoonond in coseofobstruc.
to spill excess chonnelto the noturolwoter cou$e. Locotingspillwoyscloseto
tion in the conols.Similorly,spillwoysoreolsorequir€dot the o gully will sovethe costofchonnelconstructionosconbe seen
foRboyto spill the entiredesignflow in coseofsuddenvolve in PhotooroDhs
4.11ond4.12.
closureot the Dow€rhouse.

Photo412spillwoyon where
o crossing theexcess
llowisdischorged
intoo
gully,
Colkot
micm.hydro
schem€,
Boglulg.
NeDol

4.4.2 SPTIIWAYDESIGN
Wherewoter is pondingot o downstr€omregulotorsuchos in o
the designofspillwoysconbebosedon the weir
foreboy,
in Chopter3.
equotiondiscussed
0 = C t .. (h )'s
Photo4.1l overflowfrom the forpboydischorc€d
overo rockdiff, Dhoding
N€pol
micro-hydrc,

50
 where: is suitoblesinceit is eosyto construct.
=
Qpir.oy dischorgeoverthe spillwoyin mr/s r Spillwoycrestlevelshouldbe 0.05m obovenormol
= lengthof the spillwoyin m
L,pir*oy cqnolwoter level. Nomorethon 500/oof the freeboord
= heodoverthe spillwoyin m (i.e.heightof wcter
hou.noo shouldbe used.Therefore,with o generollyused
overthespillwoy) is 0.5x 0.30-
freeboardof 300mm, the ovqilqblehou"no,
C* : o coefficient
(similorto weir coeflicient)
which 0.05= 0.10m. Therequiredlengthconthenbecolcu-
voriesoccordingto the spillwoy profile. C* for differentweir lotedfor the chosenhou.noo
ord floodflow.
profilesis shownin Toble3.3(Chopter 3).
Wherethereis no pondingimmediotelydownstreom,
Thedesignstepsqreos follows: suchos in theheodrqce
conol,the spillwoylengthcolculoted
o Colculote the flow throughthe intqkeduringfloodsos usingtheweir equotionshouldbe multipliedby 2: this occounts
in Chopter3. Thespillwoyshouldbesized
discussed for the groduoldecreqse
in heqdoverthe spillwoy,until the
suchthot the entirefloodflow conbedivertedowoy requiredlevelis reoched at the downstreqm endof thespillwoy.
fromthe conol.Thisis becquse
the micro-hydro
system ln this cqseonly the excess - q.,,nn)shouldbeused
flow (Qn"o,
couldbeclosedduringfloodor therecouldbeon locotingthespillwoy
Notethot in suchcoses,
for Qp,u,oy.
obstructionin the conol. immediotelyupstreomof on orificewill increose
theflow
r o spillwoyprofileonddetermineC*. In the
Choose throughtheweir. Thedesignof o spillwoyis presentedin
context,o brood,roundedgedprohle(C*=1.6)
Nepolese Exomple4.2.

Designo heodrqceconolto conveyo flow of 285l/s. Siteconditionsindicqtethot the conolwould be stobleif stonemosonry
in mud mortor is used. Theexpectedflow throughthe intokeduring o Z0-yeorreturn floodis obout480lis. Designan
spillwcy.
odequote

Designprocedure:
Ccnoltype:stonemosonryin mud mortor
Q = 0.285m3/s
FromToble4.1:
coeflicientn = 0.035
Roughness
=
chooseV 1.0m/s
FromTqble4.2,for grovellyeorth,selectsideslope,N = 0.5, (1h/2v).
sreo,A = 0.285/1.0
Crosssectionol = 0.285mz
x = 2{ffi -2*
X = 2{i1"r-gfr)-2x0.5
X = 1.236

thewoterdepthin thecqnol,H:
Cqlculcte

",r={ fT-.
(x+N)

"u = { f__Q285_
(1.236+0.5)

H : 0.405m 'I

Calculotethe bedwidth, B: i
B=HX
B = 0.405x1.236
B = 0.50m

Colculcte thetop width up to the designwoter level,I

T: B + (2HN)
T = 0 . 5 0+ ( 2 x 0 . 4 0 5 x 0 . 5 )
T = 0.905m
Checkif V < 0.8V,

..
v I
tTo-
r
- =
| o285xe3-
r-
c \i T v0.905

V, = 1.76m/s
0.8V. = 1.41m/s > V : 1.0m/sOK

the wettedperimeter,
Colculote P:
P : B* Z x H { f f i
P=0.5+2x0.405\F+Oy)
P = 1.406
m

thehydroulicrodius,R:
Colculote

A 0.285
R=_-= -=0.203m
P 1.406

Colculote
the requiredconslbedslope,S:

/nv\'
-q = f - l
\ R0f67 I

/ 0.035x1 \'
s- | _t
\ o.2o3o*'I
S = 0.0103
or 1:97(i.e.1 m ofdropin 97 m ofhorizontol
ccnollength)
Finollyollow300mm of freeboord.
Thecancldimensions
conbeseenin Figure4.7.

Checkthe flow depthfor maximumfloodflow in the

canol.

(BH+NH1t3{;
a- n[to+zHr4r+r.r1
]"'
(0.sH+0-51x3
xfi-Oto:
0.480= [ ,- I2,r
[o.s+ 2Hv(1+ 0.51
o.o3s Figure4.7 Proposed
internolcanoldinlensions
for Exomple4.1
J

Bytriol ond errormethod,theoboveequotionis balancedwhenH = 0.55m. Therefore,the floodflow occupies

500/o
of the
freeboqrd(themoximumqllowed,osdiscussed eorlier)ondtheheod0n thespillwoy(hou,noo)
wiil be 100mm.

Checkthe sizeof porticlethot will settlein thecanalot o velocityof 1.0m/s.

52
 D=11 RS
: ll x 0.203x 0.0103
= 23mm

I.e.porticl€slorg€rthorl 23 mm wouldsettlein this heodroce

cono].Therefore, to ovoiddepositionupstrcomofthe settling
bosin,the groveltrop must bedesigned to removeoll porticlesgrcoterthon 23 mm.

Design of spillwoy
Notethot 2 conditionsneedto bech€cked
osfollows:
1. Thespillwoymust beobleto conveythe entirefloodflow of480l/sin cosethe h€odroc€conqldownstrcomgetsobstmcted
{pondingcose).
flow (48014- 2851/s)whenthereis no obstructiondownstr€om.
2. Thespillwoyshouldbe obl€to spill theexcess

Thecolculotedm0ximumspillwqylengthshouldbeusedin the design.

cqlculotions
Choose q bro0dcrestedweir with round€dgesprofile,soC, = 1.6

Cose1:qe,[*"y= 480l/s
h",.""e= 100mm colculotedeorlier

Now colculotelhe lengthofthe spillwoy,

. = Qp'rr*v
L,p,rr*oy
[1fr--p
. 0.480
"rpr[eoy
l.6x{0.1)rr

Cose2: qoijr""y= 480- 285= 0.195lh

20
c x{h
Therefore
o spillwcyl€ngth0f9.5 m is requiEdfor the
2x0.195
L oboveconol{Cose1).
l.6x(0.1)r5

4.5 Crossings

Sometimes the heodroceor rhepenstockolignm€ntmqy n€edto

crossguliiesondsmollslreonrs. Crossingsoresuchstructur€s
thot conv€yth€ flow overstreoms,gulliesor qcrossunstoble
te oin subjectto londslidesqnd erosion
Thecqlkofcrossing
wirh o spillwoywosshownin
Photogroph
4.10.Thisis o 1.2m longoqueduct
thot is con'
structedfrom reinforced
concrete.Its sizeond slopeoresimilor
to the upstreqmheodroceconol. In micro-hydrosch€mes,
reinforced moy be feosibleifthe l€ngthis
concret€crossings
short. Suchstructuresoreexpensive
ond complicotedfor longer
Pholo4 l3 HDPEprpesprovide0n overflowfrom o timberchonn€l(Mhopung)
lengths.

53
 TheJhonke mini-hydropenstockcrossingcqnbeseenin
4.14.ln this cosethe penstockolignmenthodto
Photogroph
troverseo 12.6m wide gully Thisgully is octiveonly in the
monsoonond 0t othertimesit is dry. A seriesof mosonrywolls
wele designedto supportth€ penstock(similorto thesuppon
piers)olongthe gully. All ofth€sewolls reston o continuous
foundotionpod. Duringthe monsoon,the surfocerunoffflows
betweenthe wqlls.
londslides.
crockifth€re oresm0llslopemovements.Wheresoilinstobility
prcblemsoreexpected, flexiblepipesmoy be 0n oppropriote
solutionprcvidedthot the requiredpipelength is not too long
(s€eBox4.6).Anotherc0sefor the useofflexiblepipesis when
Phoro4 14 Jhqnlcemlni hydro penstockcrossing,
Dolokho,Nepol
Photogroph4.15showsthechondrukcmssing. The50
kw chondrukmicro-hydrc scheme hoso longHDPEheodroce
pipe(seeBox4.6)ondot onelocotion,
theolignment
hodto
crosso gully.Asconbeseenin thephotogroph.
0 mildsteel
Phbto415 Chondrukmicm-hydmheodrocecrossmg.
chondmk, N€pol
54
pipewos usedfor the crossingwith onotherverticolpipe
supPortingit.
Aport from the typesofcrossingsdiscussed
obove,
invertedsiphonsole olsosometimesusedocrossgullies,
Invert€dsiphonsqrepipesthot oreburiedocrossthe gullla They
trqversedown to the lowestpoint ofthe gully ond thencome
up ot theotherside(hencethe nomeinvertedsiphon).As long
os thereis suflicientheodond the pipeis belowthe hydroulic
grqdeline,the flow conbeconveyedthroughsuchsiphons.A
ot th€ low point ofthe
Ilushout volvemust beincorporqted
siphon(sincesedimentconbedeposited
ot the low poinr).
4.6 Heodrccepipe
4.5.1 GENERAL
Pipesmoy bercquipd olongthe heodroc€olignmentwhere
slop€sole unstobleond wher€londslidesmoy occur Although
mosonryondconcreteconolsconminimiseseepoge
induced
they orerjgid structuresond in the eventofslope
foilures,suchconolsconbesweptowoy- Theseconqlswill olso
the entip hillsideis slowlysliding(i.e.mossmovementis
occurring)ondport ofthe heodroceolignmentneedsto
troverseit.
In NepolHDPEpipesoreoftenusedto oddressth€ obove
pmblems.Thesepipesoreflexibleenoughto occommodote
somegroundmovementond conbejoinedby heotwelding,
in Box4.7. HDPEpipesshouldbeburiedto
which is described
protectthemfrom sunlight,cottleond vond0lism.
Thereosonwhy PVCpipeshcvenot beenusedfor
heodr0ce in N€p0lis b€couse
olthoughthey oreeosytojoin
(with o PVCc€mentsolution),they oreolsovery gid. Therc-
fore,theyconnotoccommodote groundmovement.
AppendixB includesdotoon stondod pipe sizesovoil-
oblein Nepol.
4.62 DESIGNCRITERIA
Thedesigncriteriofor heodrocepipesoresimilar to thoseof
heodroce
conols.specificolly, the
the designshouldoddress
followingissues:
. Thepipediometershouldbe suchthot for the ground
slop€ofthe olignment,it shouldbeobleto conveythe
designflow. Ifthere is o possibilityofflood llows
enteringinto th€ pipe,mokeprovisionfor spillingsrlah
exc€ss
flows.
 Theinlet to eochsectionofheodroce
pipeshouldbeprotectedwith o
troshrock,sothot debrisdoesnot getin
ond blockthe pipe. Thespocingofthe
troshrqckbqrsshouldbe no morethon
onethird ofthe pipediometer,ondthe
velocitythroughthe troshrockshould
not exceed
1 m/s.
Wherco sectionofheodrocepipeends
in on unlinedconol,o mosonry
tronsitionstrucNr€is recommended,
to
ovoidscourby the high velocityflow.
HeodrocepipesqI€ emcientwhen they
orc flowingfull, but ifthe heodon the
pipeexceedsthe rotedpipeheod(i.e.
ollowobleheodon the pipe)breok Photo4 l7 Flush-outs
shouldb€provided
ot lowpointsin pipeliner
so
cdnbep€riodicoly
thothedvydebris rEmoved (Siklis)
pressur€tonksne€dto beprovided.Suchtonl6 dissipote
the heodoverthe pipeond ovoidthe needto useo Notethot the settingout ond preporotionofthe bendl for
higherpiperoting. Howeve4in proctice,repeoted
useof pipeis similor t0 the heodroceconoldiscussed
heodroce in
bEok pEssuretonkshossometimes inducedcyclicsurge Section4.4. Asmentionedeorlier,HDPEpipesshouldolwoysbe
(i.e.periodicchongein heodond hencethe llow). buried.A minimum burieddepthofl m with sievedsoil
Anotheroptionin suchcosesis to sel€cto lorgerpipe 150nun t0 300mm oround the pipe is Ecommendedos shown
diometersuchthqt openflow conditionprcvqils.Br€ok in Figun 4.8. Theuseof sievedsoil ensuRsthqt the pipe is not
prtssule tonls shouldbe providedwith lockoblecovers, punctuEd by pointed rocksduring compoction,distributes the
sothot debrisconnotg€t in ond blockthe pipe. loodsevenlyond preventsfuturc diffeftntiol settlementsobove
the pipe. The1 m depthminimisesthe overburden loodsover
the pipe suchos when peopleor coftle wolk over it. Also,in
ol€oswher€freezingis expectedduringmid-winter,1 m is
usuollysumcientto bebelowthe ftostline.
At inlet ond outl4 sectionsofo heodrocepipe,it is
Rcommended to provideir et ond outletstructur€sofstone
mosonryor conc€te.

Photo4.15 BlPoI prEssuRtonk with ice orcund lhe wols (Jhonq)

o Asfor os possible,th€ pipeolignmentshouldbesuch

thot
thot it is olwoysslopingdownhill. Thisensures
thercis olwoyso positiveheodov€rthe piPeqnd the
chonceofit beingblockedis olsoreduced.
. Ifthen is o needfor inv€rtedsiphons(orthe piPene€ds
to go uphill for somelengthdueto the gmundprofile),
oir Eleosevolvesshouldbeprovid€dqt high points
olongthe olignment.similorly,flushvolvesshouldqlso
bepmvid€d0t low pointsto flushsedim€ntfrom the
pipesqnd henc€pr€ventthemftom beingdogged.

55
The50kWGhondrukmicro.hydroscheme wosoneofthe first micrc-hydropower projectsthot fmc Nepolwosinvolvedin
for the longheodroce
HDPEpipehosbeenusedsuccessfully shouldbeleomedfrom the Problems
throughforest,but lessons
exP€n€nced:
. SticksondleovesenteringthepiPeqt theheodworks
getwedgedot theweldbeods,cousingpipeblockoge.
. Vondolsthrcwing stonesinto thebreokprcssul€ tonks,
. du€to negotive
Pipecollqpse pressureot o high point
(whereth€pipeisbelowthehydroulicgrodeline).
. Surgingflow dueto oirbeingdrown intothepipeot
breokpressure
tonks.

At oneshortlocotion,th€ hillsid€wosnot very stobleqnd

the HDPEpipehosbeensupportedby golvodsed wires tied
to treesos conbe s€enin PhotogroPh 4.18.A.lsonotlce
thot the HDPEpipe conbebent wher the bendrodius is
loJge.However, it wouldhovebeentechnicollysounderifo
gobionwoll hod beer built downhill of the PiPe0lignment
?hoto 4 18 IIDPEheodrocepipe olong unstoble oligrunmt, Chondruk
ond the pipe coveredwith soil qs shownin Figure4.8 mrcro-hydro scheme,Nepol
Photogrqph4.19showso mitred b€ndon the chondruk
HDPEheodrocepipe. This wos modeby cutting piPe
sectionsot on ongleond them by heot welding. It hos stortedleo]cingot the bendond the villogershovewroPPedit with
plosticsheetsond golvqnisedwire. Bendstiot ore constmctedby cutting ond welding pipesectionsrequire coreduring the
joining process (i.e.,the morejoints,thehigher
the likelihoodofleotoge).fthere is some
h€qdoverthe heodrocepipe,then there conbe
significqnt forcesot the bendoswill discussed
in Chopter7. Suchforcescqnweokenthe
jointsond couseleol<oge. Alsonotethot tI€
pipesectionshownin thephotogrophshould
hovebeenburied.

Photo4 19 B€ndpreporedby cuning ond welding

the IIDPEh€odrocepipe ot Ghondruk
IIDPEpipesoreovoiloblein th€ mqrketin fixedlengths(e.g.46m pieces)qnd needto bejoinedot site. Unlikepvc pipes,there
is not o liquid solutionthot conbeusedto join HDPEpipes.Theonly economicol
methodofjoiningthes€pipesis by heot
welding them. This involvesheating the ends(thot needto bejoined) sucl thot they becomesoft ord molleobleond then
ioining them by applying forcefrom closeto both endsofthe pipes, Thisjoining temperqtureis reochedqt obout 200"C.The
followingstepsorer€commended whenjoiningHDPEpipes ot
slt€:
. Firstheqtthe welding plot€until the requiredtemp€roture
is reoched.Thewelding plote (olsolglown osthe heoting
plote)is o mild steeldiscwith o rod weldedot the edgeond
q woodengrip ot the endofthe rod. Heotingthe w€lding
plote conbedoneby eitherusing o keroseneburner (os
shownin Photogroph4.20)or by heoting the plote over o
chorcoolfire. A speciolchqlk colledtiermo-croyon conb€
usedto ensurethot tlrc plotehosreodrcdth€ required
joining temperoture. A few lines shouldbemork€don the
plote while it is being heated.Whenthe plote reochesthe
joining temperotue the dlolk colourtums bluet0 block Ph0t04.20 Heotitrg the w€iding plote
within onesecond.
. Thewelding Ploteshouldthen beremovedand plocedinsideo Teflonbog (the bog conbe modeby stopling Teflonfobric).
TheTeflonbog ensults thot the heotedI-IDPE
pipeendsdo not stick to the heoting plote ond distort the slnp€ ofthe pipe.
Teflonis o speciolfobric thot cqnwithstond highertemperotuj€.
. Th€nwith the heoting plote insidethe T€flonbog,the pipesshouldb€pushedtogetheruntil thet is o uniform beodoround
the outsideioint surfoce.Theheoting plqte olongwith bag shouldthen beremovedond the pipesquickly pushedogainst
eochother. This Pquircs ot leostthr€€people(onet0 hold the plote ond two to push the pipes.)os shown in Pbotogroph
4.21.oncetheploteis placedbetw€enthepipes.the entireprocess shouldbecompletedwithin 15 minutessincethe plote
temperoturewill stort decreosing.Oneprcblem in ttris metlod is thot th€ two pipesmoy not bestraight sinc€it will be
difficult to opply uniform forcesorould the pipecircumf€Enc€monuolly- An olt€rnotive is to usecollot flongesos shown in
Photogroph4.22 Theseflongesore modein two ho.lvessuchthot they fit on the outsidecircumferenceofthe pipe. In this
method,th€ collo$ ore fitted obout 50 mm to 100mm from the heoting mds ofthe pipes,b€foreinserting t}re heoting
Plote. As soonos the requiredtemperotureis met, the heoting plote is tolen out, ond bolts ore insertedolong the flonges
ond tighten€deverdy.This ensuresthot the two pipesoft stroight. Oncethejoint cools,tle collorsore removedby
unbolting them. AsGn0lternative to tlle obovemethods,o mechonicolj ig is commoDlyused,which servesboth to olign the
piPeendsord to opply the requiredjoining force. Thepipemonufocturerscon odvisethe requir€dforcefor different pipe
diometersond grodes.
Referto Oopter 10 (lnnovotions)section 10.3concerningo de-becdertool to ftmove the ctcumfer€ntiol beodcorrsedby heot
welding. photo422 Collors pipes
usedrojoiDItDpE

Phoro4.21 Joining
HDPE pipesby pushing
themwhilehot- Notice
theTellonbog.
 Generolbockfi|| cornpocted
in 25Omm loyers

Sievedbckfill morirnm srze5mm)

conpocled In mm hyers

Pipe

-Tr
[5dmn

D r y s t o n em o s o n r y
to retoinbockfill
GenerolbocKill
I c
E
\z o
o
Sievedbockfill I

Pipe

hsd
-1-l-- mn

58
I
I
 4.63 DESIGNPROCEDTJRE and the pipewoll. Woll lossesorecolculotedos follows:
Thedesignprocedure
(i.e.selection pipe
ofon oppropriote
diometer)for o heodrocepipeis os follows: Firstdeterminethe roughnessvolue,k in mm from Toble
4.3. Notethot thevaluesof k iq this tobleorebosedon
1. Chooseo stondordpipesizefromAppendixB,suchthqt normqloge(5-15yeors)or condition.
thevelocityV is lessthon 3 m/s (tominimisewoll Thenusethe MoodyChortin Figure4.10to find
obrosionondto ovoidexcessive ondgreoter
heodloss) the corresponding pipe
frictionloctorffor the selected
thon 0.5m/s(to ovoidsedimentbeingdeposited in the mqteriol,diometerond the designflow.
pipe).In generol,for HDPE
pipeso velocityof 2.5mls to
3.0m/sis foundto beeconomicol. Thewqll losscqnnow be colculoted
from the foilowino
2. Colculqtethe octuolvelociw: equotion:

40 LV2
rt -.- h = f _
"woll loss
rId, dX2O

where: In termsof the flow,diometerond length,this equotion

V is velocityin m/s conqlsoberewrittencs:
Q is designflow in m3/s
,n = fLQ.
d is the pipeinternoldiqmeterin m. '^wqll
loss
12d5

pipesetthesubmer-
3. At the entronceofthe heodroce qrecolculoted
furbulencelosses os follows:
genceheodos follows:
ht u r D l o \ s = V ' Iz lv 2' se(n lK
ron(e
+ K D a n d + K ( o n l r o c u o n + K v o l v e)?
. 1.5v'z
ns) --
29
K,oreqs shownin Tqble4.4.
whereheqdlosscoeflicients,
heodin m osshownin
whereh, is the submergence
i Figure4.9. Notethot this is theheodfromthecrownof Notethot HDPEpipescqnbebent(byhond)without
thepipe. If the submergence
heodis lessthqn required, cousingony domogeif the bendrodiusis qt leost50
{ thenthe pipewill not be oblet0 conveythe designflow timesthe pipediometer.Thisshouldbedonewherever
I
(Q becouseoir will bedrown into the pipe. possible,
becouse:

o) it ovoidsthe needfor mitredbends;

b) it ovoidsthe needfor onchorblocksto restroinbend
forces(discussed
in Chopter7);ond
negligible.
c) ot suchIorgerodius,\"n, becomes

Whereo longrodiusbendis not possible,

o shorperbend
ond thevolueof \.no shouldbetqkenfrom
is required,
Toble4.4. Mitredbendswill normollybeusedfor steel
qndHDPE theseqrefobricotedby cuttingthe
pipelines:

I
pipect on ongle(moximum15")qnd thenweldingthe
endstogetherto creoteo bendofup to 30".Forbendsof
morethon 30",two or moremitrejoints orerequired.

I
heodfor o pipe
Figun 4.9 Submergence
Checkif thetotol heqdlossfor the designflow is less
in the pipelengthbosedon the
theheodloss
4. Cqlculote thon thelossin heqddueto the pipegrodient(S)ond
I

I inlet,woll friction,bends,volvesondexit losses

os thot thepipeprofileis belowthe,hydroulic
grodeline
follows: If not,repeotcqlculotionwith lorgerpipe
everywhere.
I diometer.
Totolheodloss= woll loss* turbulence
losses 6. Determinethewoter levelot the controlstructureot the
Thewoll lossesresultfrom the friction betweenthe flow endofpipesuchosthebreqkpressure tonk,groveltrop

59
 or thesettlingbosin.Allow 100/0
morginby ossuming Tqble 43 Roughnessvolue for differrnt pipe moteriols
thot thetotqlheodlossis 10%o
higherthon colculoted
(i.e.woterlevelis l0%olowerthon colculoted).
Thisis to MATERIAT ROUGHNESS
VALUE,k (mm)
ollowfor uncertqinties
suchosthe woll losses
beino Smooth pipes
higherthon ossumed. PVC,HDPE,
MDPE.
Glqssfibre 0.06
7. Repeot colculotions
with highersubmergence heoddue Concrete 0.15
to floodflowsond colculotethe corresponding losses
ond Mild steel (
pipeflow. Theexcess flow will hovero bespilledfromo - Uncooted I

0.06
controlstructure(groveltrop,settlingbosinetc.)ot the - Gqlvqnised u .l )
i
endofthe pipe.
i
I
1.2 O /m3/s,r
;\," /
.2.5t2 l0 20 50 100
0l
0.I
.09
;
.08
.09
.08
I
.o7 07
UO
.06
.05
.05

.04

6(o
.03
.03 s
't
() .025 .9
.02s 6
ll_
LL
.o2
.02

. 0 r5

.01
.o09
.008

.01 .02 .05 .t .2 .5 I 2 s /ro\zo s o roo

1.2
*(#) rvd - 000.00t ud-.999.005

Figure4.l0 Moodychort

60
 Tqble 4.4 Turbulence lossesin pipes

Heod loss coefficient for intokes lK-*j

Entronceprohle

k z
K-c** 1.0
v 0.8
7
0.5 0.2

Head loss coeffici€nts for bends (Ko..of

Bendprofile

r/d MITR-ED-
{o l0 = 20'l Q.20 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.10
k-o l0 = 45"1 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.22
k".", l0 = 90"| 0.75 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.45
.Mitredbendswith
4d : 1.5,maximum30 per mitredjoint

Heodlosscoemcientsfor suddencontrocrtionslK_.*.*l
profile
Controction

d,ld, 1.0 1.5 2.0 )\ 5.0

0.35 0.40 0.50

Heod loss coefficients for volves (\",.f

TYPEOFVALVE SPHERICAI. GATE BUTTERFLY

K. 0.1
I
i
I

ot
 Flood lrvcl

rivcr levrl

J$.m3BodioHDpE
160Us in 2r?8O
GRAVEL
TR.Aq
l{ol fo rcolc
Figur€4.ll Heodworbof the tffi kWSiklismicro-hydm (Siklis.Nepoli
scheme

A sketchof theheodworkof theexisting100kw Siklismicro-hydropower

scheme
is shownobovein Figure4.11.colculore
thefollowing:

1. Heodlossin intokepipes
Z. Design woterlevelin groveltrop
3. Floodflowthroughintokepipes
4. Spillwoylengthot groveltrop

l. Hecdlocsin lntake pipesct design0ow

nl Pinp frictinn

For280mm di0'meter,
Closs pipemonufocturcd
II HDPE internaldiameter= 262mm
in Nepal,
FIowperpipe(Q = 160/2= 80l/s
k = 0.06mm
Fromthble{.3,sssurne

k 0.06mm
't;-=Em;- = o'ooo23
l.zQ 1.2x0.08
=0.356
;--= fll6z

.'. f = 0.0166(fromMoodyChort,Figure4.10)

. fLtr
"hmuros:l2di-

_ 0.0166x40x.0.08,
= Ol9 m
12x0.2625

b) Inletheodloss

K** = 0.8for this cose(Tcble4.4)

62
 v2
. ' . ror( . -K
h . toss emmftc
x
29

Checkvelocity;

40 ,1x0.08
V- = i - =-=1.5mrs
fld2 nx0%t
0.8x1.52
of hintnl.,= = 0'qLE
Z*9f

c) Exitheodloss

- \lz
hsrr6r
. =l(.1-
&t
Zg

1.0x1.5'z
= o'11m
z-9f

.'. Totolheodlosstn intok€ pip€s

= 0.29m* 0.09m* 0.11m = 0.49m

2. Ilesignwater levd in grovel trcp

Thisshouldbeot leost0.49m * ltl% (sofety m belowthelow riverlevelot theintoke,or "o" = 0.54m in

mcrgin)i.e.0.54
Figure
4.11.

3. Floodflow through tntala pipes

Floodlevelis 1.5m obovelow riverlevel.

Allow0.2m heodovergroveltropspillweir(i.e.b = 0.2m in Figure4.ll).
Thennetheodonintokepipes= 0.54+ 1.5- 0.2= LE4_8.,or 'c" = 1.84in Figure4.11.
I

fiol onderrorsolutionfor flow:

I

o) TrY Q = 200l/s in eochpipe

7.20 7.2x0.2
I
- :i.262- =o'916
a
I

+ f = 0.0152
(fromMoodyChort)

0.0152x40x0.20'?
t i-^...^,,,-.:-::--:-:-::---
wour*s
= 1.64m
72x0.2625

4Q - 4xo'2 =
v= 3.71m/s
lld'z llxQ%:t

' 2+9 = 1.26m

(0.8+ 1.0)
Inlet& exitlosses

Totol heodloss = 2.90m

Thisis morethon 1.84m (netheodon intokepipesfor floodlevel),.'. ossumedflow is too high.

Tryinterpolotins:
2ooU,- (# ,r, U,
)"=

OJ
 for Q = 159l/sin eachpipe.
b) Check
l.zQ 1.2x0.159
*a = Tffi '- =0 .? 3 0

-+f = 0.0i54(fromMoodyChort)

0.0154x40x0.15f
Jh*otrrorr= =l'05m
l17p1AZG2t
40 4x0.159
v=fr, = =2'95mls
;oo%z,
(0.8+1.0)
Inletondexitlosses : *rn
*

Totqlheodloss= 1.E5m

Thisis neorenoughto 1.84m

floodflowthroughthetwointokepipesis:2 x 159I/s= 31EUs

Therefore

4. Spillwcy length ot grovel ftop

Weirequotion:
= C* x Lrpitt*oyx (ho"rno/t t
Qpimoy

Required
spillwoyweirlength,

- Qoittwov
l_=
-spuwoy
c*x(ho""noo)rt

: 318Usto ollow the entircfloodflow to be spilledoverin cosethe turbine needsto beclosed

TokeC* = 1.5ond Qp'rwoy
during suchfloods.

= 0.20m (heodoverweir, ossumedeorlier)

hou.noo

0.318
.. =-=2.22m
. . .Lspurwoy
1.6x0.20,.t

or'd" = 2.22m inFigure4.11.

Notethe following:
1. Tolimit the inlet velocity,two porallelpipeshovebeenusedfrom the intoketo the groveltrop. Downstr€omof the
groveltrop thereis only onepipeand the veiocityis doubled.Therrosonfor usinga lower velociryin the initiol pipe
heodsothot excovotionwork ot the intokecouldbe minimised. With lower inlet
lengthwos to lower the submergence
velocitytherelesschonceof ottroctingflootingdebriswhich couldblockthe inlet.
2. Thespillwoyweir lengthis reosonoble,
but notethat on olternotiveossumptionfor heodoverthe weir wouldgiveo
di{Ierentonswer.Thewolls oroundthe groveltrop must behigh enoughto contointhe floodflow overthe spillweir.
3. Thegroveltrop hosto belocotedsuflicientlyfor downstreomofthe intoketo ensurethot the groveltrop spillweir is
qbovethe moximum river floodlevelot thqt point: in this cosethe 40 m intokepipeIengthis morethon enoughto meet
this criterion.
4.7 Constructionof conols 4.73 BENCHCUT
Thebenchof q conolis like o roodof uniformwidth ondslope,
4.7.1 DESCRIPTION seeFigure4.12.Thebenchis prepored
by excovoting
o strip of
Oncethe conoltypehqsbeenselected ondthe designcorried lond ofevenwidth olongthe pegsplocedeorlieron the conql
out,thereqrefour stogesin the octuolconstruction
osfollows; olignment.
. settingout ofthe courseofthe conol, Thebenchwidth shouldbethe top width of theconql
. preporingthe benchfor the conol, pluson ollowoncefor bermson eochsideof the conol.Onthe
. excovoting the conol,qnd hill side,q bermof 300mm is recommended.sothot moteriql
o lining the conol. wosheddownby rqin from the slopeoboveis not deposited
directlyin the conol.A 1.0m widebermis recommended
on the
These
secticns 0 g€nersl
describe nethod
0lc0ncl n t t t S l d en f t h q h e n r h t n r p d r r C ps p p n n n pt! rh. rrvng r5 r^ n
^
h thp rnnnl hnnlz

construction
ond offerexomples
of otherprovenmethodsthot ondto provideoccess
for construction
ond mqintenonce. A
moy besuitobleundercertoinconditions. lesserbermshouldonlybe usedin conjunctionwith verticol
cementmosonrywqlls foundedon rock. Notethot q berm
4.7.2 SEIIING OTII width lessthon 500mm is diflicultto wolk olong.
Settingout the conqlrequires
the followingequipmentond Theslopeofthe benchshouldbethe someosthe slope(S)
sto{I ofthe conolsection.Therefore,
wherethereis o chongein the
conolslope(in the design)the benchslopeshouldolsochonge
r Bosicequipment: occordingly.Thelevelsof the cqnolond the benchot different
. Levelmqchine(orDumpylevel) locotionsconbeverifiedusingo theodoliteor o levelmochine
. Meosuring
tope qndthe intermediotepegsthqt wereplocedoutsidethe conol
. Tripod olignmenteorlier.
. Woodenpegs Oncethe initiql levelot the intokeis fixed,the subsequent
. Mqchetes levelscqnbecolculqted
bosedon the slopes.Theinitiol level
. Mqllet conbeestimotedbssedon the contourmopsof the oreoor by
. Pick on oltimeter.Anothermethodis to usethe trigonometricpoints
. Hoe estqblished
by the surveydeportment,
but this moy tokelonger
. Point ond requiremoreresources.
. Pqintbrush Theinitiol leveldoesnot hoveto bevery occurote(i.e.the
o Stqff: exoctelevotionfrom the seolwel) but the differences
between
. Surveyor intermediotepegsshouldbeoccurote,sinceit is thesediffer-
. Chcinperson (ossistont
to surveyor) encesthqt determinethe slopeofthe conol.
. Helperto cleqrvegetotionqnd pr€porepegs An exompleof o levelcolculotionis presented
below:
Thedesigner hqsrecommended o slopeof 1.520
for o
Thesettingout ofthe cqnqlis doneby plocingpegsolong certoincqnolsection.Thetopogrophicmop of the oreo
the olignment.Depending suchpegsshould
on the topogrophy, indicotesthqt the elevotionot the intokeis qround1600m
generollybeplocedot 5 t0 20m intervolsolongtheolignment. obovemeonseolevel(MSL).
Pegsshouldolsobeplocedqt bends,structuressuchosdrops, In this cosethe first pegthot is plocedot the intokeoreo
ondthe beginningond endof crossings
ond superpossoges. conbeossumed t0 beot o levelof 1600m qboveMSL.Ifthe
Someintermediote pegsor reference
pegsshouldbe pegis to beploced20 m (horizontollength)downstreqm,
second
plocedjust outsidethe conqlolignmentusingo levelmochine thebenchlevelhereshouldbe:
(oro Dumpylevel).With the useof the levelmochine,the
differencein levelsbetweenthesepegscon becqlculoted.Such 20m x 1.5/100: 0.30m downfrom the intokeor 1600m - 0.30
pegswill serveos reference
levelsfor the excovqtionwork. An m = 1599.70m oboveMSL.
olternqtiveto this is to point morksot exposedrocksjust
outsidethe olignmentondcolculqtetheirlevels. Thesubsequent reodingsbetweenintermediote pegs(i.e.
referencepoints)con be notedin sequence
with similor
calculotions.

65
 a
{
exceeding
thetop width ond meetingthebottomwidth ot the
requireddepth. Thus,the requiredtropezoidolshopecon be
orrivedot. Thismethodof excovotion
minimisesthe useof
construction
moteriolsond the needto bqckfill.Notethot, os
mentionedeorlier,the sidewollsof o tropezoidol
cement
mosonryconqloremorelikelyto crqckif constructed
on
I
bocklill.
I
It is qlsohelpfulto preporeq wooden"former"to check
the crosssectionol shopeofthe cqnqlfor tropezoidol
shopes.
1
o woodenfrome(usingrectongulor
Thisinvolvesconstructing
sticks)ofthe requiredtropezoidclshope.
F i g u r c 4 . 1 2C o n o l b e n c h Thecqnolinvertslopeshouldbeconstontlychecked
usingo levelmochine.Notethot on inqccuroteslopeconbe
4.?.4 CANALEXCAVATION
very costly:if the slopeis lessthqn required,
the conolwill not
0ncethe conolbenchhosbeenprepored,
the excovotion
lines
hovethecopccityto conveythe designflow;ifthe slopeis
needto be setout os follows:
steeper the velocitymoy exceed
thon required, the mqximum
o Plqcepegsolongthecentreline
ondthe top ondbottom
vqluefor theconqltypeond stort erodingit.
widthsof the conol.Thecentrelineis on imogincryline
thot possesthroughthe centreofthe conqlond porollel
4.7.5 CANAI.UNING
to the sides.Notethqt the top ondbottomwidthsshould
Oncetheexcqvotion
work hasbeencompleted,
the octuol
oswell (i.e.outsideedges
includethe sidewoll thickness
ofthe cqnolconcommence.Theconstruction
construction of
ofthe finishedcqnal).
thecqnoldepends
on the typethot hosbeenchosen.For
r Jointhe pegsusingthin ropes.Thenmork seporote lines
-..^*-l- :f ^- ^^+L ^^--l L-- L^^- -L^^-* ^tl .L-.:- --^--:--j
c x u l l l p l t , l l u l . l t u l L l l L u l l u r l l u J u c c l l L l r u s c l l ,u l l u r u r ,t 5 l c q u t l c u
for thetop qndbottomwidths(fortropezoidolsections)
qshes is to trim the sidewollsqnd bottomwidth qt someploceswhere
using powdered lime or sothot theyoreindicoted
work hosbeenpoor.However,
theexcovqtion if o mosonry
on theground.Notethot for rectangulcrsections,
the
cqnolhqsbeenchosen,
thenthis will requirecollectingstones,
top ondbottomwidthsoreequolond two porollel
lines
qresuflicientfor theexcqvqtion themond thenplocingthemot the excovqted
dressing/sizing
work.
surfqceoccording
to thedesign.
o Checkthe dimensions
ogoinstthe designspecificotions.
Forstonemosonryin cementmortor,the followingis
recommended:
lineshovebeenprepored
Oncethe excovotion theconol
o Theminimumthicknessfor bedond sidewolls shouldbe
to the requiredshopeondslopeos perthe
shouldbeexcovoted
300mm, sincethinnerwolls requiremorestonework
design.Foro rectongulor
conol,the excovotion
shouldstqrt
(dressing
ondsizing)ond moy not hovethe required
fromthe sidesdownto the requireddepth.Fortropezoidol
strength.Thisolsooppliesto stonemosonryin mud
the excqvotion
sections, shouldstortot thecentrqlport without
mortorconqls.Recommended
designsoreshownin
thebottomwidth linesverticollydownt0 the
exceeding
Figure
4.13.
requireddepth.Thenthe sidesshouldbeexcqvqted
without
r Sondusedfor preporotionofthe mortorshouldbeclean

1.00

min,
h>

0
' o ) Wollheight<0.46
Note:All dimensions
orein metres b )woll heighr>0.46
Figur€4.13 Conollining with stonemosonryin cementmortor

66
ond freefromorgonicmoteriolsqndfineporticles.The wettedbeforeopplyingthe ploster.
sondporticlesshouldbegronulcr(likeordinorysugor) o Forploinconcret€
lining,use80 mm thickness.A
ond not floky. Sondmixedwith fineporticlesshouldbe minimumcuringperiodof Z doysis recommended.
thoroughlywoshedbeforeuse. o Forreinforced
concrete
seeSection8.5.2.
Therotio ofthe mortqrshouldnot belessthon 1 port
cementt0 4 portssondby volume(1:4cement/sond
mortor).Thisoppliesto qll wqter retoiningstructures 4.8 Checklistfor heodrqceworks
suchosthe settlingbosinond the foreboytonk. The
stonesshouldbewettedbeforeconstruction
(drystones o Checkthe heodroce
olignmentfor stobiliry.Is the orea
obsorbwqterfrom the cementmortor,stoppingit reoch oboveondbelowthe heqdroce
olignmentstoble?Refer
full strength). to Chopter2 for signsof instobility.Remember
thot
1:3cementsqndmortqrmoy beusedfor plosterworkin eorthconolsorethe mosteconomicoptionwherethe
theheqdroceconolond otherwqter retoiningstructures heodroce olignmentis on stoblegroundond seepoge
is
suchosthe settlingbosinond theforeboy.plosteringthe not likelyto contributeto slopeinstobility.
conollining is normollyunnecessory,
but couldbeused o Tominimisecosts,stonemosonryin cementmortor
to reducehydrouliclosses
(referto Tqble4.1)or where cqnalsond heodrqce
pipesshouldonly beusedclongthe
seepoge
is occurringin bodlyconstructed
mosonry.The difficultstretches
of the olignment.
thickness
of theplostershouldbeobout12mm (1/2 e Whilefixing theheodroce
olignmentdo not mokethe
inch). invertslopesteeper
thon necessory
sinceony lossin
Immediotelyoftertheconstruction of o cementmo- heqdhereleoveslessheqdfor powergenerotion.
sonryportionofthe conollength,it shouldbekeptmoist Minimisethe lengthunlesslongerlengthis requiredto
for ot leostfour doys.Thisis colledcuringond is done ovoidcostlycrossings.
\ differentoptionssothe
by gentlypouringwoter on the wollsof theconql.The designis economicql
ond the construction
is procticol.
useof hession(wetsocks)to coverthe mosonryhelpsto r Hqstheheodrqce cqnolor the pipesizebeencolculoted
retoinmoisturecnd curesthe cqnqlstructurebetter.An bqsedon the ovoiloblesitedoto? Ifon inigotionconqlis
uncuredconolwill not goin full strength.Duringhot beingrefurbishedinto o heodrqce,notethot theremoy
onddry weotherpouringwoteron the mosonryconol not muchcontroloverthe invertslope.Decideon the
will berequiredfrequentlyto ensurethot theconolwolls rypeofconolby trying differentcrosssections
ond
remqinmoistond reochtheir full strength.Curingis colculotingthe correspondingvelocitiessuchthot they
moreimportontfor plosterssincetheyorethin surfqces qr€within the limit shownin Toble4.1.
ond coneosilycrockifthey dry up quickly.Notethot if r ForHDPE heodroce pipes,besureto followFigure4.gfor
theplosteris doneot o loterstoge(ondnot immediotely pipeburioldetqils.HDpEpipesshouldnot beexposed.
qfterthe mosonrywork),it will requirefurthercuring r Forthe construction
work referto Section
4.7.
for ot leostonother4 doys.Also,the mosonryshouldbe

bl
 5. Groveltrop, settling
basin ond foreboy

5.1 Overview 5.1.2 FUNCTION

OFTHESTRUCTURES
Groveltrcps,osthe nomedenotes to trop grovel
oredesigned
5.I.1 THESEDIMENT PROBLEM thot entersthe intokeolongwith the divertedflow. If o river
quontityof sediment
Mostriverscorryo substontiol in the ondnot grovel(evenduringfloods),
onlycorriesfinesediment
formofgrovel,sondor finerrnotericldepending
on theriver thenthisstructure
is not required.
However,
mostmountoin
geology
chorocteristics, ofthecotchrnentoreoondthedis- riversin Nepolcorrygrovel,especiolly
duringfloods.In the
Steeper
chorge. rivers
such qs those fromthe
thot originote ofo groveltrop,grovelwill settleolongthegentler
obsence
ond evenmovelorgeboulders
Iiimoloyoscorrycobbles during sections
ofthe heodroce
or in the settlingbqsin,whereit is
onnuolfloods.Intokes
orelocoted
onddesigned
to limit the difficultto flushout.
omountof sedimententeringthe micro-hydr0
system,but such A settlingbqsinis o bosinwhosefunctionis to settlethe
sedimentconnotbeentirelyeliminoted.Intokescononly suspended porticlespresentin the divertedriver flow. Since
preventbouldersondcobbiesfrom enteringinto the system qre
rivers neverfreefrom sediment,oll micro-hydro schemes
ondminimisethe influx of grovelond finersediment. shouldhoveo settlingbqsin.Forsmollschemes,
this moy
l-orgeporticlesconblockthe heodroce
ond reduceits simplybea widenedsectionof the conol. Theflushingmecho-
copocity.Suspended weoron the
sedimentconcousesevere nismmoy berudimentary,which is occeptoble
providedthot
turbinerunner,seolsondbeorings,
sincethe flow velocityot domogingsedimentdoesnot reqchthe turbine.
therunneris high. Suchweorcouses
o reduction
in the A foreboyis o tqnk locotedqt the endof theheodroce
ond
of theturbineondeventuolly
efhciency leodsto its complete thebeginningof the penstock
pipe. It is o structurethot ollows
foilure.In eithercose,mointenonce is necessory,
requiring for thetrqnsitionlrom openchonnelto pressure
flow condi
highexpenditure in termsof replocedports,mon-hours
ondin tions. ThewoterIevelot the foreboydetermines
the operotionol
lossofpowerproduction.
Thereoreobundont of
exomples heodof themicro-hydro
scheme.
turbinerunnerscompletely within o fewyeorsofter
destroyed
instollcrtion plonts
ot micro-hydro thot lockedsettlingbosins. 5.1.3 LOCATION
OFTHESTRUCTURES
Theroteof weorof turbineportsduet0 sediment possible
Whenever thegroveltrop,settlingbosinondloreboy
obrosionis governed
by the followingfoctors: shouldbecombined. Thisminimises theconstruction cost.
o Concentrotionofsuspendedparticles eitherthe groveltrop ond the settlingbosinor the
Sometimes,
r Hordness ofporticles settlingbosinondthe loreboyorecombined,
but the topo-
r Sizeof porticles grophicconditions orerorelyopproprioteto beobleto combine
o ofporticles
Shope oll threestructures.TheJhonkremini-hydrois q roreexomple
o ofturbinerunner
Resistonce whereit wospossible
to combineoll threestructuresos
r turbineheqd described
in Box5.1.
ofon oppropriotesettlingbqsinsiteis governed
Selection
to excludeoll sedimentot the settling
It is not necessory by the followingcriterio:
bosin.Thisis virtuollyimpossible
ondwouldnot beeconomi o Thelocqtionshouldbesuchthqt it is possible
to flush
for micro-hydro
collyvioble,especiolly schemes.A smqll the sedimentond spillexcess
flow from the bqsin
concentrotionof finesedimentis oftenpermissible
oswill be without cousingerosionproblemsor damogeto other
lqter. Thedesignshouldbesuchthot the sizeond
discussed structures.Theremustbe suflicientheodto flushthe
of sedimentpossingthe settiingbosinqrewithin
concentrotion sedimentqnddruin thebosin.
limits.
occeptoble r Thesettlingbasinshouldbelocotedqscloseto the
ospossible,
heodworks ifit is seporote
especiolly from

69
 the foreboy.Theeorlierthe sedimentis removed
theless
the mointenonceof the heodrqce.Furthermore,
the
heodroceolignmentdownstreom of the settlingbosin
conbe gentler(hencelesslossin the cvoilobleheod)
sincethe flow will be sedimentfree. A locotioncloseto
the intokeollowsecsydischorge
of sedimentbqckto the
river. Fromon operotionolviewpoint,it will olsobe
eosierfor the operotor/helper
to combinework ot the
intoke,suchoscleoningthe coqrsetrqshrock,qnd
flushingofthe settlingbosin.
r Thereneedst0 beodequote
spoceto constructthis
structureosdesigned.Notethot it cqnbeo relotively
wideondlongstructure.Therefore,
locotingthis
structureon foirly levelgroundminimisestheexcovo-
tion costs.
Theforeboyis locotedimmediotely
uphillof the
tronsitionoreowherethegroundprofilechonges from
levelto steep.Thefollowingodditionolfoctorsshouldbe
considered
beforedecidinowhethero siteis suitoblefor
o foreboy:
r It shouldbepossible
to spilltheentiredesignflow from
the foreboywithout cousingerosionor instobiliry
problems.Ideollyif this structureconbelocotedcloseto
o gully,it moy bepossibleto sofelydivertthe spillwoy
flowsinto it.
o Similqrto the settlingbosinthereneedsto beodequote
spqceto constructthis structureosdesigned.However,
the foreboyis usuollysmqllerin size.
5.2Groveltrap
A groveltrop is recommended for oll micro-hydroschemes in
Nepol.In the obsence of o groveltrop,the settlingbqsinmust
becloseto the intqkeond qbleto flush the grovelthot entersthe
bosin.Groveltropsdifferfrom settlingbqsinsin thot they
hondlecoorsemoteriqlthot entersneorthebed,rotherthon
moteriqlthot needsto be settled.Themoin design
suspended
principlefor o groveltrop is thot the velocirythroughit should
belessthon requiredt0 movethe smollestsizeof grcvelto be
removed.Thelorgestsizeollowedto enterinto the intokecon
by the spqcingof thecoorsetroshrockbors.In
becontrolled
generolgroveltropsshouldsettleporticleslorgerthon 2 mm
diometer.Smollersizedporticleswill besettledondremoved
in
the settlingbosin. Thefollowingcriterioshouldbeusedfor the
designofthe groveltrop:
o Tobeobleto trop porticlesdownto 2 mm diometer,
the
velocityin the groveltrop shouldbelimitedto 0.6m/s.
o lfthe grcveltrop is hoppershoped,
the floorslopes
70
shouldbeobout30"(1:1.7).Suchon orrongement will
focilitoteeosyflushingofgrovel. Ifit is not possible
to
constructsucho shope,the floorshouldsiopetowords
the flushingend,with o longitudinolslopeof 2-5%0.
o
JIq lgnglh of the groveltrop shouldbeot leostthree .
timesthe width of the heqdrocecolol or 2 m, whichever
is lorgg. With this fixedlengthond o velociwof 0.6m/s.
the requiredwidth of the trop con now be determined..
Notethqt this is o generolruleof thumb,but if a
significontbedloodconenterthe intoke,theno longer
lengthmoy be required.Sincestudiesregordingthe
movementof grcvelin riversorerore (rorerthon
sedimentstudies),it is usuollydiflicult to estimotethe
storogerequiredin o groveltrop. Notethqt the storoge
must be providedbelowthe normol flow depth.
o Tominimiseblockoge of the heodrqce
or domogedueto
obrosionin theheodrqce,groveltropsshouldbelocoted
oscloseto theintokeospossible.
Croveltropsconbeemptiedvio flushinggotesor by
lifting stoplogs(i.e.woodenplonks).Sincegrovelentersthe
intokeonly during high flows,incorporotingstoplogsis
generollymoreconvenient qnd economic.
TheGolkotgroveltrop is shownin Photogroph 5.1ondin
Drowing 42010/.12C02
of AppendixC. Althougho groveltrop,
this structurehosoisobeendesignedos o primory settling
bosin.Thisis becouse conolis long (1.1krn)ondif
the heodroce
significontsedimentloodconbetroppedin the groveltrop,the
mqintenqncerequirementwill belessfqr downstreomin the
heodroceconol. Furthermore,oncethe sedimentis removed.
the heodroce conolslopesconbegentlerosdiscussed in Chopter
4. Sincethis is o combinedstructure,thecolculotions
ore
presented
ofterthe discussion
on settlingbosins.
Notethot os con be seenin Drowing 420lCF.l2A0l
(AppendixC),the Golkotgroveltrop is locoted35 m down-
streomfromthe intoke.Thisis becouse
the initiol lengthof the
intokewos felt to bevulnerqbleto flooddomoge.Forthe some
reosonthe coqrsetroshrockis plocedqt the endofthe orovel
Irop.
In the Golkotmicro-hydroscheme,significontgrovellood
is not expected
for the followingreosons:
o Thediversionweir is of o tempororynotureond does
not extendthroughoutthe river width.
r Theintokeis locotedon the outsideofo bend.
 Flushiry cspcity
Thebosinshouldbeobleto be operotedsoosto rcmovethe
storedporticlesfrom it. Thisis don€by openinggotesor volves
ond flushingthe sedimentolongwith the incomingflow in the
bosin. Thebedgrodientmust be ste€penoughto cl€ot€
v€locitiescqpobleofremovingoll the sedimentduringflushing.

532 THE II'EAL SETruNG BASTN

Thetheorybehindthe designofo s€trlingbosinis derivedon
thebosisofon ide0]bcsin. Therefore,
beforeproceeding
tothe
designphose.the conceptofthe ideolbosinneedsto b€under-
stood.Suchon ideolbosinis shownin Fioure5.1.

Phoro groveltrop
5.1 Colkor
tuintX Plonoreo A

53 Settling bosin

53.T DESIGNCRITERJA
sedimentthot is not settledin the groveltrop is
Suspended
troppedin the settlingbosin. Thebosicprincipleofsettlingis
thot the greoterthe bosinsurfqceor€qond thelowerthe
throughvelocity,the smollerthe porticlesthot consettle.A
settlingbosinhoso significqntlylorgercrosssectionqlor€o FigurE5.1 An ideols€ttlingbosin

thontheheodroceconolondthereforethe flow velocityis lower

whichollowsthe settlingofthe suspended
moterioJs. Consider o porticleenteringthe'ideol settlingbosin"on
the woter surfoceot point x (i.e.beginningofthe settlingzone)
A settlingbosinmust sotisrythe followingthr€ec terio: osshownill Figurc5.1. In this figure:

Scttling copocity L= lengthofthe setrlingzone(m)

Thelengthond width ofthe bosinmust belorgeenoughto B= width ofthe settlingzone(m)
^ r r ^ L r . rr u^rm
9!
o noronr.^o ^u .. r rhr l6r n no .o.ri.ne-t tC f0]loul Cf
rurl Iur
mpnn wntpr dpnth in thp <pttlinn znno lml nlcn
u'wrr e lll!r'rrugL

suspensionond bedepositedon the bed. Thesedimentconcen' colledhydroulicdepth

trotionpqssingthe bosinshouldbewithin occeptoble
limits. t = time for porticleto trovel the lengthL {s)
Thegeometryofth€ ir et, the width ofthe bosinond ony vp = horizontolvelocitycomponentofthe ponicle (m/s)
curvotur€must be suchos to couseminimum turbulence. w: v€rtico.lvelocitycomponentofth€ porticle(m/s),i.e..
'foll velocity"which is discussed
loter
whichmight impoir the effrcienry
Q: (mr/s)
dischorge
Stomge corcity
Thebosinshouldbeqbleto storcthe settledpqrticlesfor some Thenthe followingequotionsmust holdfor the pqrtide
timeur essit is designedfor continuousflushing.continuous to reochth€ endofthe seftlingbosin(pointY):
orehowevernot incorporot€d
flushingmechonisms in micro-
dueto the complexityofthe designond the
hydroschemes y:wt (ol
sconityof woter duringthe low flow seoson.H€nce,the L=vpt (b)
stomgecopocitymust besumcientlylorgethot the bosindoes Q: Bvpy (c)
notrequirefr€quentflushing.
substitutingfor y,vpondt ftom (o)ond (b)into (c)Rsults
in:q:91*

71
 for o given dischorgeQ,the plon oreoofthe
Therefore, In micro-hydropower
schemes,
the settlingbosinis
settlingbosincon theoreticollybe determinedfor sedimentotion designedto trop 1000/6
ofporticlesgreoterthon o certoinsize,
of o porticlewith foll velocityw However,in prcctice,o lorger d,,,n.0nly o proportionof smollerpqrticleswill be tropped,but
bosinqr€ois requiredbeccuseof the followingfoctors: d,., is setsothot the smollerporticlespossingthoughthe bosin
r the turbulenceof the woter in thebosin; will not cousesignificontobrosiondomogeto the turbine.
o imperfectflow distributionqt the entronce;ond Formicro-hydroschemes the followingprocedureis
o (sometimes
the needto converge curve)theflow recommended
for the selectionof d,,.u:
towqrdsthe exit. r Lowheodschemes, h < 10m:
4,.n: 0.3to 0.5mm
in 'reol bosins"the throughvelocityis limited,
Therefore o Mediumheadschemes. 10m < h < 100m:
to reduceturbulence,ond the requiredplon oreois obouttwice d,,,, = 0.2to 0.3mm
for the "ideolbosin".
the oreocolculqted r Highheodschemes, h > 100m
d,,, : 0.1to 0.2mm
533 FAII VETOCITYOFSEDIMENTAND PARTICI.ESIZE whereh is thegrossheod.
theobilityof porticlesof
Thefoll velocity,w, chqrocterises
vorloussizesto settleout undergrovity.Foro discretepqrticle, Thecurrentprocticein Nepolis to usedr...,of 0.3mm
on its size,density,
this voluedepends ond shope,oswell osthe regordless
of theheqdof the scheme,
which is somewhot
temperotureof woter. orbitrory. Theopproochoutlinedin this sectionis morelogicol.
Figure5.2showsthe foll velocityin woter,w, os o for o givenponicle size,the higherthe heod,the
Thisis becquse
quartzspheres.
functionofthe porticlediqmeterfor reference morethe domogeis to the turbine.
Thisfigureconbeusedto estimotew for thecolculqtions Th.4,-, rongegivenoboveos o function of heodond
requiredin the designofthe bosin.Notethqt thetemperoture flow ollowsthe designersomeflexibility in decidingthe porticle
effectbecomes lessfor lorgerdiometerpofticles. sizeto besettled.

to

J1l
lt
I
I I
a
a
o II z r
E
=
E rf
.s II
TT a
II tv
z
3

e
.Y
v
o
ol
1_
-Ternpelof
--ilrn -C -7
r-//, .-/

ool 2
7 7-

ool ol I lo loo rooo

F ol l V c l o c i t y , I n c e n t l n c t r r p e l e c o n d ( R o u s e , 1 9 3 )7

Figun 5.2 Follvelocityof quortz spheresin woter

72
 Thefollowingfoctorsshouldbeusedwhiledecidingon mendedprocticein Nepolis to useC = 2 kg/m3for the designof
thevolueof d,,.u: settlingbosinsfor micro-hydro
schemes
o If mostporticlesorehighlycbrosive(quortzsondor Thesedimentstorogerequirement
in o settlingbosinis
minerols),thenthe lowerlimiting voluesshouldbeused. colculotedqs follows:
Ifthe pcrticlesqresofterlessobrosivesubstqnces,
then
the higherlimiting voluesmoy beocceptoble. 1. Colculote the sedimentloodusingthe followingequotion:
r Crossflowturbinesorerelotivelylesssensitive
to soft S , - o= Q T C
impuritiessuchqssiit ond cloys.Othertypessuchos where:
the Froncisturbinesorem0resensitiveto ony kind of S,*o: sedimentloodin kg storedin thebosin
suspended motter. Peltonturbinesoreintermediote. Q = dischorgein m3/s
r Forexomple,d,,.u: 0.2mm shouldbeselected in q cqse T = sedimentemptyingfrequenryin seconds
where:h = 50m, suspended porticlesaremostlypure C = sedimentconcentrotionof the incomingflow in kg/m' .
quortzor similorminerqls,ondo Frqncisturbineis
used. emptyingfrequency(T)in the Nepolese
A ressonoble
contextcouldbeoboutonceto twicedoily duringhigh floW
5.3-4SETruNG DESIGN which resultsin lessthon onceq weekduringthe low flow
Theoreorequiredfor the settlingbosinond its plonshopeore seoson
whenthe sedimentconcentrotion
is low.
colculoted
osfollows:
1. Usingthe criteriodiscussed
in Section
5.3.3,determine 2. Thenextstepis to colculotethevolumeof the sediment,
what the rongeof the schemeis (i.e.,low,mediumor usingthe followingequotion:
high heod)ond decideon the corresponding
minimum \-lood
_
porticlesizeto besettled,i.e.d,*,,. l/
'redrment-
S. XP-
oansnv tof,or
2. UsingFigure5.2,for the selected
d,n,,,,
determinethe fqll
velocity,w. where:
the requiredbosinsurfoceoreo(A)usingthe
3. Colculote V,.di..m= volumeof sedimentstoredin the bosinin m3.
followingequotion. : densityof sedimentin kg/mr,obout2600kg/mr. Unless
Sd"n,iry
)i otherdotooreovoiloblethis volueshouldbeusedfor So.*,r.
. A- -:: : pockingfoctorof sedimentsubmergedin woter.
Prono,
w
I
I Notethot o foctorof 2 hosbeenusedto ollowfor
turbulence in the bosin. Whensubmergedin woter,porticlesoccupymor€spoce
I
t
I
4. With the bosinqreocolculotedobove,fix eitherthe thon when dry. This is meosuredin termsof pochng foctor,
t
length,L,or the width,B,occording
to siteconditions which is the ratio of unit volumeof dry sedimentto unit
ond colculotethe otherdimensionsuchthqt 4 < t/B < volumeof wet sediment(i.e.volumeof 1 m3of dry sediment
10. dividedby the volumeof this sedimentwhen submerged).
5. Checkthot the horizontslvelocity(V = * , " l e s sr h q n Pockingfuctorfor submerged sedimentis obout0.5(i.e.the
0.44\q;, i.e.V < 0.24m/s volumeof dry sedimentis doubledwhen submerged).
whered,,,, : 0.3mm. If not,increosethe crosssectionol Beiowthe settlingzonemust be the copocityto storethe
i oreo(Bor y) to meetthis condition. volumeof sediment,
colculoted \.ain.nt.Thisstorogespoceis
i ochieved
by increosing
the depthofthe bosinos follows:
i
53.5 STORAGE
DESIGN \/
\ Theconcentrotion porticlesin the flow conbe
ofsuspended t - ---;-
sedlment
1 ioaoqa
lt
l os lollows:
expressed
kg of suspended
motter
(C)=
Concentrction WhereYuo,on.isthe storogedepthin the settlingbosin
m3of woter
1 belowthe hydroulicdepth(y) discussed
eqrlier,ond A is the
Unfortunotely,
therehovenot beenony studiesregording plonoreo.Thehydroulicdepthond the storogedepthoreolso
the concentrotion
of sedimentin smqllmountoinriversof shownin Figure5.3.
Nepolthot oreoppropriotefor micro-hydroinstollotion.
Therefore,in the Nepclese
context,the designer
hosto relyon 53.6 COMPONENTS
OFA SETruNG BASTN
It doto ovoiloblefrom lorgehydropowerprojects.Therecom- Thesettlingbosinhosthreedistinctzones;the inlet,settling
 Freeboord

T Y P I C A LC R O S S - S E C T l O N
lnlet zonc Sellling zonc Oulht zone

Freeboord
-!-

f low
+ flow',

N S.for.o99
z I

'
sEcrro}JI
tvPrcALLor{GrruotuL
Figure5.3 A typicols€ttlingbosinond its components

determinethelengthof the inlet zone,setthe horizontol

ondoutletzones.Theseorediscussed
belowondshownin exponsionrotio ot obout1:5(cr= 110)os shownin
Figures
5.3ond5.4. Figurr5.4. Thiswill ollow on evenflow distributionot
the beginningofthe settlingzone.Theverticolexpan-
Inlet zone sionrotioconbehigherot qbout1:2(a = 27) osshown
Thisis the initiol zonewherethe tronsitionfromtheheodroce in Figure5.3.
to the settlingbqsinoccursond thereis o groduolexponsion
in o o weir osconbeseenin
Anotheroptionis to incorporote
thebqsinwidth. the Golkotsettlingbosin(Drowing420/04/3C01).
Thedesignof the inlet is importontto the efliciency
of r ftoughs with slotsor orificesin wolls or bottom.
thebosin.Forhigh hydroulicefliciencyond effective
useofthe . Bofilewolls
bqsin,the inlet shoulddistributetheinflow ondsuspended
sedimentoverthe full crosssectionoloreoofthe settlingzone. Notethot orificesor bofflewolls oreoftenusedin woter
Voriousreseqrch dotoshowthot horizontolvelocity treotmentfocilitieswhereextremelylow velocityis requiredbut
qcross
voriotions the width of q rectongulor
tonk offectthe thesemethodsorerorelyusedin micro-hydroschemes.
hydroulicefliciencyconsideroblymorethon velocityvoriotions In someschemes in Peru,o slidinggoteis instolledin
in depth.Therefore,ottentionneedsto begivent0 uniformflow frontof thesettlingbqsinos shownin Photogroph 5.2. During
distributionin thehorizontalplone.Thefollowingmethodsore flushing,thegoteis initiolly closed,
impoundingwoter behind
usedin theinlet zonet0 ochieveo goodflow distribution: it. Whenthe settlingbqsinis emptied,the goteis openedond
o of the iniet chonnel.Thisis the most
Grqduqlexponsion the suddenrushofthe impoundedwoter flushesout ony
commonlyusedmethodin micro-hydro To
schemes. sedimentthot hosremqinedinsidethebosin.

a^
 flushed producing
whiletheoth€ris in operotion, holfthe
power0utput.Withoutthesubdivision,thepl0ntw0uldhove
to b€closedduringflushing.
Provisionfor flushingthe storeds€dimentshouldbeqt
the endofthe settlingbosin. A floorslopeof1:20to 1:50in the
settlingzonefocilitotesflushing.

Outlet zone
Thisformsthe trqnsitionfrom the settlingzoneto th€ h€odroce.
Fiqure5 4 Exponsion
ond controctionrotio in s€ttlingbosin Thetronsitionconbemoreobrupt thqn the inlet exponsion(i.e.,
horizontolly1:2or P = 26.5"osshownin Figur€5.4,ond
verticolly1:1os shownin Figure5.3).Notethqt ifthe settling
bosinis combinedwith the foreboy,then this zoneis not
necessqry:
the for€boystructurecon bedir€ctlydownstreomof

Theoperotingwoter levelof the settlingbosinis gener-

by o weir which moy be
olly contrclledot th€ outl€t.som€times
design€d
to operot€0ssubmerged
in oder to conserve
h€od.

53.7 FLUSHINGARMNGEMENTS

verticsl flush pipe method

Thereorevoriouswoys ofremovingthe storeds€dim€ntfrom
the settlingbosin.An qppropriotemethodfor micro-hydro
settlingbosinsis the'v€rticql flushpipe". Thisus€so detoch'
oblevenicolmild steelpipeovero holein the bosinfloor A
droin pipeis lued belowthe bosinfloor to conveythe flow out
of thebosin. when the verticolflushpipeis lifted,the w0ter
storedin thebosinond the incoming0ow olongwith the
sedimentoredroinedthroughthe hole. Aport from being
simple,th€otherodvontogeofthissystemis lhot it conspill
someexcess flow suchosduring floodswhen thewot€r lev€lin

P n oo 5 2 S I d r n 9g o rp o r \ e t l h n gb o s r ne n l i o n c eP, e r u

Settling zone
Theb0srnrcoch€sthe requiredwidth ot thebeginningofthis
zone.Pofticlesor€settled,storedond flush€din this zon€.The
lengthofthiszoneis longerthonth€ir et or theoutletzones.It
shouldbenotedthot long norrowbosinsperfom betterthon
shQftwLdebosins.A rongeof 4 to 10is rccommended for the
r0 0 ofthelengthIo width(L/B).Bosinshqpeconolsobe
improvedby subdrvisionwith q longitudinoldividewcll, since
thrsd0ublesthe L/Brotio for q givenbosinlength. Also,the
dividewoll cqnossistin theoperotion
longitudinol ofthe Figurp5 5 nushinoo settlingbosinusingthe venicol flushpipemethod

scheme.Forexomple,the sedimentin onesub-bosinconbe

?5
the bosinis qbovethe normollevel.Thisverticolflushmethod
is shownschemoticqlly
in Figurc5.5. Thecolkot settlingbosin
is bosedon this methodos conbeseenin Drowing420/04/3C01 turbinevolveis closedduringemergencies,
ofAppendixc- similorly,theJhqrkotmicro-hydroscheme
olso
usesthis methodfor flushingosconbe seenin Photogrqph
5.3.
it moy bemole importontto sizethe flushpipediometersuch
thot it is obleto spill the designflow. Thisis becouse
ifthe
the entiredesign
flow will hoveto bespilledfrom the foreboyuntil the operotor
reoches
th€ intokeor othercontrolstructurcsupstreomofthe
forebola

b) Flushingcqpocity
Thepipeshouldbeobl€to divert both the incomingflow ond
thewoter volumein the bosin,thus emptyingit. Thisis bosed
on the followingequotionsl

l.s0. = c,c\6 + tL

orO. = CAril
{6i9i

where:
Q.,in"is the designflow. q.,ir" is multipliedby 1.5in the
first €qu0tionto ensurcthot thercis 0 drow down in the w0ter
Ievelinsidethe bosinduringflushing{i.e.,boththe incoming
flow qnd the flow in the bcsinconbe droined).
Photo5.3 Jhorkotsettlingbosin C is the orificecoefficient: 2.76(oppli€sor y wh€rethe
totol pipelengthis lessthon 6 m).
Thediometerof theflushpip€is governedby the tL,t"is th€ depthofwoter in the b0sinduring the design
followingcriteriol flow prior to flushing.
ho",nis the flushingheodwhen bosinis empty.Thisis the
o) overflowcopocity diff€r€nce
in levelbetwe€nth€ floorofthe bosinond the flush
floodflow thot entersthe bosinos
It needsto spill the excess pipeoutletoscqnbe seenin Figurc5.6
shownin Figurc5.6. Thisis governedby the weir equotion, A is the oleoofthe pipesection.
wherethe perimeterofthe pipeis usedfor thelengthcs follows:
0" . : fI dC h^ .r1? Th€second€quotionensuresthot the designflow conbe
where: throughth€ systemwh€n the b0sinis empry lt is
dischorg€d
is th€ expected
Qn""d floodflow in the bosin importqntto checkthis conditionespeciollyifthe hn",h
is low.

the depthofwoter obovethe verticqlpipeduring

hn""dis
Qn*dThisis the heighrbetweenthe top ofthe verticqlflush
pipeond the top ofthe settlingbosinwoll.
C" is the weir coemcientfor o shorpedgedweir,which is
1.9(seeTqble3.3,Chopter3). Thereosonfor usingthe shorp
the pipethicknessis smoll
edgedweir coefhcientis becous€
r^mnnrod r^ rh, h'^,1

In termsofthe pip€diometer,the oboveequotionconbe

rewrittenos follows:
/i=4
0".
1.9nh_ 3i,
Toensuredroiningofexcessflow ondto preventspilling
ofthe designflow the height0fthe verticolflushpipeshouldbe
suchthot the top lev€lis 50mmobovethe designwoterlevel.
Photo5 4 Liftingthe {lushingmec}onism0hong)
Alsonotethot ifthe settlingbosir is combinedwith the foreboy,

76
 In termsofthe pipediometer,the obovetwo equotions monuol)yor mechonicolly,
to droin the bosin. Th€Solle
conbe rewrittenos follows: Chiolsomini-hydroschemeis bosedon suchconventionol
flushingsystemosconbeseenin Photogroph5.6.
, --/ 6a"'.' \''
" \ llc.rG-+h /

4Q'''
^.,-/ \'
"'"-\ncVn I
Not€thottheseequotions thqt thereis freepipe
0ssum€
flowot theoutletondtheplpedtonteter
is constont
{verticol
pipesofthesystemhovethesomediometer).
ondhorizonrol
All of theobovethreeequotLons
shouldbeusedro sizethe
ofrheflushpipe.Thepipeshouldbesiz€dusingthe
drqmeter
rhotresultsin thelorgestdiqmeterlfthe totolpipe
equotron
lengthis m0rethon6 m, theflowshouldbecolculoted
usingthe
guidelinesgivenin Chopter
4.

Phoro5 6 SolleriChrokoserrhngbosin

53.8 OTHERCONSIDERATIONS

Spillwsy requirement
Ifexcessflowsconnot be spill€dfrom the upstreomheodroce
portionsuchosdu€to lockof o suitobleoreo(orif o pipeis
used),0 spillwoyshouldolsobeincorporqtedot the settling
bosin.Thespillwoyshouldbesizedto spill the entirellow
expected the plqnt
during the high flow seoson.Thisis becous€
moy needto b€shut during high flowsfor rrpoir work. The
Figure5 6 venicol{lushpipescctionin o serrlingbosrn
spillwoyshouldb€locotedupstr€omofthe bosinto ovojd
excessflow (ondsedim€nt)throughthe bosin. Notethot the
designofspillwoysw0s coveRdin Chqpter4.
in the cosewherethereis o verticolflushpipe
However,
sizedto divert the expectedhigh flows,o seporotespillwoyis
not necessory

Cover
th€r€conolsobesitespecific
Sometimes considerotions
thot
needto beoddressed
du ng lhe designofthe settlingbosin. For
€xomple,th€ Ghondruksertlirlgbosinis locotedin o forestoreo
qnd lorgetreeleoveswereconstontlyblockingthe troshrqck.
Thisproblemwos overcome
by plocingwirc meshoverthe
bosinosconbeseenin Photogroph5.7.
5 5 S e r t l n gb o s r no r l h o r l r o t
Photo

Sluice gste
Another convention0l m€thodofflushingincludes
theuse0f
sluicinggotes.Thisis morecommonin minr-ond lorge
hydrcpow€rschem€s.In this system,gotesoreliftedeither

77
7

P l o t o5 7 C h o n d r u sk e r d r n bg o s i n

for q llow of455l/s. Noteth0tthe grossheodofrhe scheme(h)is 20

TheGolkotgrov€ltropiprimorysettlingbosinis designed
m.
Asgroveltrop or y. the minimum dimensionshouldbeosfollows:
crcsssectionolol€o requircdfor V = 0.6m/sto trop porticlesizedownto 2 mm.

A: - -' : = - 0 . 4 5 5 = 0 . 7 5 8 m 2
-0
v 0.6

With o flow depth= 0.5m:

WidthB = 0.758/0.5 = 1.52m, soy1.5m.

UsingL = 3 x heodroc€conqlwidth (B'= 0-6m)

= 1.8m. Use2.0m minimum length.

Therefore wercdesigned
ifthis structure hso groveltroponlythedimensions
wouldhovebeenosfollows:
B =1.5m
L = 2.0m

Aso settlingbosin,thedimensions
r€quired
oreosfollows:

since10m < h < 100m, the schemeis clossified

osmediumheod.Recollthot the turbineis o cmssflowtype. Therefore,
d,-,
: 0.3mm.

With o meonriver temperotureof15 0Cduringthe high 0ow seoson.

fiom Figup 5.2,the foll velocityw = 0.037m/s for

78
rl .r, = 0.3mm
LB = 2Q/w= 2x0.45510.037=24.6m2t
S e t B= 2 . 5 m
L = 24.61?.5 = 9.8m, SetL= 10.0m
LIB=+
Inlet profile dueto spoceconstrointsseto = 260,

B_B'
I-islet = _ -
2 ton(a)

2.5-{.6
(2ton 260)

= 2.0m
= 1,94m. SetLnr"t

Checkrequired depthofsettlingzone,y:
Msximumhorizontol velocity
v = 0.aa{Irr*

= 0.44i6-.3 = 0.24m/s

a 0.445
"'Y=Tt=--rE;,T=0.76m
Sedimentstoroger€quircment:
= 2kg/mr
Assumesedimentconcentrotion,C
g. = 2600ko/m3
qorny

P- = 0.5
loaIor

T = 8 hourswoschosen
frequency,
Flushing forthisscheme 8 hours= 28,800
(but12hoursis recommended). s

S,*o=QxTxC
= 0.455x 28,800
x2
= 26,208kg

Slooa
rr --
v
sediment sd.nrnyx Pfo.,o,

= 26,208/ (2600x 0.5)=29.16*3

Actuolbosinoreo= LB: 10x 2.5= 25m2

= 20.16125
Requiredstorqged€pth,Y,,o,on.
=0.81m

= Freeboord
Requireddepthofbosin * Y * Yuo,n"
= 0.3 * 0.76+ 0.81= 1.87m

in AppendixC,the actuolinternoldimensionsof the basinsre os follows:

os conbe seenin Drowing aZ0l0Al2C02
Therefore,

Lsfiillng : 1 0 . 0 m
BqruD9 . =2.5m

79
 = 1.9m
Depthofbosin
=
L** 2.0m
= 1.25m
Loou*
Sincethe heodroceconolis long,o secondorysettlingbasinhasbeenincorporotedupstreomofthe foreboyos con be seenin
Drowing420/0413C01
in AppendixC. As conbe seenin this drowing,the settlingbosinhosthe following dimensions:

. :7.8m
Lsetutno
B*,,* = 2'4 m
Depthofbosin = 1.7m (ovJ
L,r., = 4.4m includingthe weir length
= 0 m (outletinto foreboy)
Lou,r.

Notethe following:

= Recollfrom Chopter3 thot the flow requiredfor powerproduction

Qesisn 421l/s in the secondorysettlingbosin/foreboy.
wqs 421l/s ond the heodroceconolwos designedfor 455lis to provideextro irrigotion woter.)

eorlier,o weir hosbeenincorporotedot the inlet zoneto ensurcon evendistributionof flow. Sincethe settling
As discussed
bosinis combinedwith the foreboy,the outlet zonehosbeenomitted. Alsonoticethe submergedweir ot the endof the bosin
which controlsthe velocitythroughthe bqsinand providessedimentstorogedepth. Sincethe groveltrop is expectedto
settlemostof the sediment,therehosbeeno compromisein the rotio of L/B(3.25)in the settlingbosin:in this cosethe weir
ond porollelsidesupstreomofthe settlingzonegive o goodflow distributionocrossthe bosin.

eorlief,notethe flushingorrongementwheresedimentis flushedby removingthe verticol pipe. Thesizingof

Asdiscussed
this pipeis os follows:

Sincethereoreo numberofspillwoysalongthe heodroceconol(upstreamofthe settlingbosin/forebay), floodflow is not

the criterionis to ensurethot the flushpipeis obleto divert both the incomingdesignflow and the
expected.Therefore,
wotervolumein the bosin,thusemptyingit duringflushing

Checkthe flushpipediqmeterusingthe followingtwo equotions:

h*,,n= 1.3m ond hnu,n

Notethot cs con be seenin the Golkotdrowing $2010apC01) :1.7 m

6 q .*n "
, _{
d =\RC. l" =0.410m0r410mm
,

, -=f 4Q.." \"'

d = o.rt6mor386mm
t n111;- ,l
o diometerof 410mm is requiredfor the flush pipe.
Therefore,

Theoctuolflush pipediometerthqt wos usedfor the Golkotschemeis 400mm (slightlysmollerthon colculoted).Thiswos

occeptedbecouseit motchesthe penstockdiameterond wos eosierto fobricote.
TheJhonkemini-hydroschemeis o roreexompl€whereit wos possible
to combinethe groveltrqp, settlingbosinond foreboy
into on€structureoscor be seenin Photogroph
5.8ond Figup 3.8(Chopter3). Theintokeis locot€dot the left bqrk of o wide
qll
pooland therewos odequotespoceto combine threestructuresherc. Also,the topogrophywos suchthot it wos possibleto
stort the penstockolignm€ntright ot the intqke.

The grovel trcp is plocedot the curved

sectionimm€diqtelybehindthe intoke.
Thestroights€ctionbehindthe grovel
trop work os o settlingbosinond th€
tqnk behind this is the foreboy Since
the initiql penstockqlgnment is buriec
it cqnnotbeseenin the photogrqph.
Alsonotetlot os discussed
eqrlier,the
structurehosbeendividedinto two
bosinssothqt th€ plont neednot be
completelyshut duringflushing.

Plotformshqvebeenincorporoted ot
the endofthe groveltrop, settling
bqsinqnd obovethe foEboyto
Photo5 E Groveltrop, settlingbosinond for€boyofJhonlaemini'hydro
focilitot€flushingos well os deoning
of the troshrock.Theflushingsystemfor bothgrov€lond sedimentis q modilicotionof th€ 'v€rticol flush pipe"method.As
shownin Figure5.7,insteodofo flushpipeo cylinder(top€redot thebottom)is usedwhich fits snuglyinto the hol€on the
bosinfloor. Sincethewoter depthis high,the cylindersole liftedwitl spindlewheels(thusgainingmechonicolodvortoge)
thot reston the slobs.However,
notethqt with thls system,th€ excess flow cqnnotbedivertedviq the cylind€rssincethey ore
closedon top.

Thetroshrockqt the foreboyis cleonedby rokingthrcughth€

bors(flot plotes)with o speciqlsteelroke. Toprevenr
vondolismth€ spindl€wheelsorestor€dseporotelyond
instolledonly du ng flushing.lnthe photogrophthe
threodedends(wherethespindles oreinsert€d)conbes€enon
thegrov€ltrop ond settlingbosinplotforms

Figure5.7 nushing systemofjhoDke miln hydro

81
5.4 Foreboy 5.4.2 PIPEIJVEL
Theforeboyollowsfor th€ tronsitionfrom openchollnelto pipe
5.4.1 GENEML flow by providingodequotesubmergence
for the penstockpipe.
Theforeboyofo micro-hydroschemeservesth€ following Asdiscussedin Chopter4,ifthe submergence heodis nor
functions: sumcient,the pipewill drow in oir ond be unoblero conveythe
. It ollowsfor the tronsitionfrom openchonnelto designflow Similorly,r€collfrom Chqpter4 thot the minimum
pr€ssurcflow conditions. submergence
heodrcquiredfor the penstockpipeis os follows:
. It regulotesth€ flow into the penstock,
porticulorly 1 qlrz
h > _i::
throughthe releose ofexcesswoter into o spillwoy. '29
. the surgepEssureosthe wovetrovelsout of
It releoses whel€:
thp npn(tn.k ninp h, is the submergence
heod,ond
. It conqlsoserveoso secondory/fnolsettlingbosinond V is the velocityin the penstock.
trop someporticlesthot enterthe heodroc€
downstr€om
of the settlingbosin. 5.43 I'ESIGNOFA FOREBAY
. Althoughvery rorein micro.hydroschemes,the foreboy If the lengthofthe heodroceconolbetweenthe settlingbosin
conolsoprovidewoter storogefor useduringpeok ondthe foreboyis long.tlen sedimentconenterthe conol,such
powerdemondperiodosdiscussed
in Box5.2. oswhen debrisfollsfrom uphill ofthe heodroceolignment.
Similorlyifon eorthconol(or stonemosonryin mud mortqr)is
Structurolly,the for€boytonl is similor to the settling constructedbetweenthe settling bosin ond the for€boy,
bosin€xceptthot the outletuonsitionis reploced
by o troshrock sometimeshigh velocityin the conol,suchosduring the
ond the entronceinto the penstockpipe monsoon,concouseemsionond cqrry sedimentto the for€boy.
In suchcosesthe foreboyshouldolsobedesignedto seweoso
ti
secondqry
settlingbosinond the designmethodusedfor sizing
o settlingbosinshouldbe used.However,
o lower sediment
(soy =
concentrotion C 0.5kg/mr)conbe usedsinceonly
porticlesthot hoveescoped
the s€ttliq bosinor thosethot hov€
beenerodedfrom the heodroceconoloIe exDected in the
foreboy
Ifthe heodroce
upstreomofthe foreboyconsistsofHDPE
pipeor ofcementmosonryconolond the settlingbosinis
functioningwell, therewill not beony needfor secondory
settling.Howeve!oso pr€coution,somestorogedepthbelow
the pipeinvert shouldbeollowedfor. A depth0f300mm or
€quolto the pipediom€ter,whicheveris lorgeris r€commended
for this purpose.

5.4.4 FOREBAYSIZE
Theminimum sizeofthe forcboyshouldbesuchthot o person
conget in ond cleonit. Theminimum cleorwidth r€quircdfor
this is I m. Evenifth€ sedimentloodis not expectedin the
foreboy,
it moy sometimes
reochthis structuresuchoswhen
the s€ttlingbosinis filledin quicklyduring the monsoonor
thereis 0 smolllondslide.lfo pe$on conget into the foreboy
ond deonit occosionolly
or duringthe onnuolmointenonce
period,limitedsedimentoccumulotionwill not beo problem.A
storogedepthbelowthe invert ofthe penstockshouldbe
provid€dfor this,osconbe s€enin Figure5.8.
with the
Photo5 9 A dry stonemosonryforeboyshowingthe connection lfpossible,the foreboyshouldolsobesizedsuchthot 15
penstork
seconds
ofthe designflow conbesofelystorcdin the tonk

82
 obovethe minimum pipesubmergence
level.Thisis more 0.6m/s, but o moximum of 1 m/s cou]glgllgl-
imponont ifthe schemeconsistsofo h€odrocepipeinsteqdofq It shouldolsob€not€dthot the troshrockborsshouldbe
pipe
conol. Thereconbesmqlltronsientsurgesin the heodroce plocedv€rticollysincehorizontolbqrsole dimcult t0 deon os
which r€sultin unevenflow. The15s€condstorogecopqcity shownin Photogroph
5.11.Thespocingbetweenthe troshr0ck
h€lpsto boloncesuchunevenflows. borsshouldbeoboutho.lfthenozdediomet€rfor Pelton
turbinesond holfthe runnerwidth for
crossflowturhine. ThisPrevents
the
turbinesfrom beingobstructedby debris
ond minimisesthe choncesofsurge.
Cl€qningofthe troshrockconbe
minimisedby fixing it suchthot it is
submerged
duringthe designflow osin
th€ coseofthe Soll€riChiolsomini-hydro
(Photogroph 5.12.).Herethe top levelof
th€ troshrockis belowthe d€signwoter
level. Any flootingdebrissuchosleoves
orr woshedby the flow obovethe
troshrockond spilledviq the spillwqy
Althoughthis typeofqrrqngement
focilitotesself-cleoning
of the troshrock,
some0dditionolflow (thonthe design
Photo5.10A cemenrmosonrychonnelond foreboyot the rop ofo st€epdope(Dhoding) flow)will beconstontlyrequired.

FigurP5 8 ForPboy

5.4.5 TRASHRACK
Thetroshrockqt the foreboyshouldbeplccedqt 1:3slopefor
bothemcienthydroulicperformonce
ond eoseofcleoning(such
osby roking)os shownirl Frgure5.8. Tominimis€heodloss
ond Photo511 Cleoningcon bed'fficult wirh
blockoge,
the recommended
velocitythroughthe troshrockis horizontolbors.

83

I
7

theturbinevolveis closedduringemergencies,
the entiredesign
flow will hoveto bespilledfrom the foreboyuntil the operotor
reqches
the intokeor othercontrolstructuresuDstreomofthe
foreboy.

5.4.7 GATEANDVENT
o goteot theentronceof the penstockwill moke
Incorporoting
the mqintenqncework of theturbineeosy.Thegoteconbe
thus emptyingthe penstock
closed, qnd work cqnbe donein the
turbine.However, o ropidclosureof this gotewill creoteo
negotivepressure (i.e.vocuum)insidethe pipeond couldcouse
it to collopse.Plocingqn qir intakepipeos shownin Figure5.8
will preventsucho situotionsinceoir conbedrown through
theoir intokepipeond into the penstock.

Therequiredsizeofthe oir vent is givenby:

troshrock,SolleriChiolsomini-hydroscheme
Photo5.12 Submerged
A2-

+(#l
where:
5.4.5 SPilIWAY d = internoldiometerof oir vent (mm)
eorlier,o spillwoyshouldqlsobeincorporoted
Asdiscussed ot Q = moximumflow of oir throughvent (l/s)
the foreboy.Thespillwoyshouldbesizedsuchthot it con = moximumflow of woter throughturbine
releose
the entiredesignflow whenrequired.Thisis becouse
if E = Young's
Modulusfor the penstock(N/mm'z,
seeToble6.2)
D = Penstock diometer(mm)
=
t.n.,iu. effectivepenstockwqll thicknessot upper
end(mm)(referto Section6.6)
F = sofetyfqctor,5for buriedpipeor 10for
pipe.
exposed

Consider o 300mm steelpenstock of 3 mm woll thickness

connected to o turbinethot contoke250lis. The
penstock is oboveground.
Q = 250 l/s
E: 2.0x 105 N/mm'z(from Toble 6.2)
D:300mm
t=3mm
= 7.27mm (fromSection
t.r..tiu. 6.6)
:
F 10forobove groundpipe

0r, d = 80 mm, i.e.the minimum internol diometerof

the oir vent shouldbe 80 mm.
Photo5.130verflowweir for the senlingbosinotJhorkot

84
Th€d€signflow ofthe 50kW Ghqndrukmicrohydroschemeis 35l/s but thedry seosonflow is 0nly 201/s.Henceduring th€
thepoweroutputwos obout39kW untll o p€qkrngreservoirwqsbullt in 1994.Suchq peqkingreservoirb€come
dry seoson
necessory
becouse ofthe demondfor firll power(50kW)ln the !'rllageduringthe morlings ond evenings.Th€reis nominol
powerdemondrn the ofternoonondevenlessdu ng night time.

A suitoblesitefor thereservoirwosiocotedon the te[oce immedrote]y

downstreqmofthe oldforeboy.Photogrophs
ofthe
peokingreservoirdudngcnd ofterconstructionconbe seenbelow.

Ph0to5 i4 Chondrukpeohng reseruoirdudng construcrion P h o , 5 . 1 5 C h o n d r up

k p o h . l gr c s e r y o iorl l p rc o n . r r u c r r o n

Thewollsondtheflooro[the reservoirwereconstructed
ofstonemosonryin ceme[tmortqr. Thereservolrhosbeensizedsuch
thotit cqnprovidethe designflow ol35l/s for ot leostsix hours(3h0ursin themorningond 3 houn in th€ evening).The
colcuiotions
oreosfollowsl

volumerequired- (D€signflow - dry secsonflow)x 6 (hr ) x 60 (min/hr)x 60(s/min)

Storoge
= (35 20)x 6 x 60x 60 - 324,000
litres0r 324mr.

o reservoirwrth o minimum storogecopocityofl24 mr is r€quiredto b€qblet0 provide50kW for su hours. Theoctuol

Hence
ol thereservoiroreqs follows:
dimensions
. Length= 20m
. Width= 20m
. Depth= 1.2m

Hence,
the st0rogevolumeis 480mr, obout48rl0lorgerthon lhe minimum requiredvoiume. Notethot th€ old foreboyhos
redundont.Also,sincethepeokingreservorris downstreom0fthe old ibreboy,o fervmetresofheodorc lost.
nowbec0me
Thisis cOmpensoted
by slightlyincreosingthe dcsignflow

Anysedrment deposifed
in the res€rvoiris monu0llycleoneddu ng the onnuolmoint€nonce
period.A flushingfocilitywos
nolinstolledbecouse
0fp0tentiolerosionondlondslideproblemsdueto the lqrgevolumeofwoter involved.

At preseltthe powerplont is shutwhenthereis n0 demold for po',ver,

thenthe reservoiris o]lowedt0 fill.

85
5.5 Constructionof woter r Finolly,the wqllsondthe floorshouldbecuredos
retoining structures in Chopter4.
discussed

Oncethe sizeofthe groveltrop,settlingbosinqndforeboyhove Anotheroptionis to usereinforced for the floor

concrete
beencolculoted,thetypeqnd dimensions of thewollsondfloors ondwolls. Howeverthis is moreexpensive ond olsorequires
needto bedetermined.Formicro-hydro schemes,stone skilledlobour,sois not generollyrecommended
for micro-hydro
mosonryin cementmortqris generollythe mostoppropriote schemes.
qndeconomic option.Theconstructiondetoilsondprocedures
for this typeof structureoreos follows:
o Thegroundshouldfirst be excovoted occording
to the 5.5 Chechlistfor grovel trop, settling
bosinshopeqndthenbewell compocted usingo bosin ond foreboy work
mqnuolrom.
o Sincetheseqrewoter retoiningstructures,
1:4cement r Conthegroveltrop,settlingbosinond the foreboyor ot
sondmortorshouldbeusedfor thewollsondfloorsqs be combinedtogether?
leosttwo of thesestructures
in Chopter
discussed 4. o Arethesestructures woter con
locotedsuchthqt excess
r Thewollsshouldbebuilt suchthot theyoreo minimum bespilledsofely,without cousingerosionor stobility
of 300mm thick ot the top ondincreose with depthos problems?
shownin Figure5.9. Notethot in this figure,thewoll r Is the settlingbosinsizedsuchthot the emptying
surfoce0n the woter retoiningsideis verticql.This is onceto twicedoily duringhigh flows?Also,
frequency
the stobilityofthe structuresincefor o
increoses doesd,uun t0 the heqdond turbinetype?
correspond
depththewoterpressure
cOnstont is Iorgerthonthesoil Refer
to Section
5.3.3.
Ifthe verticqlfoceis towordsthe soil,the
pressure. o settlingrequiredot the foreboy?Is the
Is secondqry
wotervolumein the bosinwill increose
but structurol foreboylorgeenoughfor mqnuolcleoningond is o
stobilitywill beslightlyreduced. in this structure?Hosthe
spillwoyincorporoted
o Theinternolsurfoce(woterretoiningsurfoce)
ofthe heodbeenchecked?
submergence
wollsond the surfqceofthe floorshouldbeplostered r hovebeensized,referto Section
Oncethesestructures
using1:3cementsondmortorto o thickness
of 12mm. 5.5for theconstruction
detqils.
thelikelihood
minimises
Thissignificontly of seepcge.

lsoomtn
n.iilf

l 2 i n m t h i c ko l o s t e r
l : 3 c e m e nm t orfor

Stonemoson
i n'l:4 cenienl
rDrtor

Compoctedeorth

figure5.9 Wollsond floorsofwoter retoiningstructures

86
 5. Penstocks
6.1Overview

A penstockis o pipethot conveysthe flow from the foreboyto

the lurbine. Thepenstockpipestqrtswhercthegroundprofile
is steeposshownin Photogrqph
6.1.

Photo6.2P€nnockolignmentof the 5r0kw Borpo}micrD-hydro

scheme,
C,orkho,Nepol

Thepenstockpipeusuollyconstituteso significont
Phoro6l Penstock
olignm€nrofthe 36kWJhorkotmicro-hydroscheme,
Mustong,Nepol portionofthe totol micm-hydroconstructioncost. Therefor€
it
is worthwhileoptimisingthe design.Thisirvolveso cor€fuI
choiceof: pipemoteriol,suchosmild steelor HDPE;
on economi-
Thepotentiolenergyofthe flow qt the foreb0yis col diqmetersuchthot the heodlossis within occeptoble
limits;
c0nverted
into kineticenergyot the turbinevio th€ penstock ond woll thicknesssorhepipeis sofefor the designheodond
prpe.Sincethe flow is conveyed
underprcssure it is importont ony surgeeffectthot moy resultfrom suddenblockogeofthe
for the pipedesignto be sofe.Coses
hovebe€nreportedwhele flow.
thepenstockpipeshoveburst. Sincethe pensrockis on steep
groundslopes,suchpipeburstconinstqntoneouslycouse
londslides
ond otherstobilityproblems.Furthermorc,
penstock of the penstockclignment
6.2Selection
instollohonis ofrenchollengingond requiressofeondcqEful
work os shownirl Photogroph
6.2. 6.2-1 SrTEWORK
ofth€ penstockoliglment ot siteshouldbebosedon
Selection
the followingcriterio:

87
r
Fottbsy fio{.otion odd€dsiteinstollqtioncostmoy outweighthe sovingsmodeon
Thepenstockstortsot the foreboy,for which locotioncriterio the pipecosts.
oregivenin Section5.1.3.In oddition,the foreboylocotion Avoido penstockpmlil€ thot stortsot o gentleslopeond
shouldbe chosento optimis€the lengthsofh€odroceond thenbecomes
steepe!becouse
ofthe risksofnegotivesurge
penstockwhilst ochievingthe requiredpoweroutputfrom the prcssures pressurc.SeeSection6.5.
cousingsub-otmospheric
pipeis generollymore€xpensive
sch€me.Penstock thon Formicro-hydroschemes
with l€ssthon 20kW of
heqdrqceconql,thereforcin mostcosesth€ for€boylocotion instqlledcopocity,the groundprof e ofthe p€nstockolignment
shouldbechosento givethe minimum penstocklength. cqnbemeosured usingon AbneyLevelos discussedin Miclo-
How€ver, o longerpenstockmoy beeconomic,
sometimes to hydroDesignMonuol(Refl). Forlorgermicro-hydroschemes.
ovoidthe needfor the heodroceto crcss0n unstoblesloD€. theuseofo theodoliteond o pmfessionol
surveyoris r€com-
ifthe pRfobricot€db€ndsdo not frt ot
mended.Thisis becouse
Procticol ground slope sitedueto surveyefiors,odditiono]costond time will be
An ideolgroundslopefor the penstockolignmentis betweenl:1 requiredto omendthese,especiollyifthe sit€is locotedfor fmm
ond 1:2MH). Theflotter the groundslopethe lesseconomicis the roodheodond the pipesoreflonged.Notethot som€slight
the penstocksinceo longerpipel€ngthis r€quir€dfor o low€r odjustmentconbemodeifthe pipesorew€ldedot site.
heod. Errorsin the designheodcolculotion(dueto survey
Althougho ste€pslopeminimisesthe penstocklength,it elron)will resultin eith€roversizingor undersizingthe electro-
will bedifficult to.monuollyloy the penstock,
constructsuppon mechonicolunits,which will olsoincrcosethe projectcost,
pi€rsond onchorblocksifthe slopeis greoterthon 1:1.There- eitherin termsoflost powerproductionor in €xtrocostfor the
fore,for penstockolignmentson slopessteeperthon 1:1,the oversized
units.

Minimum numfur of D€nds

Bendsincreosetheheodloss
ond requireodditionolonchor
blocks.Th€r€forc
the selectedolignmentshouldbe osstroight
qspossible,
bothin plon ond elevqtion.Notethot smollbends
conbeovoidedby vorying the supportpier heightsfor the
sectionond the trenchdepthfor the buriedsection.
exposed

Spocefor powerhouse qr"s

Thechosenoligrment shouldbesuchthot it is possibleto
constructo powerhouseot the endof the penstock.A river
terrocew€ll obovethe floodl€velis ideolfor the powerhouse
oreo.A routethot is otherwis€suitoblefor the penstock
olignm€ntbut do€snot ollow for the constructionofthe
pow€rhous€
is inopprcpriote.

Stsbihty
sinceth€ penstockolignmentis on steepgroundslopesond the
pipeis underpressure,
it is importontfor the olignmentto b€
on stobl€grcund.Any gmundmovementcqndomogethe pip€,
supportpiers0nd onchorblock, qnd in coseofpipe bursts
unstobleslopeswill cousefurtheremsionond londslides.slope
stobilityis discussed
in detoilin chopter9.

Photo6-3 Excovotionto rEducethe costof the p€nstockond reduc€the needfol

oncho$ (Siklis)

88
 Thegroundprofileshouldfirsrbedrownusingon
6<-
oppmpriotescole.Somescqleshouldusedfor both
horizontolondverticollengthssothot thebendongles
oretrue ongles,which minimisesthe likelihoodof
ermrs. Ifthe olignmentolsohoshorizontolbends,then
o plonview shouldqlsobepl€por€dto showhorizontol
bendongles.
Oncethe grcundprcfilehosbeenprepored,
the penstock
pipeshouldb€drown on it suchthot the numberof
bendsis kept to o minimum. In g€nerolfor obove
groundolignmentthe supportpier heightshouldbe
minimisedunlesssomeofthem needto beincnqs€dto
ovoidsmoll0ngl€bends.Similorly.excovotionshould
beminimis€dfor the buriedsectionunlessdeeper
tftnch€sor€r€quiredot shorts€ctionsto ovoidsmoll
onglebends.Optimisingthe olignmentwill require
someiterotions.An exompleofo penstockprofileis
shownin Figur€6.1.
Forobovegroundpenstocksections,
o minimum ground
cleoronce
of300mm is r€commended
ro keepthe pipe
dry ond for easeofmointenoncesuchospointing.
Forburiedpenstocks€ctions,o minimum soilcoverof1
m is r€commended
osin the coseofHDPEheodrocepipe,
ond th€ trcnchdetoilsshouldbe similqrto thoseshown
in Figure4.8(Chopter4).
Photo6.4 Penstock
instollotionis
oft€nchollenging
ondftquir$ soleond
corcfulwork

Other site qncifrc conditions

Aportfrom the obovecriterio.theremoy beothersitespecilic
conditionsthot dictotethe p€nstockolignment.For€xomple,if
theolignmentcmsses
o locoltroil, this sectionshouldeitherbe
buriedor high enoughobovethe grcundsuchthot peopleond
cottlecqnwolk undemeoti.
Th€Jhonlcemini-hydropenstockolignmenris on
exomplewhereo sitespecificconditiongovemedthe penstock
olignment.Th€reis cultivot€dlondbetweenthe intok€ond
powerhouseofthis scheme, sothe penstockwosolignedmostly
olongthe edgeofthe culrivotedlond. At on€sectionthis wos
not possible
ond the olignmenthodto troversethe cultiv0ted
fields.Sinceit wosnot possibi€
ro bury the pipesot this section
{dueto downstr€omolignmenr),o few ofthe supportpierswere
sizedto be 2 m high qsshownin Phorogroph6.5. Thisrcsulted Photo5.5 ttnrtock olignmenrhighoboveth€groundto 0llowoc(essfor people
q ond(otrle, Jhonkl?mini-hydro
in cleorspoceofobout 2.5m underthe penstock, which
ollowsformersond cottleto w0lk undemeqth.

6.2.2 PROFII,JOFTHE SELECTED

ALTGNMENT
Bosedon the sitesurvey.o plon ond pmfileofthe penstock
olignmentshouldbe pleporedot the designofficeosfollows:

89
 Trorhrock

nd lrvrl
m o 3 o n r Yl n
l:.1 c.nont mortsr

3OOmin. r o u n d c l r o r c n c r

d 3 m m l h l c km i l d r t c c l p r n r t o c t

Ponrhouse

-2
ioinl
O 2 4 6m
A n ch o r
Scolc bloc k

'l)rpicol
Figun6.1 penstock
prohle

6.3 Pipe m0tefi0ls Peru(seechopter10,Innovorions)

cnd Sri Lqnkq,but hqs
not yet beenusedin Nepol.Toble6.1compores
thesethreepipe
In Nepolthe mostcommonlyusedpenstock pipemoteriolsore moteriols.
qnd
mild steel HDPE.Rigidor unplosticised
PVC(uPVC)is
onotheroptionthot hosbeenusedin othercountriessuchqs

lioble 6.1 Advontcges ond disqdvontogesof different penstock moteriols

MATERIAL OCCURRENCE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Steel Mostcommon o Vervwidelvovqiloble
o Pipesconberolledto olmostony size
o Congo up t0 olmostony thickness
o Eosyto join ondconwithstondhigh
pressure
HDPE Foirlycommon r Doesnot corrode
o Lightondhenceeosyto tronsport
o Flexible(occommodates
smollbends)
o Lowsurgerequirement
o Heovy, tronsportcostconbehigh
o Rigid,bendshoveto be speciollyfobricotedot
workshop
r Hoscorrosion
problems
r Cqnbeexpensive
o Conhovehigh surgerequirement
o Diflicultto join (solventnot ovoiloble)
r Avoiloblein discretediometers,
moximum
diqmeterovqiloblein Nepolis 315mm OD.
o Mustbeburied(dueto ultro violet(W) ond
thermoldegrodotion)ond corefullybockfilled.
Limitedpressure
rotingsovoiloblein Nepol(upto
10kg/cm'Zwhichis 100m heod)
Moreexpensivethon mild steelfor lorgediometers
ondhigh pressures

90
 PVC commonin Doesnot conode Brittle,con b€domogedduring tronsportotion
othercountries tight Mustbeburied(dueto W ond thermol
but not y€t used Eosyto instoll(solutionovoiloble d€gr0dotion)
ond coEfully bocldilled.
in Nepol tojoin pipes) Unsuitoblein fl€ezingconditions
Not ovoilobl€in diometerslorgerthon 250mm in
Nepol
Limitedpr€ssure
rotingsovoilobl€in Nepol(upto
=
10kg/cm'z 100m heod)
Moreexpensive
thon mild ste€lot high pressures

Thedecisionosto which pipemoteriolto usefor the Althoughsteelpipefor micro-hydroin Nepolh0s

penstockconbebosedon Toble6.1,esp€ciolly
in Nepol.Whenin normollybeenspeciollymonuf0cturedlocolly,stondordsteel
doubt,it is recommended
thot the design€rundenokeprelimi- pipesmoy bech€operin somecqses.Detoilsofsuchpipesole
nory designsfor oll pipemoteriolsovoilobleondcomporethe givenin AppendixB.
c0sts.
Tominimisecosts,for longpenstockolignmentsHDPE
pipescon beusedfor the upstreomlengthwherethe heodis 6.4 Pipediometer
Ielotivelylow (seeBox6.1).Stondodcouplingsorcovoilobleto
join HDPEond mild steelpipesos shownin Photogroph
6.60nd Orcethepenstockolignmentond pipe moteriolhoveb€en
Figure
6.2. decidedon, the designinvolveschoosingthe diometerondpipe
thiclaress.Selecting
on opprcpriotepipediometeris discussed
in this sectionond the woll thicknessis discussed
in Section6.6.
Notethot with o few exceptions th€ sizingofthe
p€nstockdiometeris similor to thqt ofo heodrocepipedis.
cussedin Chopter4. Forsimplicirythe entip penstockdiom-
eterselectionDrocess
is includedin this section.

Choos€o pipesizesuchthot th€ veiocity,V is between

2.5mF ond 3.5m/s. In gen€r01,o v€locitylower thon
2.5m/sresultsin on uneconomicolly
l0rg€diometer
Similorly,ifthe velocityexceeds
3.5m/s,the heodloss
conbeexcessive ond henceuneconomic0lin the long

Photo6 6 HDPE-mild
neel coupling Notethqt exc€ptfor rhefinol lenqrh.rhe
HPDEpipeisburied,Jhongmicro-hydroscheme,Mustong,Nepol
run dueto lossin pow€routput. Furthermore,higher
velocitiesin the p€nstockwill rcsultin high surge
pressureoswill bediscussed loter.
Notethot comporedto the heodrocepipe,higher
velocitiesconbeollowedin the penstockpipesinceit
conveyssedimentfite woter
Forsteelpenstocks,
it moy be economicol
to
choosethe diometersothot ther€is no wostogefiom
stondordsizesteelsh€ets.ForHDPEor PVC.ovoiloble
sizesmust beselected.Pipesole normollyspecilledby
outsidediomete!so2 timeswoll thicknessmust b€
subtroct€dto obtointhe intemol diqmeter Stondod
pipesiz€sorc givenin ApperdixB.
Colculotethe qctuolvelocity:

4i
' -_
t, --::-

steelpipecoupljng
Figure6 2 TypicolHPDE-mild nd,

9l

I
 where: furbulencelosses
orecolculoted
os follows:
V is velocityin m/s. rt2
1"-
Q is designflow in mr/s. turD loss
t. Kentronce + K ueno
.+K conlrocuon
+ K votve,
.)
29
d is the pipeinternoldiqmeterin m.
wherelosscoefficients,
K, oreos shownin Toble4.4.
Colculqte in the pipelengthbosedon the
theheodloss
inlet,woll friction,bends,volvesondexit losses
os 4. In generolensurethot the totql heodlossfor the design
follows: flow is between50lo of the grossheod,i.e.95o/o
ond 100/o
penstockefliciency.
to 90olo
Totolheodloss= wqll loss* turbulence
losses
5. Ifthe heodlossis higherthon 10%o
ofthe grossheod,
Wqlllosses qsfollows:
orecolculoted repeotcolculotionswith lorgerdiometer.Similorly,if
the pipediometermoy be
the heodlossis lessthon 50lo
Firstdeterminethe roughness
volue,'k'in mm from uneconomic,
therefore
repeotcolculotions
usingsmoller
Toble4.3(Chopter
4). diometers.

Thenusethe MoodyChortin Figure4.10(Chopter

4) to Notethot in exceptionol
coseso lessefficientpenstock
find the corresponding
frictionfoctorffor the selected moy bemoreeconomic, qs
such whenthe powerdemondis
pipemoteriol,diometerondthedesignflow. pipeis longqndthereis qbundontflow in
limited,the penstock
the riverevenduringthe low flow seoson.In suchcoses,
o
Thewoll lossconnow becqlculoted
from eitherofthe higherflow conbeqllowedin o smollerdiometerpipeollowing
foilowingequotions: o higherheodloss,which is compensoted
by the flow. Hence
sovingsconbemodein the costofpipesos discussed in Box6.1.
LV2
h = f- ^r However,this opproochshouldbejustified by o detoiled
"wollloss "'
d X 29
onolysis.
economic
.n = fLxQ'
"wollloss
l}ds

The80kWBhujungmicro-hydro scheme (Bhujung,

Lcmjung, Nepol)
designed
byBPC Hydroconsultfor Annopurno Conservo-
tionAreo Project(ACAP)
is under
currently construction. Thedesigndischorge is the
ofthescheme 150l/s, totol penstock
lengthis 860m andthegrossheodis 104m. Sinceit is o longpenstock,
HPDEpipesoreusedfor theinitiollengthondmild
steelpipefor thedownstreomendosfollows:

PENSTOCKTYPE IIIICT{NESSlmmf
3
315mm diometer.
ClossIII HDPE 16.1
300mm diometer,mild steel 3
300mm diometer,mild steel 4
Totql heodloss
% heodloss

Notethot the totol headlossis obout 120lo:

thoughmorethon 10%0,in this coseo higherheodlosswos found to be economic.
Thisis becousethe estimotedpowerdemondfor the villogeis 80 kW ond the sourceriver (MidimKholo)of the schemehos
significontlyhigherflows,evenduring the low flow seoson(minimum flow of 0.5m3/sin April) thon the requireddesign
dischorge.

92
 If the penstockpipe diometerwos sizedfor lessthan 10%heodloss
(i.e.by increosingthe diometerscnd decreasing
the design
dischorge =
suchthot poweroutput 80kW),thepipecostincludingloyingondtronsportotion wouldhqveincreosed by 15%.
Similorlyif mild steelwos usedfor the entireolignment(for heodloss= 72o/o),
the pipecostwould hoveincreosedby about
Notethot settlingbosinond hesdrocecostsneedto beincludedin the optimisotion.
30026.

6.5 Surgecolculotion ovoided.Ifthereis ony possibilityofnegotivepressure

the pipe
wqll thickness for buckling(seeSection
mustbechecked 6.6.2).
Toovoidnegotivepressure,
movethe foreboyto PointA
5.5.1GENERAL in Figure6.3. Alternotivelytokemeqsures
to reducethe surge
Thethickness pipeis determined
of the penstock by thegross pressure.
ondsurgeheodsof the scheme.It is therefore
importontto hove "Burstingdisc"technology
couldprovideo reliqblemeons
someunderstqnding
ofthe c0nceptofsurgebeforecolculoting ofsofelyreleosingexcessheqdin coseofsurgepressure without
thepipewoll thickness. increosingthe pipethickness(whichis the convention).
Thisis
A suddenblockoge
ofwqter or ropidchcngein velocityin discussed
in Chopter10.
(orony pipethot hospressure
thepenstock flow)resultsin very
highinstontoneous pressure.Thishigh pressure
is knownos
'surge'pressure to os "woterhommer".Surge
or oftenreferred
trovelsqspositiveond negotivewovesthrOughout
pressure the
lengthofthe penstock
pipe.
Wqterhommeroccursosthe surgewovetrqvelslrom the
source olongthepipelineuntil
0r the originofthe disturbonce,
it strikessomeboundorycondition(suchosq volve0r other
ondis thenreflected
obstruction) or refrqcted.Ifthe pipeis
strongenoughto withstondthe initiol surgeeffect,the pressure
will ultimotelydissipctethroughlrictionlosses
in thewoter
ondpipewoll oswell osthroughthe foreboy.Thespeedof the
surgewcve(wovevelocity)is dependenton suchfoctorsosthe
bulkmodulusof wqter,flexibilityof the pipeondthe rotioof
pipediometerto woll thickness.
ln hydropower schemes,positivesurgechorocteristics
oredifferentfor differenttypesofturbines.Surgeheodcolculo- Figur€6.3 Surgepressures

tionsfor the two mostcommonturbinesusedin micro-hydro

schemes qrediscussedhere.Notethqt thesecolculotions
ore 6.5.2 PELTONTUNBINE
bqsedon the initiol (i.e.undompened)
positivesurgeheod. Foro Peltonturbineusethe followinomethodto colculqtethe
In procticetherewill besomedompingof the surge surgeheod:
pressure
osthe wovetrovelsolongthe pipe,ondwhilst the wcvevelocity'o'usingthe
1. Firstcolculotethe pressure
fluctuotionis uniformin thelowerportionit dimin-
pressure equotionbelow.
ishesgroduollyt0 zeroot the foreboy,
osshownin Figure6.3.
1M0
However,the pipeis normollydesigned for stqticheodplus m/s
constontpositivesurgeoverthe full penstocklength.
Notethot the negotivesurgeconproducedongerous
f{el
pressure
negotive(sub-otmospheric) if the profile
in o penstock wnere:
is cs in Figure6.3. Oncethe negotivepressure
reoches
10metres modulusin N/mm'z.
E is Young's Thevolueof Young's
thewqtercolumnseporotes, ond subsequent rejoiningwill modulusfor mild steel.PVCond HDPE
conbeseenin
cousehigh positivesurgepressuresufficientto burstthe Toble6.2.
pressures
penstock.Sub-atmospheric lessthon 10metrescqn d is the pipediometer(mm)
of the pipewqll, soshouldolsobe
cquseinwordcollopse t is the nominqlwqll thickness(mm),Dott.n.,iu.

93

t
L
 2. Thencolculotethe surgeheod(h,,*"),usingthefollowing closure
time. Theoperotorot the powerhouse
shouldbemcde
equotlon: oworeof this closuretime ondthe consequences
of ropidvolve
closure.
ovl
surge
If the grossheodof the schemeis morcthon 50 m, it is
g n
recommended gougebe plocedjust upstreomof
thot o pressure
where: the volve. Compored
to the costof the turbine ond the
n is the totol no.of nozzlesin the turbine(s). penstock,
the costofsucho deviceis low (oboutUS$50in Nepol)
ondis worth the investment.Whenthe operotorclosesor
Notethot in o Peitonturbineit is highlyunlikelyfor opensthevqlve,his speedshouldbesuchthot thereis no
morethon onenozzleto beblockedinstontoneously. observqble gougereoding.
chongein the pressure
Therefore,
the surgeheqdis dividedby thenumberof
nozzles(n).Forexompleif o penstock
emptiesinto two 6.5.3 CROSSFLOW
TURBINE
Peitonturbineswith two nozzles
on eqchturbine. In o crossflow
turbine,instontoneous
blockoge
ofwoter is not
n=4 possiblesincethereis n0 obstructionot the endof the monifold
(i.e.crossflow
turbinehoso rectongulqrboreopeninginsteodof
Thevelocityin the penstock
(V)is: o nozzle).Therefore,
surgepressure
condeveloponly ifthe
runnervqlveis closedropidly.
.v, 4Q
-- Foro crossflow
turbineusethe followinqmethodto
no'
colculqtethe surgeheod:
3. Nowcolculqte
thetotolheqd: 1. Cqlculote wovevelocity'c' (usingthe sqme
the prcssure
equotionosfor Peltonturbine).
hlotol :h grc1s
+ h surge 2. Nowcolculotethe criticoltime l, similorto the Pelton
turbinecose:
4. Aso precoution,
cqlculotethecriticoltime,T.,lrom the r. : (zr)/o
followingequotion:
o closuretime,T (in seconds)
3. Choose , suchthqt:T > 2T"
T. = (21)/o
Similort0 the Peltonturbinecose,the designengineer
where: shouldinformthe turbine monufocturerof the closure
T, is thecriticoltime in seconds, time (T)ond theoperotorot the powerhouseshouldbe
L is thelengthof penstock
in m, modeowqreof this closuretime.
'q'is the wovevelocitv
colculqted
eorlier.
4. Nowcclculotethe porometer'K' usingthe following
lf the turbinevolveclosuretime,T,is lessthonT,,then equotion:
the surgepressure
woveis significontlyhigh. Similorly,
the
longerT is compored
to T , the lowerthe surgeeffect. K:I *i*r-l'
Notethot this colculotionis bqsedon theossumption
thot the penstock
diometer,moteriolondwqll thickness
ore Colculote
surgeheodby substitutingthe volueof'K' in
uniform. If ony of theseporometers
vory,thenseporote the equotionbelow:
shouldbedonefor eochsection.
colculotions
Alsonotethot whentheT = T,,thepeoksurgepressure h'u*'=
[;'
is feltby thevqlveot the endofthe penstock.lfo pressure
gougeis not instolledupstreomofthe volve,o volveclosure If 'K'is lessthon 0.01(i.e.closuretime (T)islong
time of ot leosttwicethecriticoltime (i.e.,T > 2T")is recom- enough),
thenthe followingsimplifiedequotionconolso
mended. beused:
Thedesignengineershouidinformtheturbine monufoc- hru*, : hnr*{ K

turerof the closuretime (T)sothot if possible

the monufocturer
conchoose
thethreodsizeond shoftdiqmetersuchthot it will Notethot ifthe vqlve is closedinstontoneously,
the entire
bedillicultto closethe vqlvein lessthqn twicethe colculoted lengthofthe penstock o peckpressure
will experience os

v.l
 follows:
3
h,u,r.: ov/g(i.e.,someosin the cose0f Peltonturbine t e_u e c l r=
ve
--_1 :1.27mm
1-1 x 1.2
with onenozzle).
in procticeit wiil take0t ieostfiveto ten
However, Fromthis exompleit is cleorthot if o mild steelpipeused,
secondsfor theoperotort0 closethevolve,thereforein o the nominolwoll thickness(t)shouldbeqt leqst3 mm.
crossflowturbineinstontoneous surgepressureis not o pipes:their
Notethot this doesnot opplyfor HDPE
problem. effective
thickness
is the nominolwoll thickness
of the pipe. A
is morethon 50m, q
If thegrossheodof the scheme low temperoturec0rrectionfoctor moy opply to PVCpipes,refer
pressure
gougeshouldbe plocedupstreqm0fthe volveto t0 the pipemonufqcturer:
if the temperqtures
oresub-zero,
speed,
controlits closing/opening osin thecqseofo Pelton t"n".,iu"
froy b€ os low os 0.5t. Aport from protectionfrom ultro-
turbine. violetdegrodotion,
this is onotherreosont0 bury PVCpipesot
higholtitude.
6.5.4QUICKMETHODFORSMALLSCHEMES
TURBINES
WITH CROSSFI.OW 2. Nowcolculotethe soferyfoctor (SF)from the following
Forsmoilmicro-hydro
schemesusingcrossflowturbines(such e0uoti0n:
wherethepoweroutputis lessthon 20kW
osmillingschemes)
200xt xS
ondthegrossheodis lessthon 20 m, this quickmethodmoy be 5f=
h,u,o,X d
used.
to the grossheodto qllow for surgeheod,i.e.
Add20o/o where:
h,u",: 1.2x hq,.,.Thisresultsin o moreconseryotive
voluefor t,r.,,,u"is the effectivethicknessond d is the internol
thesurgeheodbut its contributiont0 the increqse
in the diqmeterof the pipe. Notethot someunits (m or mm) shouldbe
wouldbe insignificontsincetheh0.,,is iow.
thickness usedfor botht.n"oiu.
ond d sincethey concelout in the obove
equotion.
Sis theultimotetensilestrengthof the pipemoteriolin
6.6Pipewall thickness N/mm2.Voluesof Sond otherusefulporometers oreshownin
Toble6.2.
is the totqlheodon the penstockos follows:
h,o,o,
6.6.1POSITTVE
INTERNALPRESSURE
Oncethesurgeheodhqsbeendetermined, the nominqlwoll h,oto,:hg.rr+hru*.
(t)conbecolculoted
thickness os follows:
1. If thepipeis mild steel,it is subjectto corrosion
ond 3. Formild steelor PVCpipes:
weldingor rollingdefects.Its effective (t.o..,,u,)
thickness IfSF < 3.5,rejectthis penstock
optionond repeot
will thereforebelessthon the nominolthickness. SF> 2.5
colculotionfor thickerwolledoption. However,
Therefore,for mild steel,ossumeq nominqlthickness
(t) for steelpipesifthe surgeheodhasbeen
conbeoccepted
ondto colculot€ usethe followingguidelines:
t.,T,,,,u, occurotelyond sll of the followingconditions
colculoted
o) Dividethe nominqlwoll thickness
by 1.1to ollow qremet:
for weldinadefects. o) Thereoreexperiencedstoffot sitewho hove
b) Dividethe nominolwoll thickness
by 1.2to ollow instqlledpenstock
pipesof similorpressures
ond
for rollinginoccurocy
ofthe flot sheets. moteriols.
Sincemild steelpipeis s_ubjectto qoryo1ion, b) Slowclosingvolvesqreincorporoted
ot the
for 10yeqlr ofplont life:subtrocl1 mm onq:_ qnd
powerhouse the designis suchthot o sudden
for 20yeorsof plontlife:subtroct2 mm ofthe entireflow is not possible.
stoppoge
c, Domoge& sofetyrisksoreminimol. Forexomple
Therecommended uenstockdesionlifeis 10veorsfor evenif the pipebursts,it will not couselondslides
-lehemes up t0 20kl^L+syeorsfo!$b9!Sgsa&9l9.IyLsld20- or otherinstobilityproblemsin the shortrun.
yeorsforschemes of 50-100
tE.f!g!e_!S!-nes-mql.beodiusted - d) Corefulpressure
testingto totol heodhosbeen
olglsygqgryfglonolys is. performed
beforecommissioning.
Forexompletheeffectivethickness of o 3 mm thickmild
for o 10yeorslife is:
steelpipedesigned

95

I
,lr-
for flrJtt DtDes: connotbeoccurotely ossumeit is horizontolin the
determined:
HOlf pipesoreqvqiloblein discrete
thicknesses bqsedon lowerhalf of the penstock,
ond diminishesgroduollyin the
rotings(kg/cm'z)
the pressure 0r stoticheods.Thedesigner qt
upperholfto zero the foreboy,seeFigure6.3.
shouldsetSF> 1.5ondcqlculotet.r.,,u"(tot€thot t : t.r.,,iu"
f0f In orderto provideon odequote
foctorofsofetyogqinst
Thenfromthe monufocturer's
HDPE). theqctuol
cotologue buckiing,the minimumpipewoll thicknessis givenby:
shouldbechosensuchthot it is equolto or lorger
thickness
/ pDt oll
t.'.,,u,.ThcSofetyFoctorshouldthenbe
thon the colculoted -> d l ' ^ l
terr€((ve
^
pipes,it is \ze I
usingthe octuqlthickness.ForHDPE
checked
recommended
thot theSofetyFoctorolwaysbeot leostequal where:
to 1.5. t"n.tiu. pipewoll thickness,
is the effective mm
d is thepipeinternoldiqmeter,
mm
6.6.2NEGAIIVEINTERNALPRESSURE F is foctorof sofetyogoinstbuckling(2for buriedpenstock
ond
Checkthe pipewoll thickness
for bucklingifthe negotivesurge penstock)
4 for exposed
conproducenegotiveinternolpressure
in thepipe. N0tethot P is the negotivepressure, m heod= 0.1N/mm'z)
N/mm'z(10
the pressure
negotive must not exceed
10 metresheqd,see modulusfor the pipemqteriol,N/mm' (fromToble
E is Young's
6.5.1.Theshopeofthe negotivesurgepressure
Section profile o.zl.

Toble 6.2 Physiccl chqrocteristics of common mqteriols

MATERIAL YOUNG'S COEFFICIENT

OFUNEAR ULTIMATETENSII^E UNIT WEIGHTlylkNlm'
MODULUSlEf Nfmmz EXPANSION lctlfC STRENGTH (S)Nfmm'z
Steel(ungroded) 2.0x 10s 1 2 . 5x 1 0{ 320 77
Steelto 15226175 2.0x 10s 12.5
x 10-6 410 77
or IS2062/84
PVC 2750 {20-60)x10* 35-55 14
HDPE 1000 (140- 240)x 10{ 20 -35 9.3
lfthe steelquality is uncertainit rs besrb askfor samplesand have themindependentlytestedat laboratories.Propertiesof PVCand HDPEvary
they shouldbeconfirmedfrom manufoctures'cataloguesor by laboratorytests.
considerably:

doto for the designofthe Golkotpenstockoreos follows:

Therequined

. Q = 421l/s (colculotedin Exomple4.2)

t = 22m
hnror,
r twoverticol n : 200
bends, & 420,bothmitred.
r Penstock
moteriol:uncootedmild steel,35 m longond flongeconnected.
r turbine type:crossflow

AppendixCfor the groundprofileond bendongles.

Referto Drowing 42010413A01in

Pipe dicmeter cqlculation

SetV:3.5m/s
the internolpipediometer:
Colculote

96
 d
-=
VnV {[x3.5

Calculote
woll loss:
FromTable4.3choosek = 0.06mm for uncootedmild steel.

k 0.06
= =0.00015
d 391
_:
1.2Q 1.2x0.421
_ = t-.2,
d 0.391

f = 0.013(MoodyChort,Chopter4)

LVz 35x 3.52

-'wolr
h =t
ross
_ =OOl?
dxag 0.391x 29

h*o,,tor,= 0'73m

Inletloss:
= 0.5for this case(Toble
K,n,*n.. 4.4)

- V, 0.5x 3.52
h,nln = -;- = = 0.31 m
lorr K.n,.n..X L-
zg zg

Notethot Exit loss= 0 sincethe flow at the endofthe penstockis convertedinto mechonicolpowerby rototing the turbine
runner.

Formitredbends.from Toble4.4
0 = 220,\.no = 0.11
0 =420,\.no=0.21

= (0.11+ 0.21)*
Bendlosses T'- = 0.20m
zg

Totolheodloss= 0.73m + 0.31m * 0.20m

= 1.24m

1.24
% heodloss= x 100%= 5.60/o
< l0% OK.
;;-

Althoughthe colculotedpipediometerwos 391mm internol,Drowing 4}olo4l3cozinAppendixC showsthe outsidepipe

diometerto be388mm, i.e.internoldiometer388- 2 x 3 = 382mm. Thiswos chosento correspond to o 1200mm stondod
plotesize(1200/n = 382).In proctice,however,the monufocturerproposed400mm internol diometerpipesfor the
some
cost,becousethis correspondedto the plotesizethot he hod.

Pipe woll thickness cslculqtions

Colculotethe pressurewove velocity'o'

1440

E : 2.0x 105N/mm'zfor
mild steel(Toble
6.2)

97
v

d:400mm
t = 3mm

1440
0ro:

-*(-rttno-,-ro_r,J
6- \2
oro = 923m/s 3

Nowcolculotethecriticoltime:

2L 2 x35
T. :; = : 0.08s. Notethotit wouldbe
Sr3
impossibleto dosethevolvein thepowerhous€ in 0.08secondsl

closu€ time T = 10s > 2T. = 0.16s

Choose

-:[-'*-l t.**-l
orK = 0.003.Since
K is lessthon0.01

h*r. : hn^,,x 6K = 22 no.oo3

orh = 1.20m
h .=h +h = 23.2m
q6 snr!.

Thepipeswere monufocturedby welding (1.1)rolled llat ste€l

plotes(1.2).1.5mm hosbeensubtroctedto ollow for ot leost15
yeqrs of lif€.
t.-". = 3/(1.1x 1.2)- 1.5- 0.Z/ mm
Now checkthe sofetyfoctor:

2ffix1. xs
h . xd
Photo 6.7 Excovotion for penstockolignment, Colkot

S : 320N/nunz for ungrodedmild steel(Toble6.2)

2@x0-nx32O
SF=
23.2x 400

or SF: 5.3 > 3.5OK.

Not€thot the sof€tyfoctor is higher thqn requiredbut the

minimum recomm€ndedthicleess for flot rolled mild steelpipeis
3 mm.

TheGolkotp€nstockolignment beforeond ofter pipeinstollotion

con be se€nin Photogrophs6.7ond 6.8 r€spectively.

Photo6.E Penstock
olignment,colkor

98
Therequired
dotafor thedesignof thethonlcre
penstock
areosfollows;
r Q=450Us
t hn*r,= 180m
. ten verticolbends,0 = 690, 230,260,310,400,20,30,120,g0& 30,all mitred.
r Penstock moteriol:mild steel,flot rolledondsitewelded,550m long. Highquolitysteelploteswereboughtondtestedfor
tensilestrengthot the loborotory.Minimum tensilestrength,S = 400N/mm':wosensurcdthroughthe tests.
r = 3x2 = 6.
furbinetype3PeltonturbineswithZnozzlesineochturbine,thereforen

Colculqtetherequiredpipedicmeterqndwoll thickness.Notethot sincethepenstock

is long,it will beeconomic
to decreose
the thickness
ot lowerheqds.

Pipe dicmeter cqlculation

Sincethe pipeis longsetV = 2.5m/sto minimiseheodloss.

the internolpipediometer:
Colculote

. fT = tux0-150-= o ' 4 7 9 m
d:\'/ J II-25
ni

Colculote
woll loss:

k = 0.06mm for uncootedmild steel.

FromToble4.3choose

k 0.06
d 479
1.2Q 0.450
o 0.479

f = 0.0014(MoodyChort,Figure4.7)

LV2 550x 2.52

h :f - =0014
"worr
ross d x 29 0.479x2g

hwon .loss : 5 . 1 3 m

Inletloss:

: 0.2for this cose(similorto fourth entronceprofilein Toble4.4)

Kun,,on.,

vz 0.2x2.5'z
. . ross= ( enrron(ex - - - : -
hrnre(
zo 29
h. . =0.06m
lnlel loss

Exitloss: 0.

Formitredbends,interpolotefrom Toble4.4:
for0 = Of ,q"o = O.:e
for0=230,\.no=0.11
for0:2€c,Ko.no:0.13
for 0 = 37r,eno: 0.18
f o r 0 = 4 o r , \ * n o= o . 2 o

99
 for0 = 20,\.*= 0.02
forO =30,lfund=0.02
f o r 0 = 1 2 0 ,l t n d = 0 . 0 6
forO=80,lq.nd=0.04
for0 =30,Q"o=0.02
?-52
= (0.34+ 0.11+ 0.13+ 0.18+ 0.20+ 0.02+ 0.02+0.06+0.04+0.02)*
Bendlosses =0.36m
U
Totalheqdloss= 5.13m + 0.06m * 0.36m
-\Am

5.6
% heodloss= -:-- x 10070= 3.7oh<5c/0,
180

the diometercan bemodesmoller.Theodopteddiometerof theJhonlcepenstockis 450mm, which gives4.10lo

Therefore,
thmugho repeotofthe obovecolculotions.
heodloss,

Pipe woll thickness cclculotions

Firstcolculotethe thicknessrequired0t the downstreomendof the penstock(i.e.h,,0,..= \*, = 180m) using d = 450mm.
Tryt = 6mm

0ro =
.(-**u1
oro=1071
m/s

4 x 0.450
40 --:-------
V. = -i: = 2.83mls
ndz zx(0.450)'?
ov1
hsurge- _ x_
g n

i. - - -1071x 2.83^ - 1
=52m
"rurg.- 9,8 6

hrdot. = h qrcss + h surle : 1 8 0 * 5 2 = 2 3 2 m

6
=_
t eilectrve
_ _1.0=3.55mm
1.1 x 1.2

(1.1for welding,1.2for flot rolled,qnd 1 mm for corrosionsllowonce:the corrosionallowanceis lessthan previouslyrecom-

mendedfor lorgerschenres Jhonkrewcs designedto provideconstructionpowerto o lorgerproject).
becouse
Colculqtethe sofetyfoctor:
2 0 0 xeilcdtve
t- xS
SF: -_-----.-
nrotol. x 0

200x 3.55x400
232x450

100
SF= 2.72> 2,5,olthoughSFis lessthon 3.5,it is occeptoble in this casesince:
1. Therewereexperiencedstoff at site. Thesitestaff hod instolledpenstockpipesin voriousothermicro-hydroprojeas.
2. Thevolvesot the powerhouse oreof slow closingtype.
3. Thepipeswerepressuretestedos follows:
Tensiletest of steelploteswos performedot o loborotoryond on ultimote tensilestrcngthof 400N/mm'zwos ensuredos
mentionedeqrlier.
Rolledpipeswerepressuretestedot the workshopot h,o,or usingo hydroulicpump'
Finolly,the pipeswereolsopressuretestedon sitesfter installotionby simulotingh,u*.ot the entronce(foreboy)usingo
hydroulicpump.
to be foirly stoble.In coseof pipeburst it wos not expectedto instontoneouslycause
4. Theolignmentwos ossessed

the pipethicknessot lower heods{i.e.,

SincetheJhonkrepenstockis long,to optimisethe design,it wos decidedto decrcose
upstreom)usingthe somesofetyfoctor (SF).

by t mm (i.e.thickness= 5 rnm) usingthe

of the stqticheodot which the penstockthicknessconbe decreased
Colculotions
somesofetyfoctor (SF= 2.721oreos follows:

t440
-=:
n =i027mrS
l,-l z-Eqrqg_\
Jt't-ZTxlT'xT/
Notethot t = 5 mm in this case

V = 2.83m/s,(someQ & d)

1027x2.83 i
- - ov
-h- 5 u r s e o n 9 .x8-6
l
=--:=- X -- =49m

)
t€-l r e c r=v e -1.0=2.79mm
1.1x 1.2

200xt- xs €IecItve
\ts=--
hI 0 t 0 l. x d

or rewriting this equotionin terms0f h,o,ori

2@X t"o..,,""X
S
L _-
r r l o t o l-
SFxd

200x2.79x400
^ - 'froror
vr k - = 182m
2.72x 450

hqroJs= h to(01- h surg€ = 1 8 2 - 4 9 : 1 3 3 m

the pipethicknesswos reducedto 5 mm ot o stoticheodof 133m inJhonlcre,keepingthe somefoctor of sofety(i.e.

Therefore
2.72\osshownin Figure6.4. TheJhonkrepenstockolignmentfor the lost sectioncon olsobe seenin Photogroph6'7. These
calculotionswererepeotedfor lower stoticheadsond o wall thicknessdown to 3 mm hosbeenusedto reducethe cost.

101
 q
Pe,

t t u rb i n c
p6ntlock
Figurp6.4 JhoDkpmini-hydmpenstockolignmentot downstreomend

betweenthe flongesfor tightnessond to preventleokoge.Th€

colkot penstock(Photogroph 6.8)is offlongeconnected
type.
A comporisonofthesetwo methodsoJongwith generol
rccommendotions in Toble5.3.
ore Dr€s€nted

Photo5.9JhqnlsE pensl
mini.hydro ockolgnment

5.7 Pipejointing

6.7.1 GENEMI.
Individuolmild steelpenstockpipesconbejoinedot siteby two
conventionolmethods,nomelysitew€ldingondvio flonges.
Eochofthesemethodshqsits own odvontoces
ond disodvon-
in Toble6.3.
togesos discussed Photo6.10 site weldingofpenstockpipes,Jhonla€minihydro

6.?.2 Sm WEU)ING
This involvestronsporting q welding mochineond dieselor
petml to site, then joining the pipesby welding togetherthe
in Photogroph
osshown
ends 6.10.

6.73 FI.ANGECONNECIION
Thisinvolvesweldingflonges(thothov€boltholes)ot bothends
ofthe pipesin the workshop,thenjoiningthem0t siteby
boltingth€m together A rubb€rgosketshouldbeploced

102
Toble63 Comporisonbetween site welding ond flonge connection

PIPEJOINING ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE GENEMI. RECOMMENDAIIONS

METHOD AND COMMENTS
Sitewelding Eosyto fobricoteot Higherdegree ofprecisionwork required Diflicultlogisticsif the siteis more
workshopsinceflonges qt siteto weldthepipeends.Improper thon o doy'swolk from the roodheod.
do not hqveto bewelded weldsconcouseleokscnd pipeburstot
ot pipeends. highheods. Generolly not economicfor smoll
schemes
ond/orshortpenstock
lengths.
A properlyweldedpipe Needto trqnsporto weldingmqchine
will not leqkondrequires ond0 generot0r
ot site.Alsorequires Selectthis optiononly ifthe sitestoff
lessmointenonce. supplyofpetrol/diesel
to site. oreexperienced, siteis lessthon o doy's
wolk from the roodheod ond penstock
lengthis morethon 50m.
Flonge Eosyto instqllqt site. Fqbricqtion
costis high sinceflonges Flongeconnection
is oppropriqtefor
connection Siteinstollqtionwork needto beweldedot ends.Alsothereis schemes
thqt orelocotedmorethqn o
involvesplocingo gosket somewostogesincethe flongeis doy'swolk from the roodheodond/or
betweenthe flongesond prepored
by removingthe centroldiscof hoveq relotivelyshortpenstock
length.

hnltinn thpm o diometerequolto theexternolpipe Minimumflongethickness

shouldbe
dicmeter. ot leosttwice the penstockwo.ll
thickness
or 8 mm whicheveris lorger.
Thepipeo\ignmentond the bendscon
not be odjustedqt site. A minimumbolt diometerof t2 mm is
recommended.
Conleokif the boltsqrenot well
tightenedor if gaskets
oreof poorquolify. A minimumgosketthickness
of 5 mm
is recommended.
Higherrisk ofvondolismsincethebolts
conberemoved. Shouldbeoboveground.

6.7.4HDPEANDPVCPIPES 6.8 Pipe lengths

ForHDPE pipesthe bestmethodof joiningthemis by heot
weldingosdescribed in Chopter4 (Box4.7).Aithoughspeciol ot the workshopin qlmost
Mildsteelpipesconbemqnufoctured
flongesoreovoilobleto connectHDPE pipes,theyoregener- onylengthrequired.PVCond HDPE pipesoreovoiloblein fixed
olly moreexpensive
thon the costincurredin heotwelding lengths(3m t0 6 m in Nepal).Although,shorterpipescreeosy
pipesoreovoiloblein rollsfor smolldiometer(up
them. HPDE t0 tronsport,odditionolcostswill hoveto beincurredin joining
to 50mm) ondfor lorgerdiometertheyoreovoilqblein themot site(moreflangesor weldingwork). it shouldbe noted
lengths(3m t0 6 m in Nepol)
discrete thot,unlikecementbogs,onimols(mulesond yoks)do not
PVCpipeswith smolldiometer(upt0 200mm) hove usuollycorrypenstock
pipesbecouseof the shopes
ond lengths
socketot oneendsuchthot onotherpipeconbeinserted involved.
insideofteropplyingthesolutionot the ends.Lorger Sometimes, dueto the weightinvolvedthe only option
diqmeterPVCpipesorejoinedwith o coupletwhichis o short for trcnsportingthe generotorqnd turbineto remotesiteis by o
pipesectionwith insidediqmeterequolto theoutside helicopter. it moy bepossible
In suchcqses, t0 tronsportthe
diometerof the pipesto bejoined.Thesolutionis oppliedon penstockpipesin thesometrip becouse
the currenttronsport
theconnecting ofboththe couplerondthe pipesond
surfoces helicopter
ovoiloblein Nepolconcorry up t0 threetons
thenjoined
together. (depending
on oltitude).Thecombinedweightof the generotor
snd turbinehordlyeverexceeds
oneton ond the helicopter

103
 chorgeis dependent
on the flying hoursondnot on loods.
Whenthis is the coselongerpipes{up to 6 m l€ngths)conbe
tronsport€dto siteqnd hencejointsconbeminimis€d.
for pipelengthsund€rvorious
Recommendotions
conditionsoIe discussed
below:
MiId steel pipe
Thefollowingfoctorsshouldb€consider€d
while sizingmild
steelpipes.
1. In generolpipeslong€rthon 6 m shouldnot bemorlufqc-
turedsincetheywjll b€ difficultto tronsport0n trucks.
2. lfth€ pipesne€dto becorriedby portersfrom the
roodhe0d,
the weightshouldbesuchthot on individuol
lengthconbec0rriedby 1-2porters.Forexomple,ifthe
pipeweightis obout50kg, usuollyoneport€rconco y
it. Similorlytwo ponersmoy b€oblec0rry up to 90kg.
ir is optimumt0 sizepip€soccordilgly,
Therefore,
ifthe penstocklengthis longondthe siteis
esp€ciolly
locotedmorethon o doy'swolk from the ro0dheod.
3. Forflot rolledpipesthe monufocturingcostswill beless
ifthe pipelengthrso multipleofth€0voiloblesteelplote
width. Forexompleif pipesorerolledfrom 1.2m wide
plotes,lengths
0f1.2m,2.4m 0r3.6m etc.willlower
monufocturingcosts.
Flongedsteelpip€shouldbeoboveground.Thisis
the gosketsmoy needto be repioc€ddurrngthe life of
b€cous€
the scheme.
Mild sreelpenstockwith weldedjoints con beeither
buriedor oboveground.However, mointenonceofburiedpipe
is difncult.thereforethe originolpointingond bocktrllingmust
be c0refullysupervised
to ensurethot corrosiondoesnot reduce
thelifeofth€penstock.
Sometimes port ofth€ penstockolignmentmoy beobove
groundond pon buried.In suchcoses.it is bestto mokethe
tronsitionot on onchorblock,otherwisecorefuldetoilingis
required.An exompleofsuchdetoilingot the tronsitionis the
useof o retoiningmosonrywoll with 0 l0rgerdiqmetermild
steelpipethroughwhich the p€nstockcomesout ond con
occommodote
thermolexp0nsionond controction,seeFigure
6.5. An exponsionjointshouldnormollybeusedimmediqtely
downstreomofthe retainingwoll. Not€thot the designof
qnchorb,ocksis covercdin ChopterT.
Toble6.4compor€s
the 0dvontoges
ond disodvontoges
of
buriedpenstockpipes.

HDPEan.l PvC pipes

Asmentionedeqrlier,thesepipesoremonufoctured in the
qt
loctory fixedlengths.but theyconbecut in holforonethird
ofthelengthfor eoseoftronsportqtion. o PVCp'pe
However,
with 0 socket
ot one€ndshouldnot b€cutsinceIejOining
will
not bepossible
without o speciclco)lor Thefollowingfoctors
shouldbeconsidered
whiledetermining
thelengthofHDPE
0nd
PVCpipes.
L in Nepolthemoximumovcilcblelengthof thesepipesis
6 m Eveniflongerpipesbecomeovoiloble,suchlengths
shouldnor be usedfor micro-hydrosch€mes.Gen€rolly
it is eosierto corrytwo 3 m pipesrotherthonone6 m
pipeofthesonretype.
2. lfthe prpesneedto bec0rriedby portersfromthe
roodheod,
thenthecrit€riooutlinedin No 2 for mild
steelolso
opply.

6.9 Exposedversusburied penstocl(

qndPVCprpesshouldalwoysbeburied.Thisminimises
HDPE
l h e r m 0m o r r dp r o t e c t h
l ovemen s ep i p eo q o i n sl m
t poct, Phoro6ll P€nstock,
Purong
vondolism
ondultro-violet
d€gr0dotion

104

r[
Tobl€5.4 Advontogesqnd disqdvqntqgesofburied penstockpipe

ADVANTAGES DISA"DVANTAGES
thepenstock
Protects ogqinstodverse
€ffects
0f Pip€sor€less0cc€ssible
for rnspection,
ond foult frnding
temperoture
vonoll0ns. becomes
dimcult.
Protects
thewoleriromlieezingdueto low 0lr Repoir ofthepipesis diflicult.
ondmointenonce
tempetotures. Instollotionis exp€nsivein rockond wheresoilcoveris thin
the pipefrom follingd€brisond trees.
Protects Improcticobl€ on steepslopes(>30").
thepipefromt0mpering0ndvondollsm.
Prorects
Fliminnro. c,,nn^d niar(

Smollbendsdo not needonchorblocks.

Doesnotchqng€thelondscope.

5.10 Expansionjoints

to t€mp€roturevo qtionsdueto
pipesoresubjected
Penstock
chongesin theombienttemperoture.Whenthe ombient
temperotur€is high the pipeswiJl expondond when it drops,
thepip€s
willcontr0ct.
Such
th€rm0l
exponsion
couses
str€ss€s
in th€ pipesifthey orenot freeto expond.

F . g u l e 6 5I r o n s r ' . o n
f t o m L u n e dt o p x | o v d p p n , t o , l ' , J h o n k r t m rln" yr d r c

Forburiedpipes,o minimumcoverof 1 m shouldbe

provided (i.e.HDPE,
in ollcoses PVCondmildsteelpipes)See
Iigure4 8 Ibr trenchdetoils.
Buriedpipesdo not require
supportpiers,ondhesovings
m0de0n thepi€rsmoy equolor evenexceed thecostofexcqvo-
tionondbockllll.Sincethistso sitespecific
c0s€,q c0st
shouldbedoneifbunedmrldsteelpipeis being
colculotion
considered.
Both€xposed
0ndburiedp€nstock
pipesIequireonchor
blocksot significontbends.However,
for relotivelylow heod
ondflow,qswellossmollbendongles, lhe I m depthof well
compocted on buriedpipemoy beodequote
sorlcover (see
?,Anchorblocksondsupportpiers).
Chopter
Thenorureoftheterroinondthesotldepthmoyolso
govern
whetherto bury 0r expose
thepenstock
pipe.Buried
penstock
is notpr0cticoble
on rouressteeper
thon30ob€couse
thebocl1illwill beunstobleWheretopsoilis thrnor rockis
exposed,the costsinvolvedin excovotingthe rockmoy mqke Photo6 l2 An exponsionjoinrshouldb€ locoredjustbelowononchorblockio
buriolofthepipeimpossrble protecttheblockfrom fon€swhr(h it rnoy nor be designed
to rpsNt(S*tis)

105
r
An qbovegrcundpenstockis subjected
to gr€oter
temperotuEvqriotionsrcsultingin high€rthermolexponsion.
Thethermolexponsionor controctionis high€stwhenthe
penstockis empty,suchosduringinstollotionor repoirwork.
Thetemperotur€voriotionis relotivelylow when the pipeis full
sincetheflow ofwoter witl foirly constonttemperoture
prcventsthe pip€ftom ropidlyheotingup.
Aslong0spipesorefreeto moveot oneend,thermql
However,
exponsiondoesnot cous€odditionolstrcsses. o forcesdueto pipeexponsion.Anotherddvontogeis thot they
penstockpipesectionbetweentwo qnchorblocksis keptfixed
0t bothends.In sucho cosethermolexponsioncouldcouse
ond the pipeconevenbuckl€.Ther€fore,
odditionolstresses
provisionmust bemodefor the penstockpipeto expondond
joint in o penstockpipe
controct,by instollingon exponsion
s€ctionbetw€entwo onchorblocks.
joint usedin Nepol
Themostcommontypeof exponsion
is ofslidingtype. Thisis shownin Figure6.6ond Photogroph
6.13.Suchon exponsionjointis plocedbetweentwo cons€cu-
tive pipelengthsond bolt€dto them. Thestoyrings orc
tightenedwhich compresses the pockingond preventsleoking.
Juteor othff similortypeof fible is usedfor pocking.Whenthe
pipesexpondor controct,the chongein lengthsis occommo-
dotedinsid€th€joint sectionsincethereis o gopbetweenthe
Prpes.
An odvontog€ofon exponsionjointis thot it r€duces
the
siz€ofthe onchorblockssincethey will not needto withstand
con0ccommodote slightongulorpipemisolignment.
Exponsion joint rquirementsfor vqriouspenstock
below.
conditionsorediscussed
Mild steel pipes
An exponsiorjointshouldolwoysbe incorporotedimm€diotely
downstrcomofthe forebcyond immediotelydownstreomof
eochonchorblock,for both obovegroundqnd buriedsteelpipe.
Oneis olsorecommended immediotelydownstrcomofo
tronsitionfrom buriedto obovegroundpipe.

HDPEPiPfs
Exponsionjoints for HDPEpenstockpipes
orc not necessory
pmvidedthot theyoreburied(whichshouldqlwoysbe the
cose).Thisis becouse HDPEpipesole flexibleond conbendto
occommodote in
the expqnsioneffectsdueto the differences
b€tweeninstollotionond operotionolphoses.
temperqture

PVC pipes
Figure6.6 Slidingtypeexpo$ionjoint PVcpipeswith gluedjointsrequireprovisionfor exponsion,
ot
thesome
locotions pipes.
0sforsteel

Sizing of expsnsion joints

joints shouldbe mochine
Theslidingsurfoceof the exponsion
fi shed(suchos in o lqthemochin€)to o toleronceof oboutI
0.1mm. Therecommended thicknessofthe steelpofts (Etqiner
ond stoy ring)is qbouttwice the thiclalessofo well-designed
penstockpipe,
Thegopin the exponsionjointshouldbeobouttwice the
calculotedmoximumpipeexponsionlergth.
Themoximumexponsionlengthis co]culotedusingthe
following equodon:
A = cr{t -T ..)L

where:
A L = pipeexponsionlengthin m os shownin FiguR6.7.
o = coefficientoflineor exponsionin m/m "c ofthe pipe.
which depends on the pipemoteriol. Thiscoemcientr€lotesto
joint, Jhonlxemini_hydro the lengththot q moteriolwill expondper 1oCincreoseof
Photo5.13 Slidng exponsion
temperoture.Differentmoteriolsexpqndot differcntrotes.The

106
voluesof this coe{Iicientfor mild steel,HDPEond PVCoreshown
in Toble6.2.
Tno,= highesttemperoturein'C thot the pipewill experience.
Notethot this conevenbeduringmid-summer qfternoonwhen A mildsteelpenstock pipeis45m longbetrveen the
thepipeis empty(eitherduringinstollotionor repoirwor$. forebayondthefirstcnchorblock.Thesteeltemperoture
= lowesttemperqture
T,o,o in'C thot the pipewill experience. duringinstollotionwos40"C,ondtheexpected lowest
Thiscqnbeduringwinter whenthewotertemperoture isjust temperotur€ duringtheoperotional phoseis40Cduring
obovethe freezingpoint. Notethot iffreezingtemperotures
ore winter.Whotexponsion gopshouldberecommended to
the pipeshouldeitherbeemptiedor provisionshould
expected, themonufocturer? AIso,if thetemperoture
during
bemadefor constontflow. If thewoter in the penstock is 2ffC,whotgopshouldbeprovided?
instollotion
duringfreezingtemperoture,
stognqtes icewill forminsidethe a=12x10{m/moC
thevolume
whenwqterfreezes,
pipeondcouldburstit, becquse Tno,= 40 oC
exponds. Tc0ld. . : 4 o C
L=45m
L = pipelengthin m. AL= u(\",-\",u)L
orAL=12x10{(40-4)x45
Sinceit moy bedifficultto determinewhentheexpon- or AL= 0.019m
sionjoint wiil beinstoiledot site,the monufscturer
shouldbe orAL- 19mm
qskedollow on exponsion gopof 2AL. Then,duringinstollo-
shouldbenotedondthe gopleft occord-
tion,thetemperoture Thereforeminimumrecommended exponsion gop
ingly. = 19.4x 2 = 38.8mm,soy40mm.
Exomple6.3showson opplicotionof this equotion. is 2dc
duringinstollotion
lf thetemperoture
=
AL 12x 10 -5(40
- 20)
x 45
orAL= 0.011 m
orAL= 11mm

duringinstollotionqn exponsion
Therefore, gopof 11
mmx 2 = 22mmshouldbeprovided.

pipe
ofo penstock
figure6.7 Thermdlexponsion

5.11Pointing
Sincemild steelpipesoresubjected
to corrosion,
oppropriote
cootsofpoint shouldbeoppliedbeforedispotchingthemto site.
their
Properpointingof mild steelpipessignificontlyincreqses
usefullives.
Thepipesshouldbesondblqstedifpossible,otherwise
theyshouldbethoroughlycleonedusingo wire brushqndo
pieceofcloth. Priorto pointing,thepipesurfoceshouldbe
cleqnfromoil,dustondotherporticles.Whenopplying
cootsofpoint,the previouscootmustbedry.
subsequent .
Thefollowingcootsof point orerecommended:
Ou*ide swfsce of obove ground mild steel pipes
Firsttwo cootsof primershouldbeoppliedon thepipesurfoce. shouldbepointedwith two cootsof goodquolityredleqd
RedOxideZincChromote for this purpose. primer.
primeris qppropriote
Thenonothertwo cootsof high quolitypolyurethone
enomel
pointshouldbeoppliedon top of the primer.
Outsidesurfocepipeof which will beburied0r costinto
onchorblocks
'lwo
cootsof primersimilorto qbovegroundpipeshould
beopplied.Then,onothertwo cootsothigh-buildbituminous
point shouldbeoppliedoverthe primer. Provideon extrocoot
of bituminouspoint ot tronsitionqreos,which oremoreprone
(seeFigure7.1).
to corrosion
Inside surfsce ofpipes
Forsmolldiometerpipesit moy not bepossible
to pointthe
insidesurfoce.Howeverwheneverpossible,the insidesurfoce

107
 If thercis o doubtoboutthequolity ofpoint, the suppli- A line shouldbe morked by spEoding lime on the
er'sspeciflcotions shouldbecheckedprior to its use.Notethot surfoceofthe gmundt0 pplocethe cord. Thenthe
pointworkis not requiEdfor HDPEor PVCpipes. positionsofondror block ond supportpiersshouldbe
Any pointworkdomogedduringtronsportondinstollo- morkedt0 the r€quiftd spocingfor exposedpipesond
tion must be mod€good,sothot the full numberofcootsis excovotioncorried out olong this line os l?quil€d.
pRsenteverywher€.Thisis especiolly
importontfor bu ed Forburied pipes,the penstockis instoll€d in the
DiDes. excovotedtrench ond bocldrlledos shown in Fioure4.8.
Thebocldll shouldberornmedin loyers
ondo slighthumpobovethelevelof the
groundhelpsto keeptheolignment dry
An improperly bocldlledpenstock
oligment conquicklybecome the
routefordroinoge woterdownthe l
hillside.However, notethqt bocK l
shouldbecompleted or y ofterthepipe
hosbe€npressure tested.
. Forexposed pipes,theonchors ond
supports shouldbeconsuucted oswill
b€discussed in Chopter T. Thepipe
shouldbecostintotheonchors ond
plocedononesupportpierot o time.
Nofurthersupports or onchorsshould
bebuilt until thepipeis securedto the
Photo6 14 Penstodot Cbondrukwith villqgein the bqckground
previous onchorblockor supponpier
Forbothsiteweldedond flong€connected pipes,the
endshouldpmtrudefrom the lost supportblockwith
6.12 Instqllqtion odequotemorgin(- 300mm) sothqt eitherthe flonge
or the weldline doesnot lie on the supportpier during
Thefollowingprocedure
shouldbeused. thermolexpqnsionor controction.If mor€thon one
o Thecentrelineofthe penstockshouldbes€tour usingq pipesectionn€edsto beweldedbetweenthe support
cordondpegsolongthe selected
routeosshownin piers,tempororysupportsshouldbeusedosshownin
Figuft 6.8. Formicro-hydroschemes
obove20kW of Photogroph 6.15.Flongeconnected pipesshouldbe
insto]ledcopociryo theodoliteshouldolsobeusedto joinedond the boltstightenedos the instollotion
ensuRthot the bendonglescomspondto the fqbricoted Progresses.
oioebends.

4i
#

Photo6.15ltmporory supportfor sit€v{eldingworhJho_Dhe

mini
Figurp68 Sstthgout thecentrEline
ofthe p€nstock
olignment hydro,Nepo.l

.108
 Theinstqllqtionof the penstock
shouldstort 6.14 Checklistfor penstockwork
lromthe mochinefoundqtionondproceed upstreom.
Thisqvoids
ony misolignment betweenthe penstock Referto Toble6.i ond decideon the penstock
moterial.
ondtheturbinehousing.Sincetheturbineneedsto be Whenin doubtcomporethe costsof qll ovoiloble
firmly fixedto themochinefoundotion,
thereis olmost options.
at this endqfterthe mqchinefoundotion
no toleronce Is the olignmenton procticolgroundslope?Is there
hosbeenconstructed.
Furthermore,the pipesections spocefor the powerhouse
odequote oreoot the endof
jointsconslidedownif instollo-
belowtheexponsion thepenstock
olignment?Hqvethe bendsbeenmini-
tion proceeds
downstreom
from theforeboy.Minorpipe mised?
deviotionccn beodjustedot theforeboywqll,but such Formild steelpipesreferto Tqble6.3to decideon flonge
odjustmentis not feosibleot the mochinefoundotion. connectionor sitewelding.Alsobe sureto specifo
Formicro-hydro loyingof penstock
schemes, in discrete opproprictecootsof point.
lengthsis not recommended
sincethis cqnleodto If o buriedpenstockolignmentis beingconsidered,
refer
of thepipes.
misolignments to Tobl€6.4to comporethe odvqntoges qnd disodvon-
r pipesshouldbepressure
Penstock tested0t the foctory toges,ondFigure4.8for the trenchdetoils.
beforetronsportto site. Forschemes
wheretheheodis Isthe pipediometersuchthqt the heqdloss
is between
penstock
morethon 15m the completed shouldolsobe 5o/osnd 70o/o?
pressure phose.lf
testedduringthecommissioning Hqsollowqncebeenmodefor surgeeffectswhilesizing
suchpressure
feosible testshouldincludethe surge the penstock
woll thickness?
heod(i.e.,pressure
testot hror..).
Thisconbedoneby a Isthe sofetyfoctorsufficientos discussed
in Section6.6?
simulotingtheexpected
surgeheodot the foreboy a Arethepipelengthsond weightssuchthqt theyore
usingo mqnuolpressure
purnp.If ony leokogeis ond porteroble?
tronsportoble
noticed,the sectionshouldberepoired
suchosby Referto Section6.12for pipeinstollationot site.
tighteningthe bolts,chongingfoulty goskets
or
welding.Forburiedpipeolignment,the bockfillshould
onlybecompleted pressure
oftersuccessful testing;
if thereoreony minorbendswithout qnchor
however,
blocks,thesemustbebockfilledbeforepressure
testing.
oncethe pipetrenchis bockfilled,
it will bedifficultond
timeconsuming
to re-excovote
ondidentifytheleoking
sectlon.

6.13Mointenonce

Abovegroundmild steelpenstocksshouldberepointedevery3
to4 yeorsdepending
on theconditions.Nuts,boltsondgoskets
connected
offlonge mild steelpipesshouldbecheckedqnnu-
boltsshouldbetightened
olly,loose goskets
onddomoged
shouldbereploced.A visuqlcheckfor flongeleoksshouldbe
corriedout monthly.
Forburiedpenstock signsofleokoge
sections, suchos
thesudden ofspringsolongtheolignment
oppeoronce
duringwinter)ond moistgroundwheretheqreq
(especiolly
wospreviously
dry shouldbechecked.Ifony leokogeis
thepenstock
noticed, shouldbedroinedondcorefullyexco-
votedforrepoiroftheleokingsection.

109
 7. Anchorblocksand
supportpiers
7.1 Overview

Ar qnchorblockis on €ncosem€nt of0 penstockd€signed to

rcstr0inthe plpemovem€ntln oll drr€ctlons.Anchorblocks
sh0uldbeplocedot 0ll shorphorizontolondvenrcolb€nds,
sincethereoreforcesot suchbendswhich will t€ndt0 movethe
pipeout of oligrlm€nt.Anchorblocksoreqlsorequir€dto resist
oxiolforcesin longstroightsectionsofp€nstock.
SupportpiersoreshortcolLlmns thot oreplocedbetween
onchor blocks qlongstroightsectionsofexposed penslockpipe.
These preventthepipefrom saggingond becoming
strucrurcs
overstressed. the supponpiersneedto ollow pipe
However,
porqllelto the penstockolignmentwhich occursdu€
movement
t0 thermolexpqnsionondcontroction.

7.2 Anchorblocks

72.I GENERJqI
ot which onchorblocksorerequiredond their
Locoti0ns
construction
orc described
in this section.

7.2.2 LOCATIONOFANCHORBLOCrc
Anchorblocksorerequiredot the followinglocotions:
At verticolor horizontolbendsofthe penstock osshown
in Photogroph 7.2. A filledp€nstockexeftsforcesot such PhotoT'lA stroightpenstockwith four supponsond on
bendsond th€ pipeneedsto beproperly'onchored'. onchorblockbefoRthe powerhouse

lmmediotelyupstreomof th€ powerhouse.

This
minimisesforceson the turbinehousing.
ofthe penstockwherethe stroightpip€
At sections
lengrhexceeds30m. Thisis to limit the thermol
exponsionofthe pipesinceon exponsionjointwill be
ploceddownstreomofthe onchorblock.

723 CONSTRUCIION
OFANCHORBLOCXS
A[ch0rblocksshouldnormollybeconstructed of 1:3:6concr€te
(1poft cemenr,3 pqrtssqnd.6 portsoggregote)with400/0
plumsondnomrnolreinforcernent. Plumsole bouldersthot ole
ever y oroundthe blocksuchthot they occupy
distributed
qbout40%ofthe blockvolume.Thebouldersoddweightto the
blockondtherefore
incrcosestqbilitywhile decr€osing
the Photo? 2 Jhonhe mni'hydro onchorblockfor on upword venicolbend

111
 .rm,nr r,^1"m, .en"irDl

Hoopreinforcement 0roundthepipelo resist

is required
fromthepip€.
duet0 tensileforces
crockingoftheconcrete
Threel0 mm borsoregenerolly
suincient,osshownin Figure
7.1.Thehoopb0rssh0uldbeopproximotely 150mm cleorof
thepipe,cndshouldexrendto 100mln fromtheb0se,sothot
rhewhol€weightofthe blockcqnbenobilisedwithout
crockingIfthe reinforcement
is inodequote,
theblockcon
crock.osshownin Photogroph7 3. A collor0r metoltogsmoy
beweldedto th€prpeto eusurethot rhepipedoesnotslide \
(
within theonchorbiock
Fordownwordbends,the onchorblockis moinly in
compression,
therefore (1i4cement
o st0nemosonrystructure
f-
monor)conbeconsidered
ifcostsconb€broughtdown.
Composite
onchorblocksc0nols0b€considered
to sove
portsondcentrol
costosshownin Figure7.2.Foundotion
portionofth€blockconbemodeof lr1.5r3
reinforced
concrete Photo73 Crockingotthe Dppcrsudoceo[on unrcinforc€donchorblock
ondouterpoftionoftheblockconbemad€ofstonemqsonryrn
1.4 l.pmonr' c.nd) mnrlnr

(wherewoodis expensive)
ond crushingofstoneto preporc
oggreg0tes. whetherpluln concreteor cement
Th€r€fore,
mosonryrseconomicol
is sitesp€cillc
but thisissueshouldbe
investigoted
ifthere oreo numberofdownwordvenicolbends.

in l:4 c/m
StonemosonrY

_ _i-- * ___j___<*
--|-z-F=i- ------
|

Note:All dimensions h d i n g( 1 , 3 : 6
oreln mm
Figu.e7 I Anchorblockseclion
t:t5:3
[or plumconcrete
Thecementrequirements 0ndcement Note:Alldlmensions
mnc^nru.rD.c f^ll^u,c.
oleln mm.
. 1:316 with 40%plums:132kg ofcementperml
concrele
ofblockvolume.
. 1t1.5:3 kg 0fcementperml
concretet400
. Stonemos0nryin 1:4cemenlmoffor 159kg ofcemenl Costconqlsobe reducedby usingpermonenrdry stone
p e rm ' . wqllsos formworkfor the bu ed portion0fthe onchorblockos
shownln Photogroph
7 4 At sireswherewoodis expensiv€
this
Althoughmorecem€ntls required
for cementmosonry opproochis worth considering.
blocks,
sovings
moy bemodeby ov0idingthecostof formwork Bothploinconcrete or stonemosonryin cementmortor

t12

Ir{,1
 7.3 Supportpiers

?.3.1 GENERAL
ot whichsuppoftpiersor€required
l.ocotions ondtheir
construcrion
oredescribed
in thissectiol|

7.3.2 LOCATION
OFSUPPORT
PIERS
Supponpiersorerequrred
0lorgthcstroightsections
ofexposed
penstock
betrveenoncholblocks.Themoximumspocing of
supportpiersto ovoidoverstressing
thepipeis givenin Toble
7 l. Pleosereodthenotesunderrhetoble
'lhin-lvolled
ploinpipeconbuckleot thesupponpiers
shortspons.In thiscosethepermissible
with relotively spon
by weldingo w€qrplot€to thepipeat e0ch
conbeincreosed
supp0n,seefigure7.3.Thisnroybeeconomicol
for pipeslorger
l h o l o T 4 u s e o fd r y n o n e r v ( r f1ol r k r f D $ o r k . J l r ( L n k | c
ofweorplolesshouldbecut
thon300mm diomelerCorners
with o rodius,to ovoidstress
concentrolions
Not€thot o weor
blocks
shoLrld in Ch0pt€r
becuredosdiscuss€d I by keeping
ploteis olsorequir€dwherethepipeleoveson onchorblock,if
themnoistforot leosto week.
thespont0 thefirstsupponpierexceeds
thot ollowedfor ploin
Thedesign
oionchorblocksis covered
rn s€ction
7 4.
prpe.
It is usuqllyn0t economicol thepipewoll
ro increose
thickness thesupportprerspqcing,
in ord€rto increose but this
wherethecostofsupponpiersrssignrll
shouldbeconsidered
c 0n t .

Toble7.1 Suppon pier spocing lcentre to centrc horizontol length in metresl

IFFECTIVE
PIPE
WAIL PLAINPIPE PIPEWITHWEARPLAIES
t,r.., (mm):
THICKNESS,
".
320NimrnrSTLEL 13 19 2.6 3.9 1.3 1.9 26 39
410NimmrSTIEL 1.0 15 2.0 30 1.0 15 2.0 3.0

h,,. < 100r1r

100mm dio 2A 32 4.0 4.7 20 3.2 4.0 4.7
200mm dio 4l 60 73 8.1 4t 6.0 ?.3 8.3
300mm dio 25 57 8.6 10.5 4.9 ?0 8.6 10.5
400mm dio I4 2.6 5.8 11.7 51 7.4 91 11.?
500mm dio 21 3.7 8.7 4.1 75 9.3 12.0

(b) 100< h,",",

< 150m
100nnl dio 19 3.1 4.0 4.7 1.9 1.1 4.0 47
200mm dio 3.9 58 7.1 8.3 3.9 5.8 7.7 83
100mm dio 2.5 5.7 82 1 05 4.4 6.7 8.2 105
400mm dio 14 26 5.8 112 4.4 69 8.6 1 12
500mm dio 2T 37 87 4.0 6.8 8.7 11.5

. Continued

113
 ...Continued

rc) 150< h,dor< 200m

100mm dio 2.3 3.5 AA
2.3 3.5 4.7
200mm dio 2.7 5.0 6.5 8.3 2.7 5.0 6.5 8.3
300mm diq 2.5 5.7 7.6 10.1 3.2 5.8 7.6 10.r
400mm diq l.a 2.6 5.8 10.6 3.0 6.0 7.9 10.6
500mm dio z.r 3.7 8.7 z-u 5.8 7.9 70.7

(d) 200< h,otor

< 250m
100mm dio 1.8 J.l 9.t 1.8 J.t .t.t

200mm diq 1.8 4.4 6.0 8.3 1.8 a.a 6.0 8.3
300mm dio 2.7 5.2 7.0 9.7 2.1 J.Z 7.0 9.7
400mm diq 2.6 5.8 10.1 5.1 7.2 10.1
500mm dio 2.1 3.7 8.7 ,.t 7.t 10.1

Notes:
weldedor flongedto BritishStqndord(minimumflongethickness: 16mm). In othercoses
1. Appliesonly to steelpenstocks
useonesupportpier for eochindividuolpipelength,with thepierin the middle.
2. Weorplotesto beof somethickness coveringbottom180"of pipe. Thelengthshould
os pipewoll, ond weldedon oll edges,
be enoughto extendot leost0.5timesthe pipediometerbeyondeochsideof tiresupportpier. SeeFigure7.3.
3. Forthe colculqtioD
0ft"u".,u.
relerto Section6.6.
pipediometers,
betweenthe obovevoluesfor intermediqte
4. Interpolote or steelgrodes.
wqll thicknesses

i,

SECTIONA.A

ofweor ploteot o supportpier

Figure.7.3Arrongement

114
733 CONSTRUCTION OFSIJPPORTP|ENS Woodensupportpiershoveoccosionolly
beenusedin
piers
Support ole generolly out ofstonemosonryin
constructed micro-hydroschemes,
os conbe seenin Photogroph
7.7.
1:4cem€ntmoftor. Dressed stoneshouldbeusedfor theoutsid€ woodis generollyexpensive
Howev€r, ond olsorequips
surfoces
ofthe pi€r A 140'beoringoreqfrom the centft ofthe frequentmointenoncesuchos pointing.
di0metershouldbeprovidedto supportthe penstock
penstock Ste€lsupportpiersconolsobeusedqson oltemqtiv€to
pipeosshownin Figurc7.4.Plocingo steelsoddleploteobove sronem0sonryespeciolly ot siteswherecementis expensive
or
thesupportpier wh€rethe penstockpiperestsolongwith o 3 the soilis weokin beoring.An exqmpleofsteelsupportpielsis
mm thick tor poperos shownin Figure7.4minimisesfriclionol rncludedin Chopter10(lnnovotions).
th€ usefullife ofthe pipe. c-clompsmqy
effectsond increoses
olsobeprovidedto protectth€ pipefrom vqndolismond c
sidewoysmovement.but theremust beo gopbetweenthe
surfoceofthe pipeond th€ C-clomp,sothqt oxiol forcesorenot
to the supportpier. stonemosonrysupportpiels
tronsferred
7.5.
wilh c-clqmpsconbe seenin Photogroph

3 mm thick
paper
with steel
saddle
plate
undemeath

frgurp7.4 T'?icolsecrion
rhrough pier
o support

Photo7.6 Theuseofon extensiontoth€ concrEtesupponlifts the pipecleoro[

on block,qllowinqdroinogeond preventingcormsionbetweenthe blockond
the pipe(ftomche)

7 5 Stone
Photo mosonry piers,
support JhonkPminihydmscheme

115
 7.4 Designofqnchor blocks
ond supportpiers
7.4.1 GENERAI
Thedesignofonchorblocksond supportpiersrequiresresolving
somecommonforces,which are thereforediscussed
togetherin
this section.Firstthe structurcsorc tentotivelysizedorldthe
voriousforcesthot oct on them oreresolved.Theminimum
colculqtedblocksizethot is sofeogoinstbeoring,slidingond
overtumingis occepted.It shouldbenot€dthot the design
pr0cess
involveso few iterotions.
Voriousforcesthot conoct on onchorblocksqnd support
piersoresummorisedin Toble7.2ond discussed
ther€ofter

Photo7 7 Woodensupportli€rs ot Komchemicro.hydroscheme,

Nepol

Tqble 7.2 Forces on onchor ond slide blocks

FORCElkNl DIRECIIONOFPOIENTI,AIMOVEMENTOF COMMENTS
ANCHOR
BLOCKORSIJPPORT
PIER SYMBOLS
AREDEFINED
ATTHEENDOF
T1IISTASLE
F, Uphillportion Downhillportion Fris thecomponent
ofweightofpipe
Fr = combinotiolofFr,ondF,d ondwoterperpendiculor
to thepipe.
F,,: (We+w*)1,"cosct
Frd= (Wp+W*)Lrd
cos0 to bothsupportpiersond
Applies
Ifninp i<crrninhr onchorblocks
F, = {w"+ w,.,)(1,,,+
1,,)cos
G
F, F, is the frictionolforcedueto the pipe
Fz Expqnsion:
onchor
F?,= f (We+ W*)1,.coscr slidingon the supportpi€rs.
belowond exponsion
F,o= f (wp+ w*)Ld coscr
joint obove
Appliesto supportpien ond onchor
{t blocks.Theforceoctingqt on onchor
blockis the sum offoEesocting0n the
controctionronchorbelow supportblocksbetw€enthe onchor
ond expqnsionjoint obove blockond exponsionjoints,but
nnn^.irp in diF.ti^n

Direcfionsfor forceson supportpier

F,, F, is the hydrostoticforte on bendsth0t
octsolongthe bisectorofthe bend.
r,= zy*",.,h,",",x
l{'r (?
0r y oppliesto onchorblocksthqt
=15.4h,"dd'zsin(?) hovehorizont0lond/orverticolbends

116

if $rr
 Uphillportion Downhillportion Fois the componentof pipeweight
F, = combinqtion ondFoo
of Fou octingporollelto pipe.
F =W L sinu.
4up4u F..,
F4 d p=4 0W
l
L.sinB Appliesto onchorblocksonly.
Colculqteonly ifthe cngles(a or p) ore
lorgerthon 20".
'5 F, is the thermolly inducedforce
Uphill portion Downhillportion
F s = i 0 0 0 ET
on(d+0t restroinedby the onchorblockin the
SeeToble6.2in Chopter6 for obsence joint.
oI on exponsion
vqlues ofEondo
\--
Appliesto onchorblocksonly.
Colculote jointsore
only if exponsion
not instolledbetweenonchorblocks.
F6 F,directions
osF, Fuis the frictionol forcein the
Fu=1ood exponsionjoint.TheF6forceis felt
thejoint will resistsliding.
becouse

Appliesto qnchorblocksonly.
F7
Uphillportion portion F, is the hydrostoticforceon exposed
Downhill
F/ - = !yw o l e r hl o t o l t l ( d + t ) t X joint
endsof pipewithin expcnsion
----
: 31h,o,o, (d + 0 t -.......-- \ ---.-
\
Usuollyinsignificont Fru- Appliesto onchorblocksonly.
F8 F,dirrctionsosF, F, is the dynomicforceot o benddueto
chongein directionof movingwoter.

\=(ftsJ""(T) oreusuollylow in penstocks

Velocities
sothis forceis smoll.

=,5(sJ,'"(?) Appliesto onchorblocksonly.

Usuollyinsignificont
F F, is the forcedueto reductionin pipe
Fn= Y*o,.,h,o,o,X
, n.,
- d'..r,') diometerfrom { nto d,.orr.
i(do,o'

=7.7h (\ d ' z - d 'z) Appliesto onchorblocksonly.

lolol Drq snroll '

F,o F,ois the forcedueto soil pressure

upstreomofthe block.
u,r=!FcosixKoxw
Appliesto bothonchorblocksond
supportpiers

ColculoteFroif (hl - hr) is morethon

1 m. Theforceoctsot 113of theheight
(h,)from theboseofthe block.
 W. D
Wois the weightof block.
WD. = V o l .Dloak
. . . x IY . .
Dtftt

Appliesto onchorblocksond support

piers.

DEFINITIONOFSYMBOISUSEDIN TABI}7.2 (Figure7.5).

cr = Upstreompenstock
onglewith respect
t0 the L,u Holfthedistoncefrom onchorblockcentreline to
horizontol. the centreline
of the first upstreqmsupportpier
B = Downstreom
penstock
onglewith respect
t0 the (Figure7.5).
horizontol. r"2d ,istonce betweentwo consecutivesupportpiers
y : Unit weightin kN/mr downstreom ofthe onchorblock.
vI w o t P r - 9.8kN/mr Distonce
Lru supportpiers
betweentwo consecutive
vr c o n c E l e : 22 kN/ml upstreomofthe onchorblock.
yr = 20 kN/ml Loo Distonce
from the onchorblockcentrelineto
mos0nry
y' p r p c seeTqble6.2 the downstreomexponsionjoint (Figure7.5).
molenol

Y,o,r seeToble7.3 I
4U
Distqnce
from the onchorblockcentrelineto the
O = Soilongleoffriction,seeToble7.3 upstreqmexponsion joint (Figure7.5).
q = Coeflicientof lineorexponsionofpipe(oCr),see a Flowin the penstockpipe(mr/s).
Toble6.2in Chopter6 whereo is the symbol J
of penstock(m).
Wqllthickness
used. AT chonge("C)thqt the pipe
Moximumtemperoture
= Pipeinternoldiometer(m). will experience
ofterbeingfixedot onchorblocks.
A = Internoldiometerof lorgerpipein coseof Widthof theonchorblockin m.
Dlg

reductionin pipediometer Wp Weightof pipein kN/m

: Internoldiometerof smqllerpipein coseof t l ( d + t ) t vr prpe n0(efl01
reductionin pipediometer. W Weightof woter in kN/m
E = Young's
modulusof elosticity,
seeToble6.2in (Pipeoreoin m2)x y*o,",
Chopter6.
L I : offrictionbetweenpipeond support
Coeflicient
piers
s : dueto grovity : 9.8m/s'z
occelerotion
h : Burieddepthofblockot theupstreomfoce.
h
") : Burieddepthofbiockot thedownstreom
foce.
h : Totolheodincludingsurge.
t0l0t

I : Uphillgroundslope(Figure7.5).Notethct i moy
not olwoysbeequolto a.
K" : Activesoilpressure qsfollows:
coefficient

Ko _ cosi-ltotzi-.otz 0

lii
cosi +\6sri - cos,O

I
"ld
= Hqlfthedistoncefromonchorblockcentreline
to
the centreline
ofthe first downstreom
supportpier

118
 qnd onglesusedin onchorblockond supportpierequotions
Figure7.5 Distdnces

7.4.2DESCRIPIION OFFORCES designing

onchorblocks.However,
the blocksizeconbe
-
F, F,is the component
of theweightof pipeondenclosed significontlyreducedif the bendongle(B-a)conbe minimised
to the pipeolignment.If therr is a bendqt
woterperpendiculor whilefixing the penstock olignment.
theonchor,however,
boththe upstreomonddownstreqm
eochforceperpendiculor
lengthsofpipecontributesepqrotely, F. - Fois the forcedueto the componentof the weight of pipe
of thepipesegmentwhichcontributes
to thecentreline t0 it. porollelto the pipeolignment.Ono slope,the component
of
theweightof the pipewhich is porollelto the pipetendsto pull
Fr-F, is the frictionolforceofpipe0n supportpiers.Ifthe it downhillondexertso forceon on onchorblock.Thesections
penstock moveslongitudinollyoversupp0rtpiers,o friction ofpipebothupstreomqnd downstreomofon onchorblockmoy
forceon the pipeis creqtedot eqchpier.A force'Fr",equolto hoveto beconsidered. Thelengths'Lou'ond'Loo'in
the equotion
thesumof oll theseforcesbut opposite
in direction,octson the for the force"F,"qctingon qn onchorblockorethe lengthsof
qnchor.Thisforceexistsonly whereoneor moresupportpiers the upstreomor downstreomsectionof the penstock
which is
orelocotedbetweenthe onchorblockqnd on exponsion joint. octuollyto beheldby thot block.Theupstreomsectionmoy
Forexomple,if on exponsion joint is locotedimmediotely joint. The
beginot the foreboy0r,moreusuolly,ot on exponsion
downhillof the qnchor,frictionforceson thedownhilllengthof downstreqm sectionusuollyendsqt on exponsionjoint.Ifthe
pipewill not betronsmittedto theqnchorblockfromthqt side. joint downstreomof on onchorblockis locqtedneor
exponsion
Thefrictioncoeflicient,
f, depends
on the mqteriql the onchor,os it usuollyis, the forcecrising from the weight of
ogoinstwhichthe penstock
slidesond is osfollows: thedownhillsectionof pipebetweenthe onchorond thejoint is
insignilicontond is usuollyneglected.
Also,the onchorblock
steelon concrete,f: 0.60 will not experience
this forceif the penstockis buriedsincethe
steelon steel,rustyplotes,f : 0.50 groundfriction will resistthis force.
steelon steel,greosedplotesor tor poperin between,
f : 0.25 F, - F, is the forcethot is tronsmittedt0 the onchorblockdueto
thermollyinducedstresses in the obsence joint.
of on exponsion
F, - F,is the forcedueto hydrostoticpressure
within o bend. Ifon exposedsectionofo rigid pipedoesnot incorporote
on
Thehydrostoticpressure
ot o bendcreotes
o forcewhich octs exponsionjoint, thermollyinducedstresses
buildup in the pipe
outwordfor upwordbendsond inwordif thebendis down- andoct on the onchorblock.Theossocioted
force"Fr'moy
word. Thisis o mojorforcewhich mustbeconsidered
in pushogoinstthe onchorblock(with increosingtemperoture)or

119
 pull the onchorblock(with decreosing
tenperoture). this forceshouldbeconsidered
sinceit hoso destqbilisino
effect.
Notethqt the resultqntofthis forceoctsot 1/3h..
F. - Fuis the forcedueto frictionwithin theexponsion
joint. To
preventleoking,the pockingwithin qn exponsion joint mustbe 7.4.3 DESIGNPROCEDURE
tightenedsufliciently.However, this tighteningolsomqkesit Onceoll of the oboverelevontforceshovebeencqlculotedthe
morediflicultfor thejoint t0 occeptony longitudinolmove- designprocedure
for onchorblocksond supportpiersrequires
mentof the pipe. Frictionbetweenthe pockingondthe checkingthethreeconditions0f stobilityos follows:
concentric
sleeves joint creotes
in the exponsion o force"Fu"
which opposes or controction0fthe pipe.This
ony exponsion Safety against overturning
forceis dependent tightnessofthe pocking
on pipediqmeter, Theforcesoctingon the structureshouldnot overturntheblock.
glondondsmoothness ofslidingsurfqces.
lfthereis noto thot hoverectongulorboses,this conditionis met
Forstructures
=
chongein the pipedirection(cr F) upstreomonddownstrecm if theresultqntoctswithin the middlethird of the bqse.Thisis
ofthe onchorblock,the forces(fromupstreqmonddownstreom checked qs follows:
exponsionjoints)concelout. r Firsttokemomentsoboutonepoint of the blockolongthe
loceporollelto the penstockolignment.
F - F,is thehydrostoticforceon exposedendsofpipein r Findthe resultontdistonceqt which the sum ofverticol
exponsionjoints. Thetwo sectionsofpenstock pipeentering forcesoct usingthe followingequotion:
joint
on exponsion terminoteinsidethe joint;therefore,
their
,.1_
/I _I M \
endsoreexposedto hydrostoticpressure,
resultingin o force "-\Iv
I
/
"F,"which pushesogoinstthe onchorsupstreomqnddown-
streomof thejoint. Thisforceusuollycontributes
minimollyto where:
thetotol forceson on anchorsincethe rotio0fpipethickness
to d is the distqnceqt which the resultontocts.
thediometeris low. However,
this forceconbesignificontot Itr,t is the sumo[ momentsoboutthe chosen pointof
joint
mild steel-HDPE sections (sinceHDPE pipesorethicker). the block.
is the totolheodot the exponsionjoint.
Notethot h,o,o, IV is the sumofverticalforceson the block.
r Nowcolculqtethe eccentricityofthe blockusingthe
F, - F, is the dynomicforceot the pipebend.At the bend,the followingequotion:
woterchonges
thedirectionofits velocityondtherefore
the
l ro o t t- d l I
directionof its momentum.Thisrequires
thot thebendexerto e: I
t2 I
forceon thewoter. Consequently,
on equolbut opposite
il reoctionforce"F."octson thebendlit octsin thedirection r Forthe resultontto be in the middlethird of the block,the
ll which bisectsthe exteriorongleof thebend(someosF,).Since mustbelessthon 1/6of the boselengthos
eccentricity
velocities orerelotivelylow (< 5 m/s),themogni-
in penstocks follows:
tudeofthisforceis usuoliyinsignificont.
L&s€
-ollowot
l. 6
F, - Fnis the forceexerteddueto the reductionof pipediometer.
Ifthereis o chongein thediometerofthe penstock, thehydro- Finollycheckthot e < €orowobre
stoticpressure qctingon the exposed oreocreoteso force"Fr"
which qctsin the directionof the smqller-diometer
pipe.if the Safety on bearing
penstocklengthis long(osin the coseofJhonkremini-hydro), Theloodtrqnsmittedto the foundqtionmust bewithin the sqfe
thenthe pipethickness
is increqsed
with increqsing
heod. beoringcopocitylimit of the foundotionmoteriol.If the trons-
the effectof chongingthediometerby o few mm does
However, mittedloodexceeds
thebeoringcopocirylimit of the foundotion,
not c0ntributesignificontforcesond canbeignored. the structurewill sink. Thebeoringpressure
ot the boseis
usingthe followingequotions:
checked
Fro- F,ois the forceon the onchorblocksor supportpiersduet0
the soilpressure octingon the upstreomfqce.Ifthereis o p.=
betweenthe upstreqmonddownstreom
significontdifference *('.*-)
-
burieddepth(h, h, > I m) of the blocktheno forcewill be where:
exertedon the onchorblockdueto soilpressure.In suchcqses, P. : moximumDressure
mta
tronsmittedto the foundotion.

r20
 Srr --
/rv thesumofverticolforcesoctingon theblock.
T-
mse
lengthofthe bose.
A=
ms€
theboseoreoofthe block.
r- colculoted
eccentricitv eorlier.

mustbelessthon the ollowoble

Pbo,,
Thecolculoted
pressure
beoring for the typeofsoil ot the foundotion
(Po'o,our,)
level.Allowoblebeoringpressurefor differenttypesofsoil is
shownin Toble7.3.

Toble?3 Unit weight |7f, ongle of friction lOl snd ollowoble beoring pressur€ for difierent soil types
SOILTYPE UNITWEIGHT, y (kN/m') FRICIONANGrc(Aol AttOwABLEBEARING (kN/m')
PRESSURE
Softcloysondsilts Ib 22 50
Firmcloysondfirm sondycioys t 7 25 100
Stiffcloysondstiffsondycloys 20 30 200
Verystiffbouldercloys 20 32 350
wellgrodedsondsond
Loose 18 31 100
mixture
scnd/grovel

Safetyagainst sliding where:

Thestructureshouldnot slideoverits foundotion.Thefollow- I H = sum ofhorizontol forces
ingequotionis usedto checkthis condition: u =Frictioncoeflicient
betweentheblockond the foundotion.
A volueof p : 1on,, but not exceeding for
0.5,is recommended
'uIv
- > 1.5: friction betweenmosonryor concreteon soil.
Itl
lV = Sumofverticalforcesoctingon the block

Designfor oneof theJhonkremini-hydroonchorblocks.Thefollowinginformationis provided:

Pipediometer = 450mm,
Pipethickness:4mm.
hntr,= 6om'
= 48 *,
\o*.
61=i=13o,p=25'
Distonceto upstreomsupportpier,= 4 m,
.'.L,u= 2 m
Distanceto downstreomsupportpier, = 4 t
= 2m
"'L'a
Distonce joint = 30m.
to upstreomexpcnsion
= 30m
"'L*

Thereore8 supportpiersot 4 m centreto centrespccing(L^ = 4 m) up to the upstrcamonchorblock. Toreducefriction, oll

supportpiersoreprovidedwith steelshaddleplotesond tor poperon top ofthe plotesos in Figure7.4.
An exponsionjoint will belocotedjust downstreomof the block.
Thesoil rypeis stiffcloy.

72r
CALCULAnONS
hrorot. = h gffi + h srge
=60m+48m=108m
Consider
theblockshopeshownin Figure7.6.
volumeof thepipe=
Blockvolumeexcluding

x r} *(+-
{(2.2s :x i.os)}x 2- 1x fIx0.4582

/4 cos13o- 2 x fl x 0.458'?
/4 cos25o= 16.12m3
Unit weight of concrete,(y.oo.*.)=22kN /m3
Weightof block,Wr = 16.12x 22
= 354.64kN

Weightof pipe,

Wo=il (d + t) t y,,*r
= f[ x 0.454x 0.004x 77
= 0.,14kN/m 3.00m
n (0.4sor Wdth = 2.00m
W* = ----;- x9.8= 1.56kN/m
Figure7.6 Pmposed
onchorblockshope

Wp+W,= 2.00kN/m

therelevont
Colculote forces:

1. F,u = (Wo* W*) L,ucos cr

= (2.00)x 2 x cos13' = 3.9) kl,f
2. F,o = (Wo*W*)L,ocosP
= (2.00)x 2 x cos25o= 3.63kN
3. Frictionolforceper supportpier:
= + f (Wp* W,)L^ coscr
f = 0.25for steelon steelwith tor poperin between,
= "r 0.25(2.00)
x 4 cos13o
= -r 1.95kN per supportpier

Sincethereore8 supportpiers
F^onAnchorblock = t 1.95x8= t 15.6ld,{
Notethot F, is zerosinceon exponsionjoint is locotedimmediotelydownstreamof the anchorblock

4. F, = 15.4h,o,o,0'r*(?)

tt"
= 15.4x 108x (0.450),
r* (tt;-
= 35.20kN )

5. F.u= Wolrusin u
: 0.44x30x sin 13'
= 2.97kN

122
Notethot Fouis insignificontsincea is lessthan zff and couldhavebeenignoredcs discussed in Toble?.2.F* hosbeen
colculatedhereonly t0 showhow it is done.F* is negligiblesinceon exponsionjoint is plocedimmediotelydownstreomof
the onchorblock.,i.e.,L* - 0 and therefore
F.=0.
6 . F u= 1 0 0 x d = 1 0 0 x 0 . 4 5=0 4 5 k N

7. FI =31 h,o,r(d+0t
F7u = 31 x (108- 30 sin cr)x 0.454x 0.004
= 5.70kN
Fro = 31 x 108x 0.454x 0.()04= 6.08kN

Notethot os disclssedeorliertherrsultontoftheseforcesis insionificant.

/Q'\ /p-c\
8. F8 :t.tI
a, /sin[ , /

^ _ 1 0 . 4 5 0 '\z. / 2 s " - 1 3 " \

: 2's
I o3so'? /th t z /
: 0.26kN

Notethot os discussed
eorlier,this forceis insiqnificont.

9. F, = 0 sincethe pipediometerdoesnot chonge.

10. Soilforce,F,o.

FromToble7.3, y,o' = 20 kN/m3ond

=
0 3oofor stiffclay.

Recollthoti=13o

cosi-.,/coszi-coFI
.K"=
_ =o'371
cosi+mffi
v .h2
F , o =e X L c o s i x K o x w

zJxr.a'
= -T- cos13ox 0.37txz

= 23.45kN

Thisforceoctsot U3 ofthe burieddepthot upstrcomfqceofonchorblockfrom point o as

shownin Figure7.7, which is (U3 x 1.8)= 0.6m.

123
Resolutionof forces
cr=13",b=25"

Forces(kN) X - component(kN)++ Y- component

(kN)+ +
= 3.90 * F,usin cr * F[cos a
lu

: - 0.88 = *3.80
F
-ld = 3.63 - F,osin B F,ocosP
= - r-lj = * 3.29
'ar =-+ 15.6 -f F2u
cos 0. + Fzusin
cr
= -r 15.20 = + 3.51
Positiveduringexponsion
O Positiveduring exponsionO
duringcontroction@
Negotive Negotiveduring contrcction@

/ p+cr\ -frcos\
/B+0\
F
'3 = 35.20 *F,sin\
, , , /
= f ll.4t) = -33.29
'4u = 2.97 + F4ucosct * Fousin cr
= * 2.97cos13o = * 2.97sin 13o
= * 2.89 = * 0.67
=45 + F, (cosa - cosB) + Fu(sin p - sin ct)
: +45(cos13'-cos25') = t 45 (sin25"- sin 13")
: -{-3.06 = -r 8.90
Positive O
duringexponsion Positiveduring exponsionO
duringcontroction@
Negotive Negotiveduring controction@
Fru: 5'70 * F^ coscr * F^ sin cr
= 5.70cos13" : 5.70sin 13"
= *5.55 = * 1.28
Fro: 6'08 - FrocosB - Frosin P
= - 6.08cos25o = * 6.08sin25o
= - 5.51 = - 2.57

/F+41
-r,cos\
/0+cr 1
F,: o'26 *Frsin\ , I 2 /
/ 250+130\
= 0.26sin | -l
\2 |

: * 0.09 = - 0.25
F,o: 23.45 * F,ocosi f F,osin i
= 23.45cos13o = 23.45sin 13'
- * 22.85 = * 5.28
Wr: 354'64 0 + 354.@
SUM lH=+53.18OExponsion Iv:345.26OExponsion
IH = + 16.66@
Controction IV = 320.44
@ Controction

downwords.
Notethot forcesorepositivein X-directionis towordsthe right ond Y-direction

Colculotethe centreof grovity of the blockfrom the upstreomfoceof the blocktoking the momentof moss. Theeflectof the
pipepossingthroughtheblockis negligible, soneednot becolculoted.
1/3x3} x2
12+ | 1/2x3x1.05)
{(3x2.25)3
{ (3x2.25]t
+ (Uzx3x1.05)
} x2

124
= 1.41m
.'. theweightof theblockWBocts1.41m frompoint0.

Sumofhorizontolforcesthot oct ot thebend

Is-n
case53.18-22.85: 30.33kN -r
O Exponsion
cose16.66-22.85 = - 6.19kN +-
O Controction

Sumofverticql forcesthqt sct qt the bend

Iv-F,oy-wB
O Exponsion
cose
= - 14.66kN t
345.26-5.28-354.64
@ Controction
cose
320.44-5.28*354.9= * 39.48kN T

Nowdrowq forcediqoromon theblockosshownin Fioure7.7.

ifstructureis sofeogoinstoverturning:
Check
39.480

O -+ Exponsion
cose
14.660 e Expansion

@ Contrac{on

Tqkesum0f momentsoboutpoint0 with clockwise

moments os positive:
Penstock
I u @ r o = 3 0 . 3 3 x 2 . 1* 52 2 . 8 5 x 0 . 6
+ 354.&x 1.41- 14.66x 1.0
= 564.30kN-m

- t u / = i f564.30
o, : \/:r,r\ i:163m
t3 |
e = l- - 1 . 6 3 l = 0 . 1 3 m Figurc7.7 Forcediogromon the onchorblock

I'I
L3 -=0.5m
P
'ollowohle
6 6

. ' . e < eo .n 0 w o D t e O K

@ + Controction
cqse

Tqkesumof momentsoboutpointO with clockwise

momentsospositive:
IM@ 0 = - 6 . 1 9 x 2 . 1 5
* 22.85x0.6
+ 354.64x 1.4i - 39.48x 1.0
: 460.96kN-m

, /ru\
d=l-l=-=1.44m
+oo.so
\ Iv I 320.44
l: I
e : l - - 1 . 4 4| : s . 9 6m
l'l = 0.5
Recollthot €ouo*obl.
 . " e < e .otowoDt€
. ..0K.
Sincee < eo,,*ob,.
for bothcoses,
thestructure
is sofeogoinstoverturning.

Checkif thestructurcis safeonbeoringcopocity:

Notethotfor stiffcloyollowoblebeoringpr€ssure (Toble
is 200kNlm'? 7.3).

O -r Exponsion
cose:

mre
= I v / t * 6 fLb""I)
4.," \

,*..=
m 5 € 344
x2\rl
(r + $r:) = 72.5
N/mz

@ + Controction
cose:

p
'bose=
l'v (r +!s-,)
A*r, q",./
\-

P.d * 3-320'44
x 2 \ r l /r +
-6Iq'06) : 5e.8kN/m2

In both cosesP*," ( Pouo*orr.

= 200kN/mz. .'. the structureis sofeogoinstsinking.

Checkifthe blockis scfeogoinstsliding:

O -+ [xponsioncose
IH < pIV
p = 0.5for concrete/mosonry
on soil

53.18kN < 0.5x 345.26kN

53.18kN < 172.53kN OK.

O + Controctioncose
TH<p'V

16.66kN < 0.5x 320.,14

kN
i5.66kN < 160.22kN 0K.
SinceI H . p I V in both cosesthe structureis sofeagoinstsliding.
.'.Theonchorblockis stable.Thecolculotionscouldbe repeotedto justiff usingo smoller,moreeconomicolblock.

7.4.4 STZNGOFANCHORBLOCKS FORSMAI.LSCHEMES plum concretefor eoch300mm of pipediometer.For

Formicro-hydro with o grossheqdlessthon60 m qnd
schemes exomple,if the pipediometeris 200mm, then:
on instqlledpowercopocitylessthon or equolto 20kW the
/200\
followingguidelines
cqnbeusedto determinethe sizeof on t = 0.67m3of concrete
volumeis required.
" f1*,
onchorblock:
o At o stroightsection,locoteoneonchorblockofterevery r At o penstockbend,wherethe bendongleis lessthon 450
eorlier)by plccing1 m3of
30 m distonce(osdiscussed (i.e.,0 - a), doublethe concrete
volumethon whot is

126
 requiredfor o stroightsection.Forexompleifthe pipe
diometeris 200mm ondthe bendis 20'.then:

/200\
2 xl--:=- | = 1.33m3 of concreteis requiredfor Note: All dimensions
\300/
the qnchorblock. ore in mm

r Similorly,if thebendongleis lorgerthon 45',thenthe

requiredconcretevolumeshouldbe threetimesthot for
o stroightsection.
Forexompleif the pipediometeris
350mm ondthe bendis 500,then:

, - (-:+) = 3.5mr of concreteis requiredfor the

\300/
onchorblock.

JohnBywoterhosdeveloped o moresophisticoted
methodof sizingonchorblocksfor smollschemes.Thisis
ovqilqblethroughITDG.
Figure7.9 Supportpier for smoll schemeswith groundheight of I m to 2 m
7.4.5 SIZNG OFSUPPORT PIERSFORSMAII SCHEMES
Forsmollschemes (grossheodlessthon 60m cnd power
copocirylimitedt0 20kW)Figures 7.8qnd7.9conbeusedos 7.5 Checklistfor onchor block
guidelines
to sizefor supportpiers. ond support pier works
olignmentis lessthqn 1 m qbovethe
If the penstock
ground,Figure7.8cqnbeusedos o guidefor the shopeofthe o Hoveonchorblocksbeenlocotedot exposedpenstock
supportpier. Theminimumlengthondwidth ot the bose lengthintervolsexceeding
30 m evenwhen thereoreno
shouldbe 1 m x I m ond the top width porollelto the penstock bends?
olignmentshouldbe0.5m. Thewidth qt thetop perpendiculor o Foronchorblocks,hoso minimum coverof 300mm
t0 thepenstock
piperouteshouldbekept1 m ondthe uphill oroundthe pipebeenprovided?Is odequotereinforce-
woll surfoceshouldbeperpendiculor
to thepenstock
pipe.A mentincluded?
minimumfoundotiondepthof 300mm shouldbeprovided. o If thereoreo lot of downwordsbendsqnd woodis
pipeis 1-2m obovetheground,Figure
Similorly,if the penstock expensive ot siteconsiderusingmosonryonchorblocks.
7.9conbeuseqso guideline. Notethqt thestructureis similor Alsofor theburiedsections,dry stonewollsconbeused
t0 Figure7.8exceptthqt theboselengthondwidth ore1.5m x ospermonentformwork.
1 . 5m . r Hosodequote foundotiondepthbeenprovidedfor both
Forlorgerschemes qll relevontforcesshouldberesolved supportpiersond onchorblocks?Besureto includesteel
ondconditionsofstobilityshouldbechecked qsdiscussed plctesondtor poperon supportpiersto minimise
eorlier. friction.
o Hoveoll relevontforceson both supportpiersond
onchorblocksbeenchecked
os discussed
in Section7.4?
r Finollyrelerto Chopter9 for issuesconcerningstobiliry.

Note:All dimensions
qrein mm

Figure7.8 Supponpierfor smollschemes

with groundheightof lessthon 1 m

127
 8. Powerhouse
ond tailrace

E.lOverview

thepowerhoust
occommodotes
electr0nlechonic0l
equlpment
such generotor,
0stheturbine, ogroprocesslng
unitsond
controlponels.
Themornluncti0nofthlsbutldingis to protect
theelectro-mecllonicol
equipnrenr
fronrodverseweotheros
well0s
possible
rnisllondlin0 persons.
by un0uthonsed The
powerhouse
should
hovecdequote
spocesuchthotoll equip-
menl
confitin 0ndbeoccrssed
withoutdimculty.Costconb€
bmught
d0wnif thec0nstrLrction
is simil0rto otherhouses
in
Itr€Communrty.
Thepowerhouse
oftheBorpokrriclo'hydroscheme
r..,r
h seen
in Phot0gr0ph
8 1 Thisbuildrngis similorto otherlocol
hous€s
in thecommunity.Notethot the tronsformeris f€nced
t0pr€vent
occidents
dueto unouthorised
occess.
Th€g€nerot0rs,
Iurbines
0ndrhebeltdrivesneedro be
$cuRly
lixedonthemochineI0undotionin the powerhouse.
IlisRquires
0 cqreful generores
oesrqrsln.rlheequiDment Photo8 I Powerhous€
oflhe Eorpokmicro.hydmschem€

129
dynomicforc€sond evenq slightdisplocement
concous€ pmc€ssing
units oreolsoinstoll€din the powerhous€,
excessive on voriousportsofthe €quipmentondleodto
strcsses the communitywill not hoveto corry their groin for o
equipmerItmolfunction. longdistonce.
Thetoilroceis 0 chonnelor o pipethot conveyswoter . Oth€rstobilityissuesdiscussed
in Chopter9 shouldolso
from the turbine(ofterpowergenerotion)bock
into the str€qm; beoddr€ss€d.
generollythe sqmestr€omfrom which thewoter wos initiolly
withdrown.
Thepowerhouse
ondtoilroceofthe S0ll€riChiolso
mini- E.3 Designof powerhouse
hydroschemeconbe seenin Photogroph
8.2
83.1 GENERAI
A powerhouse
thqt is similor to otherlocolhousesin the
communityis generollyeconomicolond oppropriot€.The
communitym€mbers\a'illbeobleto constructsucho building
with nominolsupeffision.
Ifo decisionis modeto constructtie powerhouse
similor
to oth€rlocolhouses,
then the civil designinput requircdis to
sizeth€ plon oreoofthe buildingond designthe mochin€
foundotion.Theolto insidethe powerhouse
shouldbe well lit
ond ventilqtedwith sufficientwindows. Plocingo few trons-
porcntfibrcglosssheets(skyligh0in the roofwill pmvide
odditionolilluminotionos conbe seenin Photoorooh
8.3.

PhotoE2 Powerhoute
ond toilroceofthe SolleriChnlsominr-
hydroscheme

E.2 Locotionofpowerhouse

Thelocotionofthe pow€rhouse
is govemedby th€ penstock
olignmentsincethis buildingmust belocotedot the endofthe
penstock.Aport from this,the followingcrit€riooIe recom-
mendedfor locotingthe powerhouse:
o Thepowerhouse
shouldbe sofefrom not only onnuol
floodsbut olsororefloodevents.Discussi0ns
shouldbe
heldwith the locolcommunitymembersto ensuEthot
floodwotershovenot rcochedthe proposed
pow€rhouse
sitewithin ot leostthe post20yeors.Formicro.hydro
schemes
of5G100kW it is r€commended
thot the
powerhouse
beobovethe 5Gyeorfloodlevel.
. It shouldolsobepossible
to dischorgethe toilwoter
Photo8.1 Powerhouseof the Fonlcc minF hydlo
sofelyftom the powerhousebockto the streom.
. Ifpossiblethe powerhouse
shouldbelocotedon level
groundto minimise€xcovotionwork. 832 SEE OFTIIE FOWENfiOUSE
o Theproposed locotionshouldbeoccessiblethroughout Theplon oreoofthe powerhouse
shouldbe determinedos
the yeor. At someplocesthis moy r€quireconstructingo follows:
new foottroil. . Thesiz€ofthe electm-mechonicol
equipmentshouldbe
o Thepowerhouse shouldbelocotedcloseto the commu. obtoinedfrom the monufqcturer.
nity thot it serves,prcvidedthot the penstockqlignment . All l€quil€dequipmentshouldbe drown to scoleond
ond otherporometersor€feosibleond economicol.This plocedon the proposedpowerhouse
plon oreo. Thismoy
will Rducethe tronsmission
lin€ cost.ond ifo0ro. requir€o few t ols to determiflethe optimumloyout.

r30
 -\

spoceshouldbeprovidedsuchthot oll
Adequote 833 WAII AND OTHERDETAII.S
POWERHOUSE
Thereshouldbeq cleor
is eosilyoccessible.
equipment Mosthousesin the hillsof Nepoloreconstructed
of stone
spocingof ot leost1 m oroundeochitem of equipment mos0nryin mud mortor. Woodentrusswith corrugoted iron
thot hosmovingports(suchosthe generotor, turbine (CGI),
sheet slotesor strow thatchingoreusedfor the roofs.A
ondthebeltdrive).Notedthot ifogro-processing for the powerhouse
similorbuildingis recommended structure
equipment is instolled,the communitymembers will with the followingconsiderqtions:
regulorlyvisit the powerhouse (toprocess
theirgroin). o Theminimumwoll thicknessof the stonemosonry
odditionolspoceis requiredsothot the
Therefore wolls(mudmortor)shouldbe450mm. If fundsore
powerhouse ondo
doesnot becomeovercrowded ovoilobleot leostthe externqlsurfoceof the wolls
potentioloreofor occidents.It is recommended
thot shouldbeplostered in cement-limemortqr(12mm
suchqdditionolspoceis providedoso lobbyct the thick,1:1:6mix) to keepowoy moisturefrom roin.
ondthe equipmentis plocedbeyondit. A lobby
entronce r Thepenstock pipeshouldnot normollybebuilt into the
lorgeenoughfor five peopleto woit with theirgroin powerhouse
woll, otherwisethewqll couldbedomoged
(obout3 m x 3 m) moy beodequote
in mostcoses. by vibrotionfrom theturbine.Therecommended
windowsshouldbeprovidedfor lightingond
Adequote solutionis to leoveon oversizedopeningin thewoll; on
ventilotion.Notethot the doorondwindowsneedto be olternotiveis to ploce pipe
o bigger outsidethe penstock
to the
locotedsuchthot theydo not obstructoccess pipewhereit posses
throughthe wqll. At Jhonkremini-
equipment.Thisrequiresco-ordinoting
the locotionsof hydrothewqll wqs locollythickened
to act oso support
windowsqndthe door.
theequipment, pierfor the penstock
pipesenteringthe powerhouse.
o Thecleorheightof thebuildingshouldbe2.5m t0 3 m.
Thepowerhouse loyoutof theJhonkreminihydro r provisionmustbemodefor lifting
Forlorgerschemes,
sciemei-s.rhou/.r,,
in Fitrr 8t pntrinrnpnt t\nt
.1../...-...
rnnnnt \2 l;ftgd hy hnnd
,,".,_.
y' rrnng i"
1. r/utl| tJ
"J

,' ,"r' s (,o

5
c

r3200

Figun8.1 Powerhouse
floorplon of theJhonkremini-hydmscheme

131
,7-

expensive;
m0reoppr0pri0te
is o blockondIockle
supp0rted
by o beomor lempororyA-fromc.
CGIsheets
shouldbeusedIbr thero0llng,sinceth€y0re
:\:
relotively ondleokprooi
fireresistont
Th€lloorofthepowerhouse
shouldbe300mm to 500
mln obovcthe0ulsidegroundsurlirce
to prevent
dompness
ondroinwoterenteringDrqinsshouldolso
beprovjded
outsidethepowerhouse
Doorsondwindowsshouldopenoutwordsfor scfetyin
...p ^ffirp ^r fl^^.lin.

8.4 Designof mochine foundotion

Thedesignofthemochinef0undotion
is similorto thotofon
onchorblock,but simpler.Them0stsignificont
Ibrces
thot the
mochinefoundqtion
conexperienceoreosfollows:
. Thethrust duet0 hydrostohcforcewhen thevolveot
thepowerhouse
is closed
or IhetotolheodLncluding P h o t o8 4 C o n s t r u c t i o nf J h o n k rm
e i n i ' h y d r om o c h l n ef o u n d o t i o n s

blockoge
surgedueto sudden offlow lfthereis on
exponsionjoint
upstreom
ofthevolve,theentireh€od foundotionond thench€ckthe structure0g0rnstov€fturning,
will betronsferred
to them0chinefoundoti0n
fromthe slidingondsinkingosin thecoseofonchorblocks.
turbinehousing TheJhonkremini-hydromochinefoundotionpits cor be
r Thevenicolforcedueto theweightoflhe foundotion seenunderconstruction
in Photogroph
8 4. Th€mochine
block,thc turbineqndlhegener0lor fourld0tionofthe colkot schemecqnbe seenin Drowing420/C/
c. Plocingtheturbinepit floor0.3m below
3C03ofAppendix
Soilforces
do not needto beconsidered
becouse
rheyore toihoc€invertlevelh€lpsto r€duce
obrosion
by thewoter
bolonced
on eqchsideofthefoundotiorr. leovingthe turbine.
Sinceo homogeneous
0ndrigidsrructure
is required
the Exomple th€designprinciples
81 illustrotes ofo mochine
mochinefound0tion
shou]dbeconstructed ofreiuforced foundotion.
Th€designprocess
concrete. is to t€nlotively
sizethemochine

Designo mochinefoundqtionto supporto directlycoupledrurbineond generotor.Thefollowinginformotionhosbeen

provided:
pipediometer- 300mm, mild steel.
Penstock
Thepipecentrelineis 300mm oboveth€ powerhouse
floor

0. = 1 5 0U s
crosshecd(h0.,,)= 51m
Expectedmoximumsurgeheod(h,"_.)- 50m
Woterl€velin the toilrocechonnei= 0.25m
Weightofturbine {Wr)= 300k9
W€ightofg€nerotor(W")= 350k9

Siteconditionsreveolthol the f0undoti0nneedsto beconstructed

on soil.
 --l

Calculotions:
Trya reinforced concrete structurewith dimensions
asshown
in Figures 8.2ond8.3.
htotd. = h grcss + h surge = 5 1m * 5 0 m = 1 0 1m :

Force F") = (Pipeoreo)x 101m x unit weight of

dueto h,o,o,,
w0ter

ilo.3,
m2x 101mx 9.8kN/m3
4

o r F ,= 5 9 , 9 6 0 N : 7 0 . 0 k N

Weightof turbine(Wr) : 300kg = 300x 9.8 = 2910N = 2.94

KN Note:All dimensions
orein m
Figurc8.2 Mochinefoundotionsection

(Wo): 350kg : 350x 9.8= 3430N = 3.43Id,I

of generotor
Weight

oll forceson the mqchinefoundotionond dividethe

Ploce
blockin threesectionsW,, W, cnd W, cs follows:

theweightof threesections
Colculote of theblockusing22
kN/mrfor unit weight of concrete.

W, = 0.4x1.5mx 2.5mx22kN/m3
+I
=33.00kN I
I
I
W , = [ ( 0 . 4 51x. 5 x 2 . 5 ) - ( 0 . 4 51 x 0 . 5 ) * ( 0 . a 5 x 0 . 51x) lx ll

r I I OllfOCO
22 = 27.23kN
ll
Note:All dimensions
orein m
W, = 2.35x 1.5x 2.5x 22 = 193.88
kN
Figurt8.3 Mochinefoundotionplon

Checkwhether the block is sofe ogoinst overturning:

sumof momentsoboutpointB (counterclockwise

Toke
ospositive):
moments
tM@B

10.4 \
= *,* (i + o.4s+ 2.35)+ (w, + wr)x

10.45 1 /2.3s\-
* 2.35)+ (wc+ w3) FHx 1.8
[; t;/

= 33.00(3.0)
+ (27.23+2.94)(2.575)
+ (3.43+193.88)
(1.i75)-70x1.8
orXM@B = 282.5
kNm Note All dimensionsorein m

Sumof verticol forces,IV : W, *Wr*W3+Wr+Wc 8.4 Resolution

Figure offorces
onthemochine
foundotion
= 33.00
+ 27.23+ 193.88
+ 2.94+ 3.43
or IV = 260.5kN

Equivolentdistanceot which XV octsfmm point B:

d= & -?.8?.5 =1.oBm

ry 260.5
[t^ I
"
eccentricity, e = l+-*d
t, J
I

lz.z I
e= l _ _ 1 . 0 8
I
LJ
e = 0.52m
L 3.2
€q'owobrc= =0.53m
f= a

eccentricityis in the middlethird.

Sincee is lessthon €orowobre,

.'.Thestructureis sofeogoinstoverturning.

Check bearing pnessure:

p**=*(,.tJ
I
=#('.s'n) j
I

= &., < 180 (mox.ollowedforsoil)

n, uf

.'. Thestructure
is sofeogoinstsinking.

Checksliding:

thot thefrictioncoeflicient
Assume blockondsoil,p = 0.5
between

XH=Fr=70kN
F !V = 0.5x 260.5= 130.2 kN
Foctorof sofety0goinstsliding:

= pIv = -P9.2* = 1.g6> 1.5oK

IH 70

.'. Thestructureis sofeagoinstsliding.

Hence, osdesigned
t}testructure is odequote.
Thefinoldesignincludingthereinforcement
borsconbeseenin Figure8.5.A
mix concrete
1:1.5:3 potternosshownin thefigureis recommended
with reinforcement for themochinefoundotion sincethe
structuremustberigidcndstrongenough to lvithstondtheforces.A 50mmcover(cleorspocingbetween theborsondthe
edgeof theconcretesurfoce)shouldbeprovidedfor thereinforementbors.Suchcoverprovidespmtectionfor thercinfone
mentbcrsogainstcorrosion ondotherodverse effects.
 \
,"

Notethot os conbe seenin Figure8.5,a 100mm width of sandond gravelhosbeenplocedot the peripheryof the mochine
foundationdown to the depthof the powerhouse floor. Thiswill structurollyisolotethe mochinefoundotionfrom the
powerhouse floor sothot the dyncmicforces(suchosvibrotions)orenot tronsfenedto the floor ond wclls. Croclaolongthe
powerhouse
floor ond walls havebeenobservedwherethe mochinefoundationshovenot beenstructurolly isoloted.The50
mm thick bituminoussurfocepreventsthe grovelond sondfrom beingcompocted(ondhencethe possibilityof tronsfening
forcesto the powerhouse
floor). This is doneby pouringhot bitumen(osusedin blocktoppedroods).The50 mm thick
blindingprovideson evensurfocefor reinforcedconcretework ofthe mochinefoundotion.
concrete

AIsonotethqt, if o belt drive systemis required,the mochinefoundotionshouldbe extendedto coverit. However,the depthof
foundotionfor the belt drive con belowercdto 300mm but with similqr reinforcement pottern.

Bosef rome(dimensimsore to be
5Ommthick biluminous
srrfoce

- lt
2.
ll .l
'll
t.,.
-t
ll
.t
tl
It
ll
rl
'r==J

5Ommthick
b l i n d i n g( l : 5 : 6 ) Anch bolts

450

Notes
1. All dimensions
orein mm.
2. A minimumof six 20mm diometer,
700mm longonchorborsoreto beusedto fix the bosefrometo the mqchrne
foundotion.
3. 10mm diometerTorsteelborsoreto beusedfor reinforcement.
Moximumspocingto be 150mm in turbine pit ond 200
mm on otherfoces.Loplengthshollbe400mm minimum.
4. Minimumreinforcement
covershollbe50mm.
5. Structurqlconcrete
shqllbe 1:1.5:3
mix.

Figure
8.5 Proposed
mochinefoundotionsectionfor Exomple8.1

135
E.5 Tqilrqce

E.5.1GENEnT
Th€toilroceis thefinolcivilstructuftthotconveys thedesign
flow.Similorto theheodroce, op€nchonrelor pipesconbe
usedfor thetoilrocesection.Toihocechonnels of theftonlce
mhi-hydroondSolleriChiolso schemes oreshownin Photo-
grophs8.5ond8.6Rspectively.

Phoro8.5 Toilmc.dlonneloftheJhonlaemini.hydmsdeme Photo8.6 ToilrocednruIel of thesoleri chiolsomini-hydmscheme

ottentionis givento tie designond

often,inodequote
constructionofthe toilrocesincethe flow ot this stogedoesnot
contribute towods power production. However,sucho
procticeconresultin inodequotedepthofthe tqilrocepit or
erosiorofslopes,which couldthreotenthe powerhouse
structul€,
mincorer:5Omm
8.52 I'ESIGNOFTHE TAIIRACECIIANNEL
Designof the toilroce chqnnelis similor to thot of the heodloce
csnoldiscussed in chopter4. However, sinceheodloss doesnot
needto beminimisedo higherveiuciwconusuollybeollowed,
within the limits giv€nin'lbble 4.1. Not€thot ot higher
velocitieso strong€rgrodeofmortor or concreteis r€quiredto
resisterosion.Reinforedconcrctemoy beeconomicfor o steep Fioull E.6 R4info@d
concrrteroillo(echonftl
dnnnel os shownin Figure8.6.
Notethot the downstr€omend of the toihoc€ must be E.53 DESIGN OFIAIIIACE PIPE
orrongedsothot thel€is no dongeroferosioreitherby the river o pipeis rEquired
lfdueto siteconditions, forthetoilroc€,
the
or by the flow from thetoilr0ce.Id€ollythe dischorgepoint designprocedur€discussed in Section4.5(Heodrocrpipe,
shouldbeorto mck or largeboulde$. In erudiblemoteriolo chopter4)shouldbeusedt0 sizethepipe.similorto o toihoce
sti.llingbosinmoy be requiredto dissipotethe energyftom o chonnel.o higherheodloss conbeollowedforthepipe.
steeDtoilroce chonn€I. f HDPE pipeis used,thevelocityshouldbelimitedto
3 m/sondthepipeshouldbeloidt0 o uniformgrodient.Higher

136
velocities
0r non-uniform
grodientconresultin oir entenoln_ Hosodequote spocebeenollowedinsidethepower-
mentondsurgeproblems.
housesuchthot oll equipmentconfit in ond permitoccess
Ifpossible,
thetoilrqceshouldemptyontolorgerocksqt without difliculty?
theriverbonksothqt thereis no erosionqt the confluence.
Hosthe mochinefoundqtionbeensizedsuchthot it is
sofeogoinstoverturning,beoringcnd sliding?Also,besureto
structurcllyisolotethe mochinefoundotion.
E.6 Checldistfor o Is o chonnelor o pipeodequote for the toilroce?Hove
powerhouseond toilroce thevelocitylimits beenchecked?
r Isthetoilwoterlikelyto couseerosionot the
lsthepowerhouse locotedobovethe oppropriote
floodlevel? riverbonk?
(Refer
to Section
8.2)
Isthepowerhouse
oreostoble?Referto Chopter9 for
furtherdetoilson stobility.

737
 9. Slopestabilisqtion

9.1Overview Retoiningstructuressuchos dry stonemosonrywolls,

gobions0ndteffocingorethe mostcommonmethodusedto
mountoinslop€s,porticulorlythe slopesofthe Middle
Nepol's stobiliseslopesin mico-hydroschemes.
In mostmicm-hydro
Mountoins,
oreundergoingropidchongesdueto riv€r cutting, schemes
constructingr€inforcedconcRter€toiningwollsis not
weothering,
ondsoilerosion.Therote ofsoil erosionis very feosibledueto their cost.
iltensein theMiddleMountoinsbecouse ofthe subtropicol In the longterm, prcventivebio-engineering
meqsurcs
clim0teondintenserqirfqll (2000to 2500mm peryeorfolling wouldbe moreeffectiv€,sustoinqble
ond cheoperthon I€mediol
',,dthh3 to 4 months).Thisoreqis qlsowidelycultivotedusing works.Thesem€0surcswill oftenneedthe continuedmointe-
dueto populotion
i[igoted terrocesond heovilydeforested noncecommitmentofthe community
pressuRs.
Poorwoter monogementond forestmismonogement
h thisoreohov€l€d to furtherd€clineof the hill slopes.The
n0turclprocesses
coupledwith mon s influencehoveledto 9.2 Implicotions of noturol
Iordslid€s,
onddegrqdotion
ofhill slopesoffectingthe geologicolprocesses
sustoinobility
onddurobilityof irrigotionchonnels,
wqter
supplysystems,
micro-hydroschemes
ond otherdevelopment Soilerosion,river cutting,weothering,ond slopefoilur€shove
work. implicotionsfor d€sign,construction,operotionond mqinte-
It is not possibleto completelych€ckthesenqturol nonceof micro-hydroschemes.
processes,howeverit is possibleto conuolthemby oppropriote fuv€rcuttingcqn qllectintokesin severolwoys,besides
choice
ofmonogement, designond constructionpructices.
The triggeringslopefoilures,thot moy domogeo portionof
underlyingprinciplebehindslopestobilisotionmeosures
is to heodroceconol,foundotionsofsettlingbosin,crcssings
ond
hill slopes0nd river bonkssoost0 protectth€ micrc-
stQbilise powerhouse.
Forexomple,meqndering versconleoveintokes
hydmschemes. high onddry Similorly,degradingriverscon r€nderintokes
Mostslopestqbilisotionprcblemsconbe€ffectively useless.
t0cki€dby mokingsurethqt th€ hill slopesoredry 0y diverting Whenheodrocecqnolsore built on hill slopeswhere
th€surfoc€w0ter from the slopes),
constructingretoiningwolls surfoceerosionhosqdvoncedto o stogewheregullieshov€
0swellosund€rtokingbio-engine€ring m€osur€s suchos olr€odyformed,thereoregreqter sksofconol foiluredueto
plontingoppropriotevegetotion.Notethot dry slop€son more d€ep€ning ofthe gullies.
ond €nlorgement
stobl€thon soturotedonesond londslid€s
oenerollyoccuron Themoin couseofgully formotionis excessive
run-off
wetslopes. dueto deforestotiorl,
overgrozingcnd burningofthe vegetotion.
Excovotionwork conolsotriggersoilemsion.The
followingis recommended
to reducethe risk ofslopefoilumdue
to €xcovotionwork:
cotchdroinsc0nbeconstructedobovethe top ofon
divertingsurfocewoter to o sofeoreo.
excovotion,
Whenexcovotingfor conolconstruction,to prevent
surfoceerosionfreshhill cutsond exposed
slopesof
chonnelbonksmust bequicklycover€dwith topsoilso
thot vegetotioncqn bere-estoblished.
Spoilfrom excovotions
shouldbecorefullydisposed
ofso
thot soilerosionis not initioted.
Whereverpossible
conolsshouldhoveb0l0rcedcut ond
fill sectionsto ovoidtoo much excovotionond exposurc
Photo
9 I Unsrobl€ powerbouse
dop€sorc o thrEotlo schemes.This wos
destmyedby o londdide. offrogileloyers.

139
i
il
': !t l
 . Provideodequotebermwidth on the hillsideofheodroce
c0nols,to stopsh0llowlondslipsblockingthe flow ond
cousingovertopping,
which leodsto erosionofdownhill
slop€s.

9.3 Bio-engine€ringworks

All engineeriDg such0sptoining wqllsond check

meosurcs
domsshouldbe well suppl€mented
with bio-€ngineering
osfor osprocticoble.
meosures
Plqntinggrossor shrubson the freshlycut hill or the
londslideoreoqreexomplesofbio-€ngine€ring meosul€s.Fost
growing,d€eprootedorld densecovertypeofvegetotionthot is
opproprioteto thelocolenvironmentshouldbe usedfor such
Purposes.
only deep-rooted
trcesshouldbeusedfor bio-engineering
purposes,
ond they shouldnot beplontedsocloseto conolsor
structurcsthot their rootscouldcous€pipingor structurol
domoge.At leost3 metrescleororlceis recommended. Fost
growingtreesthot do not h0veintens€root systemsshouldbe
ovoidedsincethey moy foll dueto their own weightduring
stoIIns.
oncethe slopeshovebeenstobilised,
coleshouldbetol€n
to ensurethqt theleis no funher overgrozing.

Photo9.2Mosonrysteprfor energydissipotionond contmlof spillwoywoter

Although costly.eloborotecontlol is essentiolwheR slop6 ore vuinemble to
9.4 Retoiningstructures emsion{Siklis)

Retoiningwollsorestmctur€sthot supportthe bockfi.llond Ref.7. (Theunit weight offilled gobionsis 1+18l(N/nr,

surchorgeloodfmm the odditionolconolwidth or plotform
overthe wolls in hill sections.Thoughthe per metrecostof
conolconstructionrrquiringretoiningwolls is mon thon
constructingthe somelengthby cuttinginsideth€ hill, theuse
of retoiningwolls sometimes
becomes
essentiol.
Themostcommontypesofrctoiningwqll usedin micro-
oregrovity wolls ofgobionsor cementmosonry
hydroschemes
Thesedependon the mossof thestructureto r€sistoverturning.
Theirdesigndep€ndson the woll densirysoilpqrometen,
typicollyEsultingin o bose
droinogeond loodingconditions,
width of0.40to 0.65timesthe h€ight. Thedesignsshownin
Figurps9.1ond 9.20retherefor€sofe,but conservotive
in mony
conditions.
Forhigh or long wolls it will b€economicol
to designfor
the sp€cifrcsiteconditions.site specificdesignsshouldolsobe
modewhercthe bockfillis inclinedrotherthon horizontol.
Thewolls shouldbecheckedfor overturning,slidingond
beoringpressure,
os described
for onchorblocksin ChopterT.
Altemotivelyrtfer to stondordcMl engineering
textssuchos
dep€ndingon the unit weight ofthe rock fill ond ossuming3G
35%voids).
Wollfoundotionsmust bedeepenoughto be sofeogoinst
ercsion:normqlly qt leost0.5 m below ground lev€I,but see
Section3.8for river worla. Linedtoe droirs moy beusedin
erodibleoreosto corry seepogewoter sofelycwoy from the woll
foundotion.
C,obionl?toining wolls should be constructedwith on
seeFiguE9.1. Wheregobionsor€to bebuilt
inclinotion0f 1096,
on sondor flne soils,o loyerof filter clothshouldbeploced
betweenthe foundotionond the gabions.Thegobionboxes
shouldbelocedtogetherolongoll edg€sond stptchedbeforc
filling with roclc Therock shouldbepockedwith the minimum
ofvoids.
Stonemosonrywolls conbe constructedin l:4 c€ment/
sondmortor osshownin Figur€9.2. Suchwolls or€suitoblefor
retoinedheightsofup to 2 to 3 m. Theslop€ofthe front foce
moy besteepened
ifnecessoryprcvidedthot thebosewidth is
mqintoined.Tte reqrfoceof the woll shouldbeleft rouohto

140
hcrcqse
frictionwith the bockfiil. Weepholes
must beprovided 9.5 Terrocingond dry stonewoll
woterpressure
to rclieve behlndthe w0ll, ond their mouths
beprotected
should with ccrefullyplocedstones.Bockfill Lockofeffort in lookingfor oltemotewoll types.suchos
thewoll shouldbefree'droinrng
behind grovelor stones;ifthe teffocrng0nddry stonewollsoftenrulesout the dev€lopment
Rtoinedsoilis fine,o filt€r clothshouldbeplocedosshownto ofoth€rtechniques
thot oremor€economicol
and duroble.
pEventthesoilponicl€s blocking thedrqinoge. Minorlondslid€oreosconbestobilisedby constructing
dry ston€t€rrocesasconbe seenin Figure9.3. Theoverollslope
ofsuchterroces
shouldbelimitedto 30'(i.e.terroce
widrh
shouldbetwice its height).500mm thick dry stonewolls
shouldb€usedfor theverticolfoceof the rerroces.Suchdry
stonewolls retointhe soilbehindond ollow the su ocewoter
to droinout.
Constructiog
smollcotchdroinson theterroc€s
helpsto
reduc€soilerosionby droiningthe surfocewoter
An olternotrvemethodusedto stobilisethe steeper
Jhonkremini-hydropowerhouseslopeis discussed in Box9.1.

,Oa.6.

ho9.SGrbion ot the ioeof on unstobleslope

Pioto9.4 Stonemosonrycon provid€slope

rlobilisotionolongth€ mute oflhe penstock(Borpok)

":i ri
5
I
I
il
 h,ffi 8,ffi
1.0 1.0
2.0 1.5
3 . 0 2.0
4 . 0 2.5
5 . 0 3.5

Figure9.1 Gobionretoiningwoll

,F+;+l
300,
lmrn.l

75dia.
weepholes
@2mdc

Figurc9.2 Stonem0sonryretoiningwoll

Note:
1 . Cqtchdrqinsoftenlinedwith imperme'
oblelining mqteriols(i.e.stone
mosonry)to ovoidinfiltroti0n.Woter
fromcqtchdroinsneedsto be
collected
droinedto neorestnqturoldroin.

Londslide

ond dry stonewollsto retoinslopes

Figure9.3 Terrocing

tqz
 In orderto increqsethe grossheodofthe Jhonkreminihydro scheme,it wos decidedto excqvoteo 20 m depthot the power-
oreq.Thisqreqqlsohod to droin groundwoter dueto
houseoreq. Thisrequiredstobilisingthe hill slopebehindthe powerhouse
from the cultivqtedterrqces(paddyfields)obove.Whenirrigotion woter wos providedfor the poddyfreldssignificont
seepoge
seepoge
wos observed ot the powerhouseoreo. After consideringvoriousolternotives,it wos decidedto useo grid of mosonry
beqmsond columnsinfllledwith dry stoneponels.
Photogrophs
9.5ond 9.6showthe hillsideduringexcovotion
ond ofterthe constructionofthe mqsonrvorid.

Photo9 6 Mosonrygrid ot powerhouseslope

Thehill slopeswerefrrst excqvqtedqt 2:1to 3:1slopes(V:H)with two intermediotebermsolongthe hillslopeqnd oneot the
sides.Thenthe grid of stonemosonry(in 1:4cement:sandmortor)beomsond columnswith dry stonemosonryinfill ponels
wos constructedolongthe excovqtedslopes.Thebeomsond columnsore 500mm wide ond 300mm deep.Thedistqnce
betweenthe columnsis 2 m ond the verticoldistoncebetweenthe beomsis 1.5m (moximum).Thedry stoneinfill sovedthe
costof cementqnd focilitqtesdrqinoqe.Cqtchdroinshovebeennrovidedot the bermlevels.

Todotethis 16- 20 m high structureis stoble.Duringthe monsoongroundwoter thot hosseepedfrom the poddyfieldsobove
conbe seendroiningout from the weepholesqndthe dry stoneponels.

9.6 Checkdoms ond gully control Forsmollgulliesthot oreoniyoctiveduringthe m0ns00n,

thecheckdomcouldconsistof o simpledry stonewoll. For
Gulliesthot oreoctiveor smollstreomswherescouringof the smollstreoms, by usinggobion
bederosioncqnbecontroiled
riverbedis prominentconbecontroiled
by constructing
check checkdoms.
doms.Checkdqmsoresmollwqllsthqt preventfurthererosion Gobioncheckdomshovebeenusedto controlriverbed
ondqlsoqllowdeposition
on thewqtercourse ofbedloqd scouringot theJhorkotmicro-hydro
scheme.Theriverbedot the
upstreomofit qt o stoblegrodient. Jhorkotintokeoreohodbeenscoured
by morethqn 3 m ot

143
someplqcesond the scourdepthwosg€ttingdeeper.It wasfelt ofter everymonsoon.Remediolworks shouldbe doneos soon
thot furtherscouringolongthe riverbedwouldcqusetotql osony problems
orenoticed.Forexomple,the gobioncrotes,if
foilureof the existinggobionwoll olongthe left bqnk of the broken,shouldbe repoiredsoon. Similorly,if stonesoremissing
river. A seriesof gobioncheckdcmswos constructed
ot the from the dry stonemosonryretoiningwolls or checkdoms,
intokeoreoto preventfurtherscouringand to fccilitotethe they shouldbereplcced.
depositionof bedlood. Thefirst checkdomis shownin Figure Thedroinogesystemofthe stobilisedslopeshouldbe well
9.4. Notethot to preventthegobionwiresfrombeingbrokenby mqintoined.Deposition grovelor soilin the droin
of boulders,
100mm thickploinconcrete
rollingboulders, wos providedot shouldberemoved.If theplosteror mosonryis broken,it
the top surfoceof the gcbionwoll. A minimumfoundqtion shouldbe repcired.Notethat stcbility problemscon occurin
depthof 1 m from theloweststreombed levelhosbeenprovided eveno well stobilised
slopeifthe droinogesystemstops
for oll checkdoms. functioning.
Thesecheckdomswereconstructed
by the endofJune It is importontto notethot somestructuressuchqs
1998.Theyhovesurvivedthe first monsoonfloodsond gobionwcllsorenot mecntto bepermanenton their own.
culrentlytheir conditionsorebeingmonitored. Theymoy deterioroteond collopse.However,onceoppropriote
vegetotion
overthesestructureshostokenrootond hos
mqturedrepoirof thesestructuresmoy not be necessory
since
9.7 Maintenqnce the rootso[the vegetationwill stcbilisethesoilmoss.
In the coseofbio-engineering
meosures,ony plontsthot
Retoiningwoils,checkdomsond otherslopestqbilisotion oremissingshouldbereploced.If possible,
newly plqntedoreos
structuresshouldbe inspected beforeqnd
regulorly;specificolly shouldbefencedto preventgrozingof qnimols.

l O O m mt h i c kP C C ( 1t.. s r J )

lnloke cdnol 5000

Dry woll

Gobions Note:All dimensions

orein mm.

Figure9.4 A gobioncheckdon ot the intokeofJhorkotmicro-hydro

scheme

144
 10 Innovctions
10.1Generol
Thepotmtiolodvontoges of th€Coondo intokeor€on
Aru.mb€I of innovotiveideos,I€seolth,opplicotions
ondpilot portio or siteswhichsufrerftom exposure to highsilt loodor
pmjects
Rlevortto micm-hydro technologythot hovenotyet whichofferscopefor costsovingsin theheodroce.In then$t
bemfullyfieldtested,especiollyin theNepolesecontext,orE cose,theintola conEducethe needforlorgeor multiple
discussed
in thischopt€r.someopplicotiorsorcin thereseolth settlingbosins.In thesecondcose,wher€o siteloyoutis
ooddevelopment stoge,othershovebeetrsuccessfullyimple suitoble,it moyb€possible to commmcethepenstoclrun
E€ntedin othercountriesor cordedout os"pilot pmjects'in dinctly ftom theCoondo, goiningheodondovoidingtheneed
Nep0l. for o heodroce conol.0f course,thismightimply thot the
penstoclis longerthonotherpotentiolloyoutsor thot it runs
closeto t]rcriver. A thoroughfrnonciolondtechnicolonolysis
102 Cosndqintoke of theoptionsis l€quil€dbeforEmskingo decision onthe
suitobility of theC0ondo foro porticulor site.
ACoondo intok€hoso speciolscreen thot utilisesthetendency TheCoondo scEensort fobricotedto o hightol€ronc€
offluidsto followo surfoce.Thisis krown osthe"coondo fromstoinless steel.Thesupplierofthe Coondo scr€ens (olso
d€ct'. Asshownin Figup10.1, th€Coondo scR€nis instoll€d colled"AquoSh€orScEens") in Europe, Du.los Limited,WoleslX,
olong thecrestof thediversionweir ondis shopedin theogee doimst}lot scEensconbepmduced with 0.5mmto even0.2
crlrv€configurotion. A curveoccelerotion ploteqt thetopof the mmdeorspccings, whidl diminote90%of 0.25mmond0.1
ssrmstobilises ondoccelerotes theflow.Astheflow posses mmportidesEspectively.Bothtypesof screen diminoteoll
ovstfu srE€nsurfoce, th€sheoringoctionof t}Ieborscom- 1 mmpqrticles.In mostmicm-hydrosystems thiswouldolso
Din€d withtheCoondo effectseporotestheflow. Cleonwoter eliminotetheneedfor o settlingbosirl
p6sesdownthmughthescreenwh€r€os sedimentondd€bris Theflow copocityof thesess?ensis 1,10!/s permetreof
Fss ov€rthe screen to rejointhe wotercouBe belowtheweir. weirlength.A scRenwith o flowcopocity of40Us(0.3m
0ndverscorryingcobbles sndboulders dudngflood,the width)costsoboutUs$1380(197 price).
Cmflloint0lemustbecor€firllylocoteds0thot heovybedlood A Coondo intola hosbeentest€dot 0 mioo-hydrositein
notp0ssoverthe scRenond domogeit. Wolesby DulosLtd.,in conjunctionwith nDG,UK Thedesign
flowof thismicm-hydrcscheme is ,10l/s ondtheintokeis
Wcir shownin Photogroph 10.1.
werflorv

Routo
powerptonl

l0l A Coondointol(e scrEen Photo10.1 Coondo

intole ofo micrchydloscheme
in Woles,
uX
 Overo six.monthperiod,the performonce
ofthe screen A "de-beoder"
toolhosbeer designed(forIT Nepol)to
hosshownthe followingchorocteristics: rcmovethe intemol beodsftom HDPEpipeswhile the joints qre
r Around90%of sedimentbetween0.5 mm ond i mm still hot [i.€.,hot de-beoding).This equipmenthos beende.
diometerwos excluded. signedto rcmovebeodsfor pipe diometersup to 250mm. lt is
o Somebuild up ofdlgoewosnoted,but this did not still in the experimentolphsseond l€quilessomedeveloprnent
inhibit flow duringth€ triol p€riod. for usein the field.
. Theeffecton performonce
dueto icewos not noticeoble. Asshownin Photogroph10.3,the de-beoder
consistsofo
evenot temperotuEs12'Cbelowfreezingpoint. mild steelshoftwith o sleeveon which o bushspringloodedto
o locking collor (vio on ,tllen key) is ploced. Thereore three
Testsorertquircdovero longerperiodto checkfor steelblodes(cutterorms)thot oI€ pin connected
horden€d by
ond effectofcontinuedolgoegrowth,
corrosionofthe screens Rctongulorsteelborsto the bush. By unlockingthe bushthe
porticulorlyin wormertemperotures. connectingpin conbe slid up the sleeveto incl€osethe cutting
Moreinformotionon Coondoscreens
conbeobtoined diometer
from:
DUI"qS
Limited,
Mochyrl€th,PowyssY208sX,Woles,UK
Fox:+44 (0)1654
781390
e.moil: dulos@gn.opc.org

10.3 De-beqderfor HDPEpipes

in Chopter4 (Box4.7),HDPEpipesor€joinedby
Asdiscussed
h€otwdding which meltsond fusesthe endstogether.This
Ieodsto rois€d"beods"on the inside0nd outsid€ofth€ pipeos
shownin Photogroph10.2.Theextemolbeodis not o problem
but the internqlbeodpromotesblockqges
ond significontheod
would reducethe rcughn€ss
loss.An effectivede-beqder volue
for HDPEfrom 0.06mm (Toble
4.3)t0 0.03mm.

PhotoI0.3 De-beoder
tool

De-beoding with this tool is doneby first unlockingthe

bushsothot th€ tool confit insidethe pipe. A mild steelmd
with 0 hondleis connectedto the de.beodersuchthot the
hondlesticksout ofthe pipe. Therod is supportedbyo number
of mild steeldiscsinsidethe pipe(smollerthon the HDPEpipe
diometer)for loterolstobility.Thede-beoderis thenploced
insideofthe pipesuchthot it is obout100mm in front ofthe
prcposedjoint.Th€rodius0fthe cutting ormsorc then
onong€dby slidingthebushsuchthot the blodesole in contoct
with th€ insidepipesurfoce.oncethe blodessnuglyfit on the
pipesurfoce,thel€is o clickingsoundindicotingthot the
cuttingormshovebeenlocked.As soonqs the two pipeends
orejoinedby heotweldingosdiscussed in Chopter4, the de-
beoderis push€dforwordtill the blodescomein contoctwith
the beods.Thehondleis then tumed ond the de-beoder
is
pushedforwordwhich rcmovesth€ b€od.
Photo10.2 weld beodson llDP! joint surfoce

146
 Thisde-beoderwostestedot NepolYontrosholoEnerg]1
Kothmondu, ono 200rnmpipeosshownin Photogroph 10.4.
De-beodingwostriedonojoint obout2 m fromoneend0f the
pipe.thetestwosportiollysuccessfi:1.
It wosnotpossible
to
Itmovetheentir€stripof thebeod.Portof thebeodondsome
thinstrondswereleftonthejoint,qsconbeseenin Phorogroph
10.4.

Photo10.5 HDPE pip*joint deb€oded usingo conmenioldeb€od4 fte smoll

ring in fiont ofthe piF scctionis rheb€od.

turth€r informotionon commerciol

de-beoden
conbe
obtoinedfrom:
FxsionGmupPLC
ChesterfieldTrodingEstote,
chesterfield S419Pz,
Englond, (JK
Photo10.4 HDPIpip€joint debeodedusing the de-b€oder Faxt + aApl72464fi472

Thefollowing observotionsw€I€ modein the workshop:

Themojorconstrointwos thot the rodiusofthe cutter 10.4 Burstingdisc
blodesis nxedond the blod€sdo not work eouollvwell
on oll pipediomderswithin the ronge. Asdiscussed in Chopter6, p€nstockpipesfor micm-hydro
schemes
f d€-beqdingis not stqrted immediotely ofter the pipes oredesigned to occommodote thesurgeheodwhen
oI€joined(i.e.within 30 seconds),
the beodsconnotbe settingthepipethicloess.An incftosein th€pipethickness
Rmoved, olsoincreoses thecost0f thepipe.Funhermore, depending on
Thetuming ofthe hondleond pushingofthe de-beoder thelocotionof thesite,drctronsportotion costolsoincposes.
hosto becontmlled.A suddenjerkpushesthede-beoder In o highheodscheme with o longpenstock olignment, the
beyondthejoint. incl€osein costto cccommodote thesumeheodconbesionifi-
Thede-beoding processis olsohomp€rcdifthe pipeends cont.
orenot totolly circulor. TheRor€monywdysto guordogoinstsurgedomoge but
mostinvolvesignificont cost(whm, forsofetyI€osons thellow
Hence, designimprovements orercquird befoEtNs de- host0 b€constroined) or involvegreotcolt in instollotion
ond
beodercon beusedin the field. mointenonce.
Commeftiolde-beoders oreolsoovoiloblebut theyore The"bursti4 disc'technology moypmvideo plioble
expensive.Somesuchcommemiolde-beqders con olsoremove m€ons of sofelyr€leosing theexcess
heodin coseofsurge
oft€rthejointshovecooled(i.e.coldde-beoding).
beods Photo- pressure. A "burstingdisc"is q commerciolly ovoilobleover.
gmph10.5showsq sectionofon HDPEpipewhich wos coldde- pnssurcsofetydevicemqdefiom o bdttle moteriolsuchos
beodedusino q commerciolde-beoder. grophiteor 0n oppropriotemetol,or o suitoblemetolwhichis
d€signed to ruptuE extEm€lyquicklyonceo criticolpl€ssul€is
exceeded, suchosthesurgeheqdinduced insidethepenstock
pipein theeventof oj€t blockoge.Suchdiscsor€connmiolly
usedin thechemicol industryto protectpipdinesondpressure

147
Y

(thqt conveygqsond petroleumfluids)from high surge

vessels
pressure.Pipesthot hoveburstingdiscsdo not n€edto be
designedto occommodote surgeplessules.Photogrqph10.6
showso commerciollyovoilobleburstingdisc(includingthe
bu$t plote).Notethot scrotchlinesqremodein th€plote
in th€ plotesuch
duringmonufoctureto introduceweql:nesses
thot it burstsoccordingto the potternshownin Photogroph
10.6oncethe Drescbedpressure is reoched.

FigurE10.2 Proposed
orrongementfor buNting discinstollotionin micrc-hydm
schemes

Notethot in coseofthe ruptureofthe disc,the flow

woulddischorge
insidethe turbinecssing. suchon orronge-
mentis well suitedin micro-hydroschemes
sinceo seporote
flow controlstructur€is not required.
Thecomlusionsofth€ obovestudywerc osfoUows:
. by 60%- 70%ifthe
Thedisccouldreducesurgepressure
flow rote throughthe bronchingorronge-
subsequ€nt
ment is only moderotelyreduced.Therrosonwhy the
entircsurgeheodconnotbe eliminotedis becouse the
diometerofthe discis usuollysmollerthon the penstock
diometerond hencethe flow is reduced.
Photo106 A commerdollyovoilobleburstingdisc
r ThepenstocksofetyfqctorcouldbeEducedfrom 3.5to
Mostgrophitediscsoreflot, deformvery slightlyundero 2.5.
pressurc oftheir physicolpmperties,
differcntiolond becouse ot
oroundthe peripheryof
the setplessulesh€orinstontoneously Thesetheoreticolfindingsneedto be thoroughlyverified
the discoctiveorcogivingimm€diotelyfull boreventing.Such by octuollyinstollingthe discsin existingmicro-hydroschemes
discsorc suitoblefor verting ofboth liquidsond goses.Thedisc ondmonitoringthe rcsults.ITDGNepolhosplonsto fieldtest
to burstwithin its toleronceonJywhen
is monufoctured the burstingdiscsin someexistingmicro-hydroschemes.
instolledin o suitoblydesignedond monufocturcdholder Moreinformotionon the opplicobilityofburstingdiscs
someofthe moin odvontoges ofgrophiteburstingdiscs for micm-hydmschemescqnbeobtoinedfrom DulosLimited
orethot theyorenot odverselyoffectedby misolignedpipe (someoddrcssosobove).

work or ov€rtorquingofpipe flongebolts. Dueto the sum- Informotionon commerciolburstingdiscsconolsobe

cientlyhighburstpressure,this typeofdiscdoesnot requirc obtoinedfrom the followingmanufocturer:
supportto withstondfull vocuumpressure.The
bockpressure IMIMofftonLimit€d
discshove0n operotingrotio of90%qndoreguoronteedto Woboston
Rood,Fodhouses,
rupturewithin o moximumof30 milliseconds. WolverhomptonWV106QJ
Thediscsoreqlsoinexpensive
ond in coseofrupturedue Englond,lx
oll thqt is pquiredto recommission
to surgepressure, the pipeis Fox: + 44 l0) 7902397?92

to Rplocethe grophiteplot€. Henc€,this technology

couldbe
includingthoselocoted
highlysuitoblefor micro-hydroschemes
ln remoteoleos. 10.5Flexiblesteelsupport
Theoreticol on the opplicobilityofburstingdiscs
res€orch pier for Jhorkotmicro-hydro
hosbeenundertokenby Dulosin
for micro-hydroschemes
conjunctionwith worwick UniversiryTheburstingdisc The36kWJhorkotmicro-hydroschemeis locqtedin Mustong
orrongementproposed by th€ studyis shownbelowin Figure District,Nepol.Thisis o communityownedschemeond is
10.2. monogedby theJhorkotElect ncotioncommittee.ITDCNepol
hosbeeninvolvedin providingtechnicolsupportfor refurbish-
mentwork of this schemefor sometime.

148
 Similorto otheroreosof Mustqng,the topogrophyof the Thetop sectionof the pier consistsof o chonnelwhich is
projectoreoconsists
of frogileondunstqbleslopesond is prone pin connectedto two legsthot hoveturnbuckles.Thepenstock
to londslides.
Theintokeondthe initiql heqdrqce
conolhave piperestson the chonnelqnd the pin connectionollowsthe
beendomoged
frequentlyby Iondslides
ondfloods. chonnelsomerototionsuchthqt it is perpendiculorto the
Althoughtheslopeolongthe penstock
olignmentis penstockolignment. Twoholeshovebeenprovidedon the
relotivelystoblecomporedto the intokeoreo,it is weok ond chonnelto clompthe penstockwith o 12mm diometerbor. The
0ls0proneto lqndslides.
Theexistingmosonrysupportpiers turnbucklescon beodjustedto fine tune the heightofthe
stortedsinkingdueto theirown weightoswell ostheweightof supportpiers(upto 300mm) duringinstollotionondin cosethe
thepenstock pipeondthewoter insideit. Hence,the penstock foundctionsinksin the future.
(flonge
connected) qt
stortedto sqg vorious ploces. Thebottomof the turnbuckles(40mm rods)Iit insideo
Asportofthe preporotion
ofthis text,o pilot projectwos hollowpipeosshownin Figure10.3.In cosethe ground
qnd
corriedoutto design instollsteelsupportpiersfor the beneoththe foundotionsinks,the suppofipier structurr below
scheme
Jhorkot with ossistonce
from Mr.ShyomRojProdhonof the turnbucklesdropsdown olongwith the foundotionond
NYSE.Thedesigncriteriowereosfollows: onlythe top port (upto the turnbucklelegs)hongswith the
r Thesupportpierhod to belight,to minimiseself-weight. penstock.Hencethe penstock pipeis not droggeddownwith
r It hodto befobricqtedusingportsthot couldbecorried thepierin coseofsinking.
by portersor mules.Jhorkotis oboutholf o doy'swolk Thebottomport of the pierconsistsof ongleswhich orr
fromthedistrictqirportond5 dovs'wqlkfromthe boltedbockto bock(Figure10.3).Boltholesot o distonce0f150
neorest
roodheod. mm oreprovidedfor coqrseadjustmentof the pier. Thebottom
r Thedesignhodto sllow for the
sinhngof thefoundotion.ln
coseofsinkingofthe ground
belowthefoundotions,the piers
shouldnot pull the penstock
pipe
downolongwith it.

Thedesignofthe supportpierond
e aO arF

thefoundotion
oreshownin Figures10.3 ffi
ond10.4respectively.
Thetotcl weight E_
ofq 2 m supportpieris 60 kg (excluding
thefoundotionwork) whereoso alcrDx A. a
pierof simiiorheightwould
mosonry
weigh4000kg.
Notethot suchsupportpiers
beinstolledperpendiculor
should to the
penstock
clignment(not verticolly)since
theyoreonly resistingforceF, (see
7).
Chopter

.lO O E Al!.On

Figup10.3 Flexiblesteelsupportpier for

Jhorkotmicro-hyd
ro scheme

149
 stclo|l t-A

Figure
10.4Foundotion for
theJhorkot
flexiblesupport
pler

t'
s€qnoN8- B

onglesorc pin connected

to the foundotionsothot themoments AsofJu.ly oll 18supportpiershovebe€ninstolled
1998, ot
dueto thermolexponsion0fthe penstockpipeoI€not tokenby theJhorkot
scheme.Th€irp€rformonce is currentlybeing
the supportpier or the foundotion.Duringinstollotionoswell monitored.
osloter in cosethe foundotionsinks,coo$eodjustmentconbe
modeusingthe boltholesofthe bottomonglesond thenfine
tunedusingthe turnbucklesot the top.
Thetop ond bottomportsofthe pierhovefixedheights.
Thelengthofth€ middleportion(onglesboltedto chonnels)is
voriedsuchthot the totol pi€rheightis €quolto th€ required
height. Notethor this supportpierconbedismontl€dsuchthot
therEore12individuolpieces(includingthe 12mm stinup bor
to connectto the penstock).
18supportpiersrongingfmm 1.0m to 2.6m heighthove
beenfobdcotedbosed0n this design.Toensup thot the support
pier wouldfunctionwell. one(2.5m totol height)wos testedot
the mqnufqctuEr'sworkshop(iIYSE) os shownin Photogrophs
10.7ond 10.8.About500kg ofoxiol lood(moximum
loodexpected
compressive on the pier)wosoppliedon the pier
effecton the pier (d€formotion
Therewos no observqble or
deflectionof ongles)duringthe testof obout2 hours.lt wos
evenpossibleto roisethe heightofthe pierby rctotingthe
turnbuckleswith the full testlood0f500ka.
Photo10.7 Loodtestofsteelsupportpier(sideel€votion)

150
 $I

Photol0E toqd testofsreelsupponpief (frontelevotion)

10.6PVCpipes

PVCpipesorefr€quentlyus€dby IntermedioteTechnology for

p€nstocks
in its micro-hydroprogrommein the northemAndes.
oneofthe first schemesto benefitwosCholdn.Thisprojecthos
o copocityof25 kW ond o heodof96 metr€s.Thep€nstock
diometeris 200mm. Connection of pipelengthswos through
gluedspigotond socketjoinrs.Oncommissioning,it wos found
thotpinholeleoksoppeoredin thejoints.o prcblemthot wos
0ddressed
throughthe qpplicotionofodditiorql resin.The
wholelengthofthe penstockwos buriedfor protectionfrom
sunlight,onim0lsond oth€rpotentiolsources
ofdomoge.

10.7Anchor block design

'lhe
stobilitycolculorions
for onchorblockdesignorerime
consuming.A spr€odsheet progromfor the stobilityonolyses
hosb€enwritten byJohnBywoterto spe€dup rhepmcess.
Todqtethereis no monuolto occomponythe progrom,
norevid€nce
thot it hosbeenverified.However,
the progrom
wosusedto veriryth€ guidelinesgivenin S€ction7.4.4.for
sizing0nchorblocksfor smollschemes.

151
 11. References

1. AdomHorveyet.cl.(1993),Micro-HydroDesignManual,A 5. DesignManualsfor lrrigation Projectsin Nepal(1990),

waterpower schemes,
guideto small-scale Intermediote Plonningond DesignStrengtheningProject(PDSP),
His
TechnologyPublicotions,ISBN1 853391034. Mojesry'sGovernmentof Nepol,Ministry of WoterRe-
2. AllenR.Inversin(19861,
Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook,
A sources,
Deportmentof lrrigotion. Unit€dNotionsDevelop-
PracticalGuideto Designand Imflementationin Develcp- ment Progromme(NEP/85/013)/World Bonk.
ing Countries,
NRECA
InternotionolFoundotion,1800 6. SalleriChialsaSmallHydelProject(1983),TechnicolReport,
AvenueN. W.,Woshington,DC20036.
Mossochusetts DEH/SATA,
rmco.
3. Schmidt(1989),Planningof
HelmutLouterjung/Gongolf 7. PN.Khonnq(lffil, Indian PracticalCivil Engineer's
IntokeStructures,GATEIGTZ,
Vieweg. Handbook,l5'hEdition,Engineer'sPublishers,
PostBox725,
4. for estimotinghydrologiccharscteisticsof
Itethodologies -
NewDelhi 110001.
ungougedlocationsin Nepol(1990),HMGofNepol,
Ministry of WoterResources,
Woterond EnergyCommis-
Deportment
sionSecretqriot, ofHydrologyond
Meteorology.

153
 I
AppendixA - Flow estimation

A.1 WECslDeportmentof Hydrologyand A.I.2 PROCEDURE

FORESTITUATING
FLOWDUMTION
Meteorology(DHMImethod CURVE
1. Fromovoilobletopogrophic
mops,find out the cotch-
41.1 PROCEDURE
FORESTIMATING
INSTANTANEOUS mentoreobelow5000m elevotion.
FLOODPEAK 2. Usethe followingequotions
to colculote
the flows.The
i. Fromovoilqble
topogrophic
mops,find out thecotch- voluesof monsoonwetnessindexcqnbereodfrom
mentoreo(km'z)below
3000m elevotion. FigureA3. Q* is the dischorge(m'/s)for the specified
2. In thefollowingequotion,input coefficients
fromToble probobilityof exceedence.
A1.
=
Q o (Areobelow3oo0m* 1)m3/s hq* - -3.5346+0.9398.In
(Areobelow5000m*1) +0.3739.
wheresubscripto is either2 veoror 100veorreturn In (Monsoonwetnessindex)
period. = -3.4978+0.9814.
lnQro. In (Areobelow5000m* 1) +0.2670.
In (Monsoonwetnessindex)
TobleA1 Prediction coefficients for instqntsneous flood lnQ,* : -5.4357*0.9824.In (Areoof bosin)*0.4408.In
flows (Monsoon
wetnessindex)
RETURN (YEARS)CONSTANT
PERIOD (B)
POWER lnQ* : -5.9543+1.0070.
In (Areoof bosin)*0.3231.In
(a)
COEFFICIENT (Monsoon
wetnessindex)
1
7.8767 0.8783 lnQ** : -6.4846*1.0004.In
(Areoof bosin)*0.3015.In
100 14.630 0.7342 (Monsoon
wetnessindex)
lnQ** = -4.8508f1.0375.In
(Areobelow5000m+1)
3. Floodpeokdischorge,
Q",for onyotherreturnperiodcon ln%rru= -5.4776*1.0776.1n
(Areobelow5000m+1)
= -o.oe8e2
&2Ts'c..qr)
i':'fiI'll"ii'"n'.(Ln
.61
'xtcrnr +0.0814e.
@

whereSis the stondordnormolvoriqtefor thechosen

returnperiod,fromTobleA2,ond AI3 PROCEDURE IONG TERM
FORESTIMATING
AVEMGE MONTHTYFTOWS
, /Q,*\
rnr- I 1. Fromovqilobletopogrophic
mops,find out the cotch-
\Q, t
-rnqF- ment oreobelow5000m elevotion.
2.326
2. In the followingequotion,input coeflicients
from Toble
TobleA2 Voluesof stondqrd normal voriate for vsrious A3 ond the voluesof monsoonwetnessindexfrom
return periods FigureA3.
RETURN (T)(Yrs)
PERIOD STANDARD VARTATE
NORMAL (S)
2 0 C.(Areoof bcsin)Ar.
Q,.on,on,h: (Areobelow5000m*1)Az.
5 0.842 (Monsoonwetnessindex)t
.
10 1.282
z0 1.645 wheresubscriptmonth denotesoneof the monthsfrom
50 2.054 jonuory to December.
A powerof 0 indicotesthot porticulor
100 2.326 porometerdoesnot enterinto the equotionfor thot month.
200 2.576
500 2.878
1000 3.090
5000 3.540
i0000 3.779

155
Table Al Ptediction coefficients for long t€rm qvercge monthly flows

MONTl{ CONSTANT POWER,AREAOF POWER,

AREAOFBASIN POWEROFMONSOON
COEFFICIENT BASIN(km1 50fi) m +1 (km1
BELOW WEINESSINDEX
Ar A2 4
Jonuory 0.01423 0 0.9777 0
Februory 0.01219 0 0s7ffi 0
Morch 0.009988 0 0.99r8 0
April 0.007974 0 1.0435 0
Moy 0.008434 0 1.0898 0
June 0.006943 0.9968 0 0.2610
July 0.02123 0 1.0093 0.2523
August 0.02548 0 0.9963 0.2620
September 0.01677 0 0.9894 0.2878
0ctober 0.009724 0 0.9880 0.2508
November 0.001760 0.%05 0 0.3910
December 0.001485 0.9s36 0 0.3607
Note:units of flow orem3/s

A.2 Medium lrrigation Project Tqkethe April flow colculotedin step3 ond multiply it
method IMIPI by eochnon-dimensionol
ordinotefrom Toble44. The
resultis the hydrogrcphof meonmonthly flows.
Procedure
for estimotingmeonmonthly flowsof o selected It is usefirlto comporethe hydrogrophcolculotedin step
cqtchment. 4 with the opproprioteregionolhydrogrophdepicted
1. ln the low flow periodfrom Novemberto April,visit the omongFiguresA4 to A10. Todo this, divideeoch
cqtchmentin questionond mokeoneflow meosure- ordinqteofthe cotchmenthydrogrophby the cotchment
ment. Ensurethot therehosbeenno heovyroinfoll oreo. Normolly,the colculotedhydrogrophwill corre-
during the precedingfew doysond thot the woter level spondto the regionolhydrogrophwithin the limits
is not fluctuotingropidly. indicqted.Thelimits mcy beusedosc roughguideto
2. Ascertoin
ifthereoresignificontupstreqmobstrqctions, the reliobilityof flow in the cotchment.If the
ottemptt0 quonrirythemondoddthisomountt0 the hydrogrophliesoutsidethe limits then it is not typicol,
meosured
flow dueperhopsto unusuollond useor o typicoldetoilof
3. Estqblish
in whichhydrologicol
regionthe cotchment topogrophyond geology.
lies,from FigureA2. Dividethe mecsuredflow by the
hydrogrophordinote(Toble
non-dimensionol A4)for the
oppropriote
monthondregion.If theflow mecsurement
wos conducted
ot thebeginningor the endof the month,
it moy be necessory
to interpolotebetweenthe two
relevqntordinotesfrom TobleA4. Theresultrepresents
the meonApril flow to be expectedin thot cotchment.

156
 TqbleA4 Non.dimensionclregionol hydrogrophs

MONTH RECION

Jonuory 2.40 2.24 2.77 2.59 2.42 2.03 3.30

Februory 1.80 L .( V 1.88 1.88 t.82 r.62 2.20
Morch 1.30 1.33 1.38 1.38 1.36 7.27 1.40
ttI April 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

t Moy
June
z.ov
6.00
1)1

7.27
1.88
3.13
2.19
3.75
0.91
2.73
2.57
6.08
3.50
6.00
fi July 14.50 18.18 13.54 6.89 77.27 24.32 14.00
August 25.00 27.27 25.00 27.27 13.94 33.78 3s.00
September 16.50 20.91 20.83 20.97 10.00 27.03 24.N
0ctober 8.00 9.09 70.42 6.89 6.52 5.08 t2.N
November 4.10 3.% 5.00 5.00 4.55 3.38 7.50
December 3.10 3.03 3.75 3.M 3.33 2.57 5.00

A3 Designexomple = e (nroo+z.oN
Q,o mr/s
W)=362
nome
Cotchment SoluKholq bl FIow dumtion anrve
Cotchment
locotion Solukhumbu
Hydrologicol
region 3 PROBABILITY
oF EXCEEDENCE
(%) (m3/s)
DISCMRGE
Bqsinqreo 330km'z 0 98.45
Areqbelow5000m 308.5km'z 5 59.33
Areobelow3000m 97.7lglrr'z 20 32.62
Monsoon
wetness
index 1500 40 9.47
Monthofgouging April 60 4.58
Flowmeosured 2.8mr/s 80 3.00
95 2.03
FigureA1showsthe cqtchmentmqp. 100 1.78

A3.l WECSIDHMPROCEDURE exomple:

alFTod flows lnQ*: -3.4978+ 0.98141n(308.5+1) =

+ 0.26701n1500
4.083+Q=gr'oer=59.33
PEUOD(Yrs)
RETURN INSTANTANEOUS
FTOOD lnQo*= - 5.9543
+ 1.00701n(330)
+ 0.3231
1n1500 ->
= 2.248
(mr/s)
DTSCHARGE -
Qn= e22a 9'47
2 106 ln%r*= -5.4716* 1.0776 :0.708+Qrr=
ln(308.5+1) eo",
5 175 = 2.03
10 228 Q,* = [-0.09892+0.08149x = l.z8
r/1:ot.s+t112
20 283
50 362
100 426

exomple:
q= : 106m3/s
L8767.(97.7+l;o.rar
Q,* = 14.63'(9?.7
* 7)oB2: 426

ttl
 cl Long term sverage discharges

MONTH (m3/s)
LONGTERMAVEMGEDISCMRGE
Jonuory 3.88
Februory 3.30 t
t!
Morch 3.00
I
April 3.17
I
Moy 4.37
I
June I).t/
I
july 43.86 I

August 52.45
September .tu.v I

October 77.59
November 8.06
December 5.24
Annuol 16.68

exomple:
= 5+ 1)'0nq1{
j,ry 0.02123.(330)0.(308.
Qn,"on
,5,r= 43.86m3/s
I 500)0

4.3.2 MIP PROCEDURE

Estimcting the hydrogroph of meon monthly flows

NON.DIMENSIONAI MEASURED
FIOW PREDICTED
APRILFLOW PREDICTEDHYDROGMPH
HYDROCRAPH (m'/s) (m'/s) (m'is)
Jonucry 2.71 2.71x23 : 7.59
Februory 1.88 5.26
Morch
April
1.38
1.00 2.8 = 2.8
2.8/1.00
3.86
2.80
i,
Moy 1.88 5.26.
June 3.13 8.76
Julv 13.54 37.97
August 25.00 70.00
September 20.83 58.32
October 10.42 29.18
November 5.00 14.00
December 3.75 10.50

A33 RESUTTS ond it moy not beolwoys true thot MIPyieldslower

1. Thedry seqson
m€qnmonthlyflowscolculotedby the vqluethon WECS.It is worth mentioningthot Solleri
WECS ondMIPmethodsorepresented
in thetobleond Chialsomini-hydroschemeuseso designflow of 2.5m3is
figurebelow. WECSshowsc slightlyhigherfigurethon (Ref.6).
MIPfor the month of April. By definitionMIPshowsthe
meosuredflow. Experience
showsthot resultsobtoined
by WECSond MIPmethodsvory for differentcqtchments

ii 158

L
 WECS FLOW
MEASURED
October I I.)v 29.18
November 8.06 14.00
December 5.24 10.50
Jonuory 3.88 7.59
Februory 3.30 5.26
Morch 3.00 3.86
Anril 3.17 2.80 2.80
Mqy 1.) I 5.26

HYDROGRAPH
OFMEANMONTHLYFLOWS

Flow(m3/s
35f -
,|\-
*f\
20-

"f-
I
10r-
sL
sl-
0d

[, wa-w]

2. Thedesignflow of 2.5mr/sis exceeded

857oof the time,
occording
t0 theWECS
flow durotioncurve.

FLOWDURAIIONCURVE

159
I |{

,:

OFSOLUKHOLAABOVETl{E SALLERI
FiguTeA1 CATCHMEI,TT INTAKE
CHTALSA

160
B.E
6>
:rri
h7

ts

Key:
1. Mountoincotchments
2. Hills to north of Mohobhorots
3. Pokhoro,Nuwokot,Kothmondu,SunKoshitributories
4. LowerTomurVolley
5. Riverdroining Mohobhqrots
6. KqnkoiMoibosin
7. Riversdroining from Churiorongeto th€ Teroi
 BI
tt o
Jg II
r{i
I
I
o-E 5
I
lrti I

I Zo"
I
I
I
I
i
I
i
I
I It
I t,- ._-.. -_-_- ---

E\ I

I
I
I

'i --l

i,
I

I
l. ,
1
I
,, 6

tt \)
t)
i:'
l J
ll
.li
_9
{;
t;
t ;i
. a

-i il
ua
st H
T! { *} .l;

?! Z A ? lr
t-E 938 i . l

wetnessindexisolines
Figure43 Monsoon
(SourceRef.4)

r62
 MOUNTAIN

1000

N
=
Y
D Mean
J
o
(l' Flow
(r
= 100
o
lJ-
->
c
o
=

\[f

Mean

A
\o

10

May JUn Jul Aug sep 0ct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
FigureA4 MeonMonthly Hydrogroph- Regi0nl
(SourceRef.5)
 TAINCATCHMENTS
alHillsto Northot
OlBivers thof Siv
Inner I
r000

q
=
Y
a
J
I
\
(D
(q I
E {^^
= tuv J-
o
tr I )-
Mr an
I
Mr 1SO0n
c, I
o l FI iv
= I
\\
)
I

l\

Max I
I
I -\
I
J

10
):
l \ f

a-

Mean )
,
I l

Min
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
- Regi0n2
FigureA5 MeonMonthlyHydrogroph
(Source Ref.5)

164
 1000

N
=
V
a
J
<1,
(g
CE
= 100
I
lt
=
c
o
=

r0

80%

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Aor
Figure46 MeonMonth.iyHydr€gfoph- Region3
(SourceRef.5)

165
 1000

N
=
Y
a
J
(l,
(q
(r
= 100
o
u-
=
c
o
=

10

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr

Figur€A7 MeonMonthly Hydrogroph- Region4

(Source Ref.5)

166
 alRivers

1000

N
=
Y
U)
J
o
(g
CE
= 100
o
lJ-
=
c
o
=

20%/
10

Mean

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Aor
- Region5
FigureA8 MeonMonthlyHydrogroph
(Source Ref.5)

167

{--
 KANKAIIMAIBA$IN

1000

-r\
/l\

N Mean
=
:<
a
J \ Flow
(D
o \
E
= 100
o \1
tr I1
l1
t
l1
l\
E It
o \
= I
\
I \ \
20To
I
I

Mean

10

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr

FigureA9 MeonMonthly Hydrogroph- Region6

(Source Ref.5)

_tbd

,t
=--4--
)
!

TAIN TCHMENTS

Far
West
East
100

=
Y
(n Mean
J
<t, I-i
(q 'l i Flow
E .l
=o
1 0I - i.J
i/ lI
tL

-c
c
o a
v ,-J' A

=
,'l I
\rl
I
4/
l, E

t,' \o
A
l/:\

II
I
I ,/
1

May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Figur€A10MecnMonthlyHydrogrophRegion7
(SourceRef.5)

169

i
 AppendixB - Stqndqrdpipe sizes
msnufqcturersond
suppliers

List of Tableslos of March 19991

B1 HDPE
Nepothene pipepricelist ondweightchort
B3 HDPE
Ponchokonyo pipes
B4 PonchokonyoPVCpipes
B5 steelwoterPiPes
Hll'CO/Hulos
B6 structurolsteelpipes
Hll)COiHulos

t71
- I

t NtpdDEZruo
zuTPAt tI I)TASTII
|JOLYITIIINE IruOtjSTftITS
l LtJ.
IP'r.
! M a n u f a c t u r eo f H D P EP i p e s
T I F . A DO F F I C E. FACTORY;.
P o s tB o xN o . l 0 l 5 B a l a j u l n d u s t r i a lD i 5 t r i c t :
; I ' r i p u r e s w o rK. a t h m a n d u Balaju, Kathnraodu, Nepal.
I Phone ; 350091
Ptrone:261>01,261149
F a xN o . 0 0 9 7 ? - l - 2 6 1 8 2 8
T e l a xn ' o . 2 3 6 5K H A N A L N P
l-IighDensityPolyetbene
Nepothene PipeManufacturedas per NS 40/010
Pricefor H. D. P. E PipesManulactured
as per NS 40/040
PR.ICE LIST
S E R I E SI I S E R I E SI I t SERIESIV S E R I E Rv

Outside WorkingPrcssure WorkingPressure WorkingPressure S'orkingPrtrssurc

Diamcter 2.5 Kgf/cm. s q . 4 Kgf.;cnr.sq. 6 Kgficn. sq. l0 Kgf/cm. s q .
_.-._--.-_.--.- --.-
W"ll Th',- I Price Wall Thic- | Pricc W a l lT h i c - | P r i c c W a l l T h i c - I Prl..
(mm) kness I /Mtr. kness I /Mtr, koess | /Mtr. kness I /Mtr.
Min. M a x . I Rs:. Ps. M i n . Max.I Rs. Ps. Min. Max. I Rs. Ps. Min. M a x .I Rs. Ps.
l- -t.

l5mm 2.0 lt.lJ

l0inm i " 2.3 2.8 lo 2l

2 5 m mi 2.8 3.i 24.44

i2mml" 2.3 2.8 27.35 3.6 4.3 4 0 . 4I

'
{c.;; l,J' 2.0 2.4 30.37 2.9 3.4 42.35 4.5 5.2 67.t9

5 O r n n il ) " 29 45.74 3.6 4.2 6s.5.8 5.6 6.4 96.32

'2.0 4.5 5.2 r02.85 7l I 53.55
bJMM Z 2.4 48 . 7 6 30 3.5 70.7) 8.1

/fmm l(
11 tQ 67.40 3.6 4,1 I 0 2l 7 {1 6.1 1 4 4t. I 8.4 os 2r5.62

SOmm3"
l R 1't 96.6S 4.4 () 147.62 6.4 't.3 207.16 l0.l I t.4 3r0 . 7 1

l lOrnm4" 3.4 4 0 I41.39 5.0 5.8 20606 7.8 88 30?-95 tz.4 1 3 . 9 459.9

l25rnrn4|" 3.9 4.5 t s 5I 3 6.0 6.8 276.97 E.9 l0.E 398.45 l 4 . l 15 . 7 600.40

l4Onrnt5" 4.J 5.0 2.29.)4 68 351.02 9.9 l l s02.I 5 15.E t7.6 7t5.29

l60mm6" 4.9 5.6 296.8

r 78 8.8 456.53 1l.l 12.7 64?.96 r8,020.0 917.56

J80mnr7" 5.6 6.4 J d u . yI 8.7 9 8 576.20 1 2 . El 4 . l 822.80 20.J22,6 I 240.98

200mm8" 6.2 7.1 qod.66 9.7 10.9 7t2.69 ir 1

I 5.e l0l 225 25.0 I527.02

2 2 5 m m9 " 6.9 7.8 1 0 . 91 2 . 2 900.85 r5.9 I t.t r275.32 25.4 2S.2 937.69
't7'1 t') I t7.'l 1 9 . 7 r5 i 7 . 9 6 2 8 . 23 r . 3 2390.60
2 5 0 m m1 0 " 1;l 3.8 .45 I1.6 1 l1 1 . 6 3

280mml l 8.6 9.1 903.99 l l . 5 1 , 5 . 1 1386.06 1 9 . 82 2 . 0 l 975.57 3 1 . 53 4 . 5 7

2989.6

3 l 5 n r m1 2 " o? r0.8 I I39.46 t 5 . 21 7 . 0 1755.47 22.t 24.8 2501,97 36.4 J9.2. 3770.36

l 5 5 m mt 4 t : 10.9!2.2 I 446.80 I 7 .t 1 9 I.
?224.22 25.121.9 3I 7 5 . 4 0 3 9 . 94 4 .I 4'195.84
--rL3 -?s24
r00mml6l; ll.s l84rJ4 19J 'l-s- J0 283 3t.4 401039 4 5 . 04 0 . 7 609r .62

Ternrs & Cond_ttig"tj-

l. l0% Tax rvill bc charge extra.
2 . T h c p r i c e a r e e x - f a c t o r y p r i c e e x c l u d i n g s a l c s t a x & c o n t r a c tt a x '
3 . S u b j e c tt o U s u a l ' F o r c eM a j o r c o n d i t i o n '
q i t h o u t n o t i c c , 2 5 l d a c l v r n c cs h o u l d b c p e i d a t l h e t i n t e o f o r d e r i n g o f g o o d sa n d
+. price arc Subject to changc
b a l a o c e s h o u l d b e p a i d b e f o r ed e l i v e r y .

* Thase sizas arc not heina manttfacjttrad at nreqcnt

173
 PANCHAKANYAPI-ASTICIND. [P] LTD.
I Manufaoturerof HDPEPipes& Accessories
]
PipesManufacturoredasper NS 40/040

SERIES SERIES SERIES SERIES

Outside WorkingPreszure WorkingPressure WorkingPressure WorkingPreszuro
Diameter 2.5 Kdlcm sq. 4 Kef/cmso. 6 Ksf,/cmsq. 10Kef/cm sq.
rtm Wall Thickness Wall Thickness Wall Thickness Wall Thickness
Min. Max. Weieht Min. Max. Weieht Min. Max. Weieht Min. m&x. Weieht
16rnm 2.0 2 . 4 0.0 92
20 mm 2.8 0.134
25 mm 7.8 0.202
J._1

32 nnn 2.3 2.8 0.226 3 . 6 4.3 0.334

40 rnm 2.0 2.4 0.251 2.9 3.4 0.350 4.5 5.2 0.514
50 rnm 2.4 2 . 9 0.378 3.6 4.2 0.542 5.6 6.4 0.796
63 mm 2 . 0 2 . 4 0 .4 0 3 3.0 3.5 0.585 4.5 5.2 0.850 7 . 1 8.1 r.269
75 nun 2 . 3 2 . 8 0 . 5 5 7 3.6 4 . 3 0.846 5.3 6.1 i.t91 8.4 9.5 1.782
90mm 2 . 8 J . J 0 . 7 9 9 4.4 5.2 I J1n 6.4 7.3 r.717 10.1 I 1. 4 2.568
1 1 0m m 3 . 4 4 . 0 l . 1 8 5 5.0 5 . 8 1.703 1.8 8.8 2.545 1 2 . 4 13.9 3.8 01
125mm 3 . 9 A < 1 . 5 3 0 6.0 6 . 8 2.289 8.9 10.8 3.293 L4 I 15.7 4.962
140nun 4 . 3 5 . 0 1 . 8 9 7 6 . 8 7 . 7 2.901 9 . 9 I t . r 4 , 15 0 I5.8 L' t.6 6.209
160nrn 4 . 9 5 . 6 2 .4 5 3 7 . 8 8 . 8 3.773 1 1 . 3 12.7 5.355 18.0 20.0 8.079
I80 mm 5 . 6 6 . 4 3 . I 48 8.7 9.8 4.762 12.8 1 4 . 3 6.800 20.3 72.6 10.256
200mm 6 . 2 'I,T
3 . 8 75 9.7 10.9 5.890 r4.2 1 5 . 9 8 . 3 9 1 22.5 25.0 12.620
225 mm 6 . 9 7 . 8 4.822 1 0 .9 1 2.2 7.445 l s . 9 L 7. 7 I 0 . 5 4 4 25.4 28.2 r 6 . 0 1 4
250mm 7 . 7 8.8 6.012 12.L 13.69.187t7.7 19.7 13.04i 28.2 3 1 . 3 19.757

IIEAD OFFICE: J3/12 Krishna Gallt, Lalitpu, P.O. Box. No. 2743I(othmandu, Nepal.
Phone 52635'7,52511LFax No. Slj.529.
E-mail : sted@nchknya-mos.c om.np

FACTORY: I-nmini Zane, Kotihawq Bhairahawa, Nepal

Phone(071)60368.I'ax: 605?d

174

I
I
 PANCr{AKANYAROTOMOULDS[PJLTD.
[ \4anufactr-u'er
of uPVCPipes& Aooessories
]
asperNS 206/046
PipesManufactruered

Class- I Class- 2 Class- 3 Class- 4

OuGide WorkingPressure Working Pressure Worlcing Pressure Working Pressure
Diameter 2.5Keflcm so. 4 Kef/cm sq. 6 Kpflsm sq. i0 Kef/cm sq.
ln rnrn Wall Thickness Wall Thickness Wall Thickness Wall Thickness
\,Iirt.Max. Weielil Min. Max. Weieht Min. Max. Weieht Min. max. Weielrt
20 rnm 1.1 1.5 0.11i
25 mm t.4 1.8 0 . 17 0
32 mm 1.8 2.2 0.270
,)'1
40 rnm r.4 L8 0.28i 1) 0.416
50 nu-n L-l 2.1 0.418 28 J.J 0.647
63 rnm 1 . 5 I . 9 0.474 2 . 2 2 . 7 0.668 3.5 4 .t I .010
75 rnm 1 . 8 2 . 2 0.660 2 . 6 3 .r 0 . 9 3 1 4.2 4.9 1.443
90 rtun ta
LJ t.7 0 . 6 0 6 2..r 2.6 0.944 3 . i 3 . 7 r.334 5.0 5 . 7 2.&18
1 1 0m m 1 . 6 2 . 0 0.894 2.5 3.0 1.369 3.7 4.3 1.938 6.1 7 . 0 3.077
140rnm 2.0 2 .4 1 . 4 1 3 3 . 2 3 . 8 2.2?3 4 . 8 5 . 5 3 . 17 8 7.7 8 . 7 4.955
160 mm 2 .3 2 . 8 l.884 3 . 7 4 . 3 7.94'l 5.4 6:2 4 . 1 3 9 8.8 9 . 9 6.456
180mm 2 , 6 3 . r t.553 4 . 2 4 . 9 3.474 6 . t 7 . 0 4 . 9 6 1 9 . 9 t 1 . r 7.830
200mm 2 . 9 3 . 4 2.945 4.6 5 . 3 4.563 6 . 8 7 . 7 6.464 1 1 . 0 t 2 . 3 10 . 18 5

IflAD OITICE: J3l12l(rishna Galli, Lalitpur, P,O. Box. No. 2743l(athmandu,N"pal.

Phone526351,52571LFax No. 52.6529.
E-mail: steel@pnchknya.rnos.com.np

FACTORY: I-uminl Zone, Kotihawq Bhatrahawa,Nepal.

Phone(0?1)60368,Far: 6057{.

175
 CtuGAsSteel
Industries
P.Ltd.
Kantipath,
G.P0.Box:4129, Tel:977.1-253047,
Nepal.
damal,Kathmardu, Far9I/-1.22061
228389,24U52,252475,252850, 2
Fac1ory:
Simra, Tel:977-53-20075,
Bara, Fax977-53-20160
20078,20170,

ANDBLACKSl'EljL
GATVANISED TNVATER,CASAtR&STEAMLINtsS
PIPESI'ORORDINARYUSES

WEIGFT OF WEIGET OF
TYPE NOTVIINAL WALL APPOX BLACK PIPE GALVAMSI,D PTPE
BORE THICKNESS OD PLAIN EI{D THREADED &
s(}rxx'.Tr'.D
CLASS MM TNCB MM MM KG/M MTR/T{.' KGIM MTR/II{.7
LIGHT 15 1n 2.00 21.30 0.9? t050 1.01 990
'A' 20 3t4 2.35 zo.w 1_41 709 1.48 o/D

zoJ 33.70 2.01 498 ?.11 a74

32 lv, 2.65 4?.40 2.58 388 2.72 355
40 1ta 48.30 3.25 308 3.,11 281
290 60 30 411 213 433 222
65 2ta 325 76 20 580 172 61 155
80 3 3.2s 88.90 6.81 117 7.21 133
100 4 3.65 114.30 9.89 101 10.49 91

I}lEDIUM 15 21.30 t.?? E20 1.28 781

'B' 3t4 zof, 26.90 t.58 533 1.65 o@

t< 3.25 33.70 2.41 410 254 394

32 -t 2l 1210 3t 318 3.27 292
40 1,4 3.25 48.30 ? AI 277 3.77 251
50 3.65 60.30 5.10 196 532 17S
65 3.65 76.?O 6.51 154 6.82 110
80 3 rl 05 88.90 8.47 118 8.87 107
100 4.50 11 4 . 3 0 12.10 E3 12.69 75
4.85 139.70 16.20 62 16.95 55
r50 6 I 48s 16s10 | 1s.20 | s2 l 20.00

't.90
IIEAVY 20 3t4 JZJ 26.90 1.97 508
'c' 25 4.05 33.70 2.97 336 3.07 326
3Z 4.05 42.40 3.84 2& 3.97 239
40 1,4 4.05 r18.30 .1.43 226 .1.59 201
)U 4.50 60.30 6.17 t6? 6.39 14E
65 2'a 4.50 76.20 7.90 127 8.21 115
80 3 /t 85 88.90 10.0
1 99 10.52 90
r00 1 5..10 1 1 4 30 14./10 69 15aa 63
125 5 540 1 3 97 0 17.80 56 t8 s2 51
rso 5ro 165 10 1)O A7 2) ?2 12

200 mm (;Al,v^}'|lsl.:t)
^}{I) IILA(;KST[tiL PIPTS(Detalledspeclflc.tlonon requesl)

200 8 5.20 219.10 27.71 36 29.20 3?

2rn 8 500 21910 31 82 31 aa2r] 28

Notee:
1) TenslleStrength:Tenslleslrengthfor waterlubeswhentestedfrornetrlps,cut outfromselected
tubesshallbe morethan320rVmm'.
2) Tolerances: a) Thickness: Ughtlubes:(+)notlimited,C) 8% max.
Medium & Heavyprpes:(+)notlimited,(-) 10%max.
b)Weight: Singletubes:(+)10%,G)8%.
c) Lengfh: Unlessothenrlsespecified4 to 7 meters.
3) Pipesof hlghertensilestrenghandbiggerdiametercanalsobe manufac;tured as per requesl.

JorNr
vFNruRE
BFTwEEN---@mCeftr-

I
r {o
I

I
 HiqGASSteel P,Ltd.
Industries
G PO Eoxl 129,Kantipath, NepalTel.
ihmandu
Jamal.Ka .253047.
977.1 228389,
243452, Fax9/7'1'220612
25247:2528n.
F;:lorySrmra.
Bara,Telr
977.53.20075,
20078, F
?011A. 60
ax.977'53'201

f-nl fucturat steelpipesaremanufacturedinthesame

,--------..
rf n nrr
| \ | process aswater pipes.
However,thesteel
used isof
/ t i l l t f l tu t nN I U lhighertensile/yield shength.
Wenormally usehigh
. - a d F B r u€ ut i"H. uFr- r L t L _ ) I grade steelwithtensile
sbengh of 42/55kgs/cm asper
re customersrequirements.
JIS:G-3132, SPHT
Wenormallyusehe steel
2,3or4,orlS:11513/1985
asper
forhe pur-
I
STRUCTURAL poses. pipes
Structural arebasically
usedformanufactur-
ingplesandwelded Useofhighgrade
sbuctures. stuc-
I

t
STEELPIPES furalsteelreducessteelconsumptondrastically
Pipes of
structuralgrade conform
normally tolS:1161/1979,JIS:G-
3444/1993, BS:1387/1985.
I
I I IPCO ST[TUCTIJFIAL'I-f] ETES
N q n i n al Bore Class Thicknesa vEr9nr Area ol Mment of Sectlon
9l*11"t Black pipes Cr. scllon lnertli Modulus Gyraiion
--;- lu:rt-- h q -t- g-m . xqm - AEl-- cm. cm. Cnr

l5 |/'), 2l l0 2.00 096 I at 057 0.54 069

M 265 |22 55 0.69 0.65 0 6'l
il )5 l 4i 84 0.11 0.71 0.65
20 76 90 t LJ l4l 8l l8 1.02 087
N,l 265 | 58 02 r50 086
H \.25 1.90 4l |72 128 0 8,1
t70 265 2 0.1 58 t4 186 l0
M f .25 46 r65 7l t08
H 405 2.99 2.51 I06
)/ lv4 42.40 L 2.65 2.61 JI 657 I l0 I ll
fvl 125 l 15 00 771 3.64 l9
n ;1.05 1.86 488 907 4 .l 8 136
40 l1/2 48 l0 L 290 J.)I 1.t4 1 07 0 4.43 l6l
lvl 3.25 l6l 460 It.7l 486 I60
H 4.05 4.43 561 ll90 5 . 75
50 ) 60 l0 II 290 4.t4 523 2 15 9 7t6 203
L2 j25 457 582 23 7.89 202
M 3.65 5 .l 0 650 26t7 8.68 201
H 4.50 6.t7 789 1 09 0 l0 20 r98
65 76t0 J.25 5.E4 7 .14 49 4.1 I1.00 258
M 165 651 ElI 5465 t4.40 756
H 450 792 l0 l0 65t2 7 t0 254
80 88 90 L t25 6EO 874 8 0l l 1807 t0l
M 405 848 t0 80 9 7) 8 2t.91 t00
H 485 10.01 l? 80 I ll 46 25.53 298
t00 l4.t0 J.O) 70 IYq J! 14.01 l9l
2 .l 0 550 tJ4. t 41.00 189
H 540 t4 50 50 214 54 4E.O4 JE6
t25 I19.70 L 4.50 14.90 t9.10 437.20 62.59 4.78
M 485 16.20 20.50 467.64 66.95 4.77
H 540 I ?.90 22.80 514.49 7J.66 4 . 75
150 6 t 6 5l 0 I 4.50 I 7.80 22.70 7 3 25 7 88.74 568
M 4.85 t9.tu 14.40 1E4.49 95.0 5.67
H 5.40 2t.20 l0 864.69 o1.7 ).b)
175 7 t93.70 L 4.85 22.60 28.70 28400 31.00 6.68
M 5.40 z).w 90 416.96 46 30 6.66
H )_vu 2 1. J 0 34.80 516.I I 59.00 6.(A
200 E I tv.lv L 4.U) 2). tu 32.60 874.06 7l.o7 /.)u
M 5.60 t9.4U J I.OV z t4L.),. 9).4y /.))
H 590 lt 00 224700 205.I t.>4
ances:
.) Thlctn.s: (+) nct limled, C) 10% max b) lirrshr: (f) 1096,
C)8%
c) outCda oimctcr : Up(o €.3 mm (+)0.4 trun., Q.8mm.,owr €.3 mm,(+)1%

177
 Appendix C Gqlkot drawings

list of drowings

ur(rvYrrlq r Scheme
lcyout
Drowing2 Itonsrnission
line,routeolignment
firrrrrrinn I Heodworks ondheodroce generol
orrongeluent,
sheet1 of2
Drowing4 Heodworl<sondheodroce generol orrongetnent,sheet2 of2
Drowing5 Fleodworksondheodroce, intoke
D r o w i n g6 Heod'"vorks
ond heodroce,grcrveltrop/overfl
o',v
Drowing7 Hecdworks
ondhccdroce,
crossing
nos.1 ond2
Drowing8 Heodworks
ondheodroce,
crossing
nos.3 ond4
Drolvinq9 Penstock
oreo,generol 0rrongement
D r o w i n g1 0 Penstock
oreo,settlingbosinlforeboy
D r o w l n gl 1 Penstock
oreo,onchorblock& supportdetoils
D r o w i n g1 2 Penstock
oreo,mochinelbundotion
0ndt0ilrocedetoils

179
 o
Drowingi Scheme
Loyout

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 line,routeolignment
Drowing2 Tronsmission

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Index
A semi-circulor
concrete,
41
Air-releose
volve,55 settingout,67
Altimeter,65 sideslopes,
46
Anchorblocks2, 111 stobiliry,49
checklist,
127 stonemosonryin mud mortor,39
annctrrlafinn 11 1
stonemosonryin cement,40
design,116-127 timber,40
exomple,
121 types,39
Iocotion,1l1' velocity,46,48
sizing,727
Anchorrod,29 Check
doms,147
Coondointoke,149
B Componentsof micro-hydro,
2
Bench
cut,65 Crossings,
2,55
Bio-engineering
works,144 Crossdroinoge,13
Bottomintqke Culvert,33
description,
31 Curing,69
design,
32
exomple,
34 D
troshrocks
for,32 De-beoder,
150
Bursting
disc,93,
147 Designflow
Breokpressure
tonk,55 procedure
to estoblish11
weirs(seeweirs)
Diversion
c works
Diversion
Conols 36
checklist,
copocity,
46 Drofttube,3
concrete,40 Drystonewoll,145
construction,
67-69
crossrngs,
53 E
design,46-51 in powerequotion,3
Efficiency
eorth,39 Excovotion,68,
143
economics,46 joints,109
Exponsion
exomple,
50 2
Escopes,
excovotion,68 exomple,
111
ferrocement,42 pipes,110
in HDPE
heodloss,46 in mild steelpipes,110
lining,43,
M,45,68 in in PVCpipes,110
mosonry46 sizing,110
oildrum,40 Spillweirs,2
roughness,48 Spillweirs,2
sediment
tronsport,4T Overflow2
seepoge,46

tt
*
193
F Hydroulicrodius,47
Follvelocityof sediment,
74 Hydrology,
10,AppendixA
Floodrisk,12 Hydropower,1
Flow
designcolculotions,
51 I
estimotion,
10-11,AppendixA Intokes,2
FIowDurotionCurve,11 bottom(seebottomintoke)
Flume Coandq(seeCoondointoke)
ferrocement,42 generolprinciplesfor selecting,
1Z
Flushing rypes,21
frequency,
81 side(seesideintoke)
verticqlpipemethod,77 exomple,20
Foreboy
2,71,84 selectioncriterio,21
checklist,
88 Invertedsiphons,55-56
design,84 Irrigotion,13,39,40,42,4
pipelevel,84
size,84 J
Forces Joints,rock,9
frictionol,120
on onchorblocks,120-124 L
Freeboord,50 Londownershipond use,13
Friction,
39,61-66 Levels,3,
12,84
Limestones,
10
G Lining
Gqbions,35 formersmethod,45
Gqbionweir,126 HDPE,43
Gobionretoiningwoll, 144 soilcement,44
checkdqms,147 LocotionoIcomponents,
6
Cotes
penstock,86 M
sluice,79 Mochinefoundqtion
Generotor
efficiency,
3 design,135
Geology,8 exomple,136
Geotechnicolconsiderotions,
8 Monning'sequotion,46
Groveltrop,2,71,72 Mosonry,
10,26,40,42,48,49,50,
53,56,87,116,119,135
checklist,88 Micro-hydro,
1
exomple,80 comporison
with hydropowe41
Groundwoter,8 definition,1
Moodychort,62
H
Heqd o
gross,3 Orifice
net,3 design,23
pipes
HDPE exomple,24
joining,59
(seeconolsond pipes)2,39-68
Heodroce
Heqdworks,2

194

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I
P Rocktypes,10
Peohngreservoir,87 Roughness
coefficient
(olsoseepipes)
Penstocks conols,4748
bosicloyout,15 pipes,62
checklist,113 Run-of-riverschemes,
1
description,
2
exomples,99-103 s
exposed
versusburied,108 Scfety
inctnllntinn 11?
ogoinst
overturning,
124
mointenonce,
113 on beoring,124
moteriols,94 problem,47,71
Sediment
overview91 Seepoge,
12,46
pointing,111 designcolculotion,
12
selection
of olignment,
9l-93 Settling
bosins,71,73
checklist,88
Pipes(olsoseepenstock) components,
75
burioldetoils,57,60 designcriteriq,73
bends58,61,63,92 description,2
designcriterio,56 exomple,80
designprocedure,
61-66 flushingorrongements,
77-79
diometer,
61,95 flushingcopocity,T3
generol,
56 ideol,73
HDPE ondPVC,58-59,155 inlet zone,76
jointing,59,95,106 outletzone,77
lengths,107 settlingcopocity,73
roughness,
62 settlingdesign,75
stqndqrd
size,AppendixB settling zone,77
submergence
heod,61 storogecopocify,
73
turbulence
losses,
63 storoge
design,75
wqll thickness,99 Shield's
formulo,4T
sideintqke,22
Plonning,5,
13 Sinkholes,
10
Ploster,48,69,88,
135 Siteselection,5,
15
Power,3 Slopestobility,8, 143-747
Powerequotion,
3 Spillwoys,
79,86
Powerhouse definition,2
checklist,
141 exomple,53
definition,3 locotion,52
locqtion,
134 Stobilityof schemes,
16
overview,
133 Storoge
schemes,
1
size,134 Supportpiers,115
Siteinvestigotion,
6 checklist,
131
Pressure construction,
119
hydrostotic,
120-122 description,2
design,
120
R flexiblesteel,152
pechng,87
Reservoir locotion,117
Retoining
structures,
144 Submergence
heqd,61,84
Rivertroiningworks,35 Surgecolculotion,
97-100

195
 T
Tqilroce
141
checklist,
definition,3, 140
140
designofchonnel,
designofpipe,140
Tension
crocks,9
krrocing, 145
Thermolexponsion,
115
Tlqnsmission
lines,6, 15
Troshrocks,
22,32,57
, 85

w
Woterovoilobility,10
Woterrights,13
Woterretqiningstructures,
88
Weokness
zones,8
Werrs -rt/' ri
ll.-
diversion,
2, 25
1\1rr ,),
gobion,26,28
heodover,31
permonent,29 r'll

temporory,
25 "1,
!,1-; A.t'"
perimeter,4T
Wetted I

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Ventplpe,61 VLt L?
Volves,
57,61 ta

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196

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P R A C T I C AALN S W E R S
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