Engineering Materials: Adarsha H

(All Sections)
Engineering Materials
Adarsha H.
Mechanical Department
R.V.College Of Engineering
RV College of Engineering, Bangalore-59 Prepared by Adarsha.H ME .Dept Page 0
Engineering Materials (Common to all branches)
Unit I 6 hours
INTRODUCTION
Classification of Materials - Metals, Ceramics, Polymers, composites,
Advanced Materials- semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials,
nanostructured materials and their applications
Material properties – Mechanical properties, thermal properties – Heat
capacity, CTE, thermal conductivity, Electrical and Electronic conductivity,
Magnetic properties – dia, para, ferro, ferri, antiferro, domains and
hysteresis. Optical properties -Luminescence and photoconductivity.
Unit I 8 hours
Ferrous materials and Alloys - Binary phase diagrams, Phase Rule, Lever
Rule, Solidification, Nucleation and Grain Growth.
Cast Iron, Chromium steels, Nickel steels, Silicon Steels, Tungsten and
Molybdenum Steels & Stainless Steels; Tool Steels, structural steels,
Corrosion and Heat Treatment
Non-ferrous materials and alloys – Aluminum, Copper and Titanium, their
alloys, properties and applications.
Unit III 8 hours

Overview of Flexible Electronics Technology
History of Flexible Electronics, Materials for Flexible Electronics ,
Fabrication Technology for Flexible Electronics Fabrication on Sheets by
Batch Processing, Fabrication on Web by Roll-to-Roll Processing , Additive
Printing, Low-temperature Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Silicon
Materials, Low-temperature Dielectrics, Low-temperature Thin-film
Transistor Devices
Ceramic Materials - Definition, Classification of Ceramic Materials,
Processing Methods, Properties and Industrial, Medical and Commercial
Applications
Polymers– Definition, Classification of Polymers, Properties and their
applications, intrinsically conductive materials

Unit IV 8 hours
COMPOSITES - Types of Matrix Materials and Reinforcements, Selection of
Composites, Properties, Applications, Rule of Mixture for density, elastic
modulus and tensile strength.
Nanomaterials - Definition, classification and synthesis – physical and
chemical processes, Characterization of nanomaterials – Electron
microscope, X-Ray Diffraction, particle size analyzer
Unit V 6 hours
Advanced materials for - Construction Applications, Biomedical
applications, High temperature Applications, Sensors and Actuators - Shape
Memory Alloys and Composites, Thin films and coatings.
Reference Books
1. William D. Callister; ―Materials Science & Engineering- An

Introduction‖; Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.; 6th Edition; 2006; New Delhi;
ISBN:9814-12-669-1; 1,4,6,7,8,9
2. Fred W. Billmeyer, Jr; ― Text Book Of Polymer Science‖; Wiley-
Interscience Publication; 2nd Edition; 1984; ISBN:0-471-82834-3; 8
3. Donald R. Askland, Pradeep P. Phule, ‖Essentials of Materials Science
and Engineering‖, Thomas Canada Learning INDIA EDITION,
ISBN:81-315-0233-3
4. William Smith,‖Foundation of Materials Science and Engineering‖, 3rd
Edition, McGraw Hill, 1997. ISBN:9780073529240
5. Flexible Electronics: Materials and Applications, William S. Wong and
Alberto Salleo, eds. ISBN 978-0-387-74362-2, 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit CONTENTS PAGE NO.

No.
1 MATERIALS
Classification 5-7
Mechanical Properties of Materials 7-9
Thermal Properties Of Materials 10
Electrical Properties Of Materials 11
Magnetic Properties Of Materials 11-14
---Hysteresis 13-14
Optical Properties Of Materials 14
2 FERROUS & NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
Phase Diagrams 15
--Uniary Phase Diagram 15
--Binary Phase Diagram(Gibbs Rule) 16
Solidification 19
--Phases in Iron-Carbide 22-23
--Ferrous Metals Properties/Applications 23-26
NON-FERROUS MATERIALS 26-30
--Aluminium And Its Alloys 26-27
--Titanium And Its Alloys 28-30
Corrosion Science 30-32
3 FLEXIBLE ELECTRONICS
Properties Of Materials For Flexible Electronics 34
Thin Film Transistors 35-37
--Physical Vapour Deposition(PVD) 36
--Chemical Vapour Deposition(CVD) 37
OLED’s 37-42
--Batch Processing 38-39
--Roll To Roll Processing 40-41
--Additive Printing 42
Low Temperature Amorphous & Nano Crystalline Materials 43
High-Temperature semiconductors 44
Low-Temperature Di-Electrics 47
CERAMICS 48-58
Characteristics, Classification 48-49
Slip Casting 49-50
Powder Metallurgy Technique 50-51
Extrusion 51-53
Applications 53-58

POLYMERS 59-61
Types Of Polymers 59
Polymerization & Its Methods 60-61
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers 61
4 COMPOSITES & NANO-MATERIALS

Classification Of Composites 62
Hand Layup Process 63
Diffusion Bonding 64
Applications 65
--FRP,CMC,MMC 65
Rule Of Mixtures 66-69
--Iso-Strain Condition 66-67
--Iso-Stress Condition 67-68
Rule Of Mixtures For Density 68
Strength Of Fibre Reinforced Composites 69
Problems 70-73
NANO-MATERIALS 73-76
Classification 73
Sol-Gel Process 74
Electron Microscope 75
X-Ray Diffraction 76
Particle Size Analyser 76
5 ADVANCED MATERIALS
Bio-Materials 77-78
Applications 78-80
High Temperature Engineering Applications 80-86
Construction Materials 86-88
--Fibre Reinforced Concrete 87
--Sisal-Fibre-Reinforced Cement(SFRC) 88
Corrosion-Inhibiting Coatings 89
Applications Of Shape Memory Alloys 90-92
--Bio-Engineering 91
6 QUESTION BANK 94
7 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION PAPERS 96

UNIT-1
What is a material?
A material is that out of which anything is made. Materials are broadly
classified into:
Metals:
Metals are composed of elements which readily give up electrons to provide
a metallic bond and electrical conductivity.
Important characteristics of metals are:
Hardness, good thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, ductility,
formability, lustre and strength.
Example: Iron, Copper, Magnesium, Aluminium, Zinc
Ceramic:
These usually consist of oxides, nitrides, carbides, silicates or borates of
various metals.
Ceramic materials are generally rock or clay materials, generally used at
high temperatures.
The important characteristics of ceramics include:
Brittleness, resistance to high temperature, hard, abrasiveness, good
insulators, corrosion resistance, opaque.
Polymers:
These include familiar plastic and rubber material. Many of them are
chemically based on Carbon, Hydrogen and other non metallic elements.
Furthermore, they have a large molecular structure and these materials
typically have low density and may be extremely flexible.
Characteristics of polymers are:
Light weight, combustible, soft, ductile, poor conductor of heat and
electricity.

Advanced Materials:
Materials that are utilized in high tech apps are sometimes termed as
advanced materials. These materials are typical traditional materials whose
properties have been enhanced and also newly developed and are also high
performance materials. The generally advanced materials include Smart
materials, Nano engineered materials and Bio materials.
Smart materials
These materials can have one or more properties that can be significantly
changed in a controlled fashion by external stimulus such as temperature,
stress, electric/magnetic field and moisture.
NANO ENGINEERED MATERIALS

Top down approach:
○ Procedure followed by scientists to
understand the physics and chemistry of
materials by studying large and complex
structures and then studying the
fundamental building blocks of the structures
and then studying the fundamental building
blocks of the structures that are smaller and
simpler.
Bottom up approach:
○ Observation of individual atoms and
molecules .With these it is possible to
manipulate and more new atoms and
molecules to form new structures and thus
design new materials: these are called new
engineered materials.

Biomaterials
These are employed in components implanted into a human body for

replacement of disease or damaged body parts .These materials must not
produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissue .
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Stress Strain Curve for Mild Steel
SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:
(A) So it is evident form the graph that the strain is proportional to strain or
elongation is proportional to the load giving a st.line relationship. This law of
proportionality is valid upto a point A.
or we can say that point A is some ultimate point when the linear nature of
the graph ceases or there is a deviation from the linear nature. This point is
known as the limit of proportionality or the proportionality limit.

(B) For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be elastic in
the sense that the deformations are completely recovered when the load is
removed. The limiting point B is termed as Elastic Limit .
(C) and (D) - Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains
are not totally recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or
permanent set when load is removed. These two points are termed as upper
and lower yield points respectively. The stress at the yield point is called the
yield strength.
A study a stress – strain diagrams shows that the yield point is so near the
proportional limit that for most purpose the two may be taken as one.
However, it is much easier to locate the former. For material which do not
posses a well define yield points, In order to find the yield point or yield
strength, an offset method is applied.
In this method a line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion of initial
stress diagram by offsetting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as
shown as below and this happens especially for the low carbon steel.
(E) A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the
whole volume of the metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with
stand without failure is called the load at the ultimate strength.
The highest point ‗E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of
a material.
su = Stress which the specimen can with stand without failure & is known
as Ultimate Strength or Tensile Strength.
su is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the

bar.

(F) Beyond point E, the bar begins to forms neck. The load falling from the
maximum until fracture occurs at F.
Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to reduce

rapidly over a relatively small length of bar and the bar is said to form a
neck. This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the
bar finally occurs at point F
Hardness
● It is the resistance of the material for plastic deformation.
● In general it is the resistance to penetration or measure of resistance
to permanent deformation and is related to the bond in the lattice
structure.
● Hardness of a material depends upon the type of bonding forces
between atoms, ions and molecules.
Brittleness
● Tendency of the material to get fractured without appreciable
deformation (opposite of malleability and ductility).
● A brittle failure is a sudden failure and a brittle material will be hard
and has little ductility.
● The brittle fractures normally follows grain boundaries (inter granular
and inter crystalline).
● Ductile fractures normally occur through the grains (transgranular
and transcrystalline).
Ductility and malleability
● Capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension without
rupture.
● The ability of a metal to be formed by hammering or rolling is called
malleability.
● Lead is a good example for malleability but gold is most malleable.

Thermal properties
● Thermal properties are the response of the material to the application

of heat.
● Study of thermal properties of materials is essential to evaluate the
response of the material for the thermal changes- lowering or raising
temp.
Heat capacity
● A solid material hen heated experiences an increase in temperature

signifying that some energy is absorbed.
● Heat capacity is a property that is indicative of materials ability to
absorb heat from the surroundings.
● C=dQ/dT
Coefficient of thermal expansion
● When thermal energy is added to the material a change in its

dimensions occurs and this phenomenon is called thermal expansion.
● Coefficient of thermal expansion is the amount of expansion in a unit
length of solid as a result of heating.
Thermal conductivity
● Specific heat – quantity of heat added to a unit mass of substance to

increase its heat by 1°C.
● Thermal conductivity: rate at which heat can flow through the
material under the influence of a given thermal gradient is determined
by thermal conductivity.
● K= dQ/dT[(T2 – T1)A/L]

Electrical and electronic conductivity
● Characteristics of the materials to permit or resist the flow of

electricity through them.
● Materials to be used in electrical equipments can be selected on the
basis of their electrical properties such as resistivity, conductivity and
dielectric strength.
Resistivity
● It is that electrical property of a material owing to which it resists the

flow of electricity through it.
● Resistivity ρ=RA/l ohm-cm.
R= resistance
A= area of conductor
L = length of conductor
● Resistivity is inversely proportional to the conductivity.
Dielectric strength
● It is the insulating the capacity of the material against high voltages .
● A material having high di electric strength can with stand sufficient
high voltage field across it before it will break down or conduct .
● A die electric is an insulator
Magnetism
 Magnetism is a phenomenon by which a material exerts either
attractive or repulsive force on another.
 Basic source of magnetic force is movement of electrically charged
particles. Thus magnetic behaviour of material is established.
 Electrons in atoms have planetary motion.
 This orbital motion and its own spin causes separate magnetic
moments which contribute to magnetic behaviour. Thus every
material can respond to a magnetic field.

Diamagnetic Material:
 The magnetic moment, intensity of magnetisation and magnetic
susceptibility are all negative while magnetic permeability value less
than 1.
 Repelled by strong magnet.
 Magnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature.
Paramagnetic Material:
 The magnetic moment, intensity of magnetisation and magnetic
susceptibility are all positive values while magnetic permeability has
value greater than 1.
 Attracted by strong magnet.
 The magnetic susceptibility decreases with rise in temperature.
Ferromagnetic Material:
The magnetic moment, intensity of magnetisation and magnetic
susceptibility are all positive and quite large and magnetic permeability is of
the order of hundreds and thousands.
Magnetic susceptibility decreases with rise in temperature.
Antiferromagnetism:
Dipoles line up, but in opposite directions resulting in zero magnetisation.
Ferrimagnetisation:
Similar to anti ferromagnetism, but dipoles of varying strength cannot
cancel each other.

Hysteresis:
The hysteresis loop shows relationship between induced magnetic flux

density(B) and magnetisation force(H). The loop is generated by measuring
the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetic force is
changed.
A ferromagnetic material that was never being previously magnetised will
follow the dotted line when H is increased.
At point A, almost all magnetic domains are aligned and an additional
increase in the magnetising force will produce no effect on the magnetic flux.
This point is called point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to O,
the curve will move from A to B. At this point it can be seen that some
amount of magnetic flux still remains in the material even though H is 0.
This point is called point of retentivity. As the magnetising force is reversed
the curve moves from B to C where the flux is reduced to 0. This point is
called the point of coercivity. The force required to remove the residual
magnetisation from the material is called coercive force. As the magnetizing
force is increased in the negative direction, the material will become again
magnetically saturated in the opposite direction at point D. Reducing H to O
brings the curve to point E, where it will have a level of residual magnetism
equal to that achieved in other direction. Increasing H back in positive
direction will return the flux density to zero. But the curve may not return to

the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual
magnetism. The curve will take a different oath. From point F back to
saturation point where it will complete the loop.
Optical Properties
• Optical property of a material is defined as its interaction with electro-
magnetic radiation in the visible.
• Electromagnetic spectrum of radiation spans the wide range from γ-
rays with wavelength as10-12 m, through x-rays ,ultra violet, visible,
infrared, and finally radio waves with wavelengths as long as105m.
Luminescence:
 It is the process where a material absorbs energy and then
immediately emits visible or near visible radiations.
 It consists of electron excitation and then dropping down to lower
energy states.
 If the emission of radiation occurs within 10-8 seconds after the
excitation, the luminescence is called fluorescence and if it takes
longer than 10-8 seconds, it is known as phosphorescence.
• Ordinarily pure materials do not display this phenomenon. Special
materials called phosphors have the capability of absorbing high-
energy radiation and spontaneously emitting lower-energy radiation.
 Ex.: some sulfides, oxides, tungstates
Photoconductivity:
It is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a material becomes
more electrically conductive due to the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation such as visible light, UV, infrared and gamma radiations.

UNIT - 2
FERROUS MATERIALS AND ALLOYS
PHASE DIAGRAMS
The Phase Diagram is essentially a graphical representation of an alloy
system. Phase diagrams are also called equilibrium diagrams or
constitutional diagrams.
Phase diagrams are classified as:-
a) Unary phase diagrams
b) Binary phase diagrams
c) Ternary phase diagrams
UNARY PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE Cu
It is a pressure temperature diagram for a pure metal. Figure shows unary

phase diagram of pure copper. Line AOB represents boundary for all the
combinations of temperature and pressure. Copper is in solid state.
Region DOC => liquid phase
Region AOC => vapour phase

Point D is the melting point of pure copper i.e. 1083 C at 1 atm pressure.
Point O is Triple point where all the phases co-exist and this occurs at 1110
C and 0.1 N/m2.
BINARY PHASE DIAGRAM

A binary phase diagram is drawn with temperature on Y-axis and various
compositions of the two components on X-axis. Pressure is assumed to be 1
atm.
The following figure shows phase diagram for Ni-Cu system, which forms a
solid solution for a complete range of compositions.
For all combinations of temperature and pressure above the curve marked
as liquidus, the mixture is in solid state. For all the combinations below a
solidus curve the mixture is in solid state and then we have a mixture of
solid and liquid for any combinations between the two curves. Points A and
B represents melting points of Ni and Cu respectively.
GIBB’S PHASE RULE:-

It states that P + F = C + 2;
Where P is the number of phases
F is the number of degrees of freedom
C is the number of components in the system
2 is the system variables which include temperature and pressure.

NOTE: - Degrees of freedom are the number of variables that can be
changed independently without the disappearance of phase. If the effect of
pressure is ignored and assumed to be 1 atm as in the case of binary phase
diagram. The modified phase then becomes
P + F = C + 1 or; F = C – P + 1
Since the degrees of freedom cannot be negative
C – P + 1 >= 0.
APPLICATIONS OF PHASE RULE:-
Binary phase diagrams of copper and nickel modified given phase rule of P
+ F = C + 1 is applied here.
Region – 1:-
This is a single phase homogeneous liquid region. For two components and
1 phase the degrees of freedom is 2. This means that temperature and
composition can be varied independently upto some extent without causing
the disappearance of liquid phase.

Region – 2:-
For two components and two phases the degree of freedom is 1. This means
that only 1 variable can be attained keeping other constant.
Here at constant temperature say at T2 C, the composition can be varied
between two points O & B, without distributing the nature of two phases,
solid and liquids.
Region – 3:-
This is a single phase solid solution region similar to region 1. Points A& B
an called invariant points where the degree of freedom is ‗0‘ and hence there
is no question of error in the composition.
LEVER RULE:-
The quantity of each phase present at pt. M is given by the lever rule; which
states that the relative amount of each phase present is directly proportional
to length of the lever arm.
Consider the line OMP which is made up of 2 arms, OM and MP; which
separates the liquidus and solidus curve separately.
According to lever rule the length MP touching the solidus curve is
proportional to amount of liquid phase present at M and the length OM
touching the liquidus is proportional to the amount of solid phase at point
M with the line OP representing the sum of solid and liquid phases.

SOLIDIFICATION:-
Solid Solutions:-
When two metals are mixed in their liquid state they form a homogeneous
state. When this mixture is solidified the mixture may retain the
homogeneity present in the liquid state. Then such a solution is known as
Solid solution. A solid solution is simply a solution in solid state and
consists of two types of atoms in one kind of lattice space. In a solid solution
, the metal in a major proportion is called solvent and minor proportions is
called solute.eg- Cu-Ni, Ag-Au, Fe-C are solid solutions.
Types of solid solutions:-

a) Substitutional solid solutions:-
In this type, the solute atoms substitute the atoms in the solvent I the
crystal structure of solvent.eg- In Ag-Au solid solution, the Ag atoms
substitute the Au atoms in Face-centered cubic structure of gold.
There are two types of Substitutional solid solutions:-
(i) Uniform/Ordered substitutional solid solutions:-
(ii) Distorted substitutional solid solutions:-

b) Interstitial solid solutions:-
These are formed when atoms of small atomic radii fit into the
interstitial spaces of the larger solvent atoms. Atoms of elements such
as C, N & H which have a very
Small radius (<1A) are likely to form interstitial solid solutions.
Mechanism of Solidification in metals & alloys.

Solidification of liquid metals consists of two stages :-
1) Nucleation of minute crystals.
2) Growth of these crystals into grains.
Nucleation : This is the starting point of solidification process of any metal

or alloy. In this stage, a number of minute crystals nucleate throughout the
melt. Metal in molten state possesses high energy and the atoms have high
mobility. As the liquid metal cools the atoms gradually use their energy and
their movement becomes less rigorous. Then, when the atoms collide with
each other attractive forces are set-up and the atomic bonds are re-
established between them.
Therefore, small cluster of atoms usually consisting of 2-3 atoms are formed
at several places in the molten metal called nuclei. It is the number of nuclei
formed during the stage of nucleation which decides the final grain
structure of the solidified metal and therefore some of its properties.
Nucleation in metals may occur by two mechanisms:

1. Homogenous Nucleation:
Here, when the nucleation takes place, it takes place without the help of any
impurities. It generally occurs in pure liquid metals. It is the occurrence of
ordered group of 2-3 atoms forming clusters for nuclei. For each nucleus so
formed to be stable and grow into the crystal, it must reach a certain size
called critical radius, given by the equation.
2
rc = r h
Fv
Where,  = Surface energy per unit area.

Fv = Latent heat energy absorbed per unit volume.
2. Heterogeneous Nucleation:
When the nucleation takes place in a liquid metal with the help of impurities
then it is known as Heterogeneous Nucleation.
Ex: Insoluble matter like alloy addition or any other agent deliberately added
to begin the process of solidification.
But for the nucleation to actually take place. i.e, for a particular surface to
serve as nucleation site. For that system 2 things must happen.
1. The Substrate surface must be actually wetted by the liquid metal.
2. The contact angle ―θ” of the cap shaped nucleus should be less than 90
degrees theoretically.
Cast Metal Structures:

When molten metal is poured into a mould and is allowed to solidify
different grain structure may result in casting. In other words, size and
shape of the grains may differ for each casting & this depends on several
factors like :
 Pouring Temperature
 Mass of the metal
 Mold material
 Thermal conductivity
 Composition of the alloy
Basically 3 types of grain structures can be observed in castings. They are:
i. Columnar
ii. Equiaxed
iii. Partially coloumnar& Partially equiaxed
Phases in Iron-Carbide :-
α Ferrite – solid carbon in bcc structure of iron.
1. Stable form of iron.

2. maximum solubility of carbon is 0.028%
3. Transforms to γ – austenite at 912oC

γ-Austinite- solid solution of carbon in FCC structure of iron.
1. Max solubility of carbon is 2.14%

2. Transforms into δ-ferrite at 1394oC.
3. It is not stable below cutectic temp (727oC) unless cooled rapidly.
δ-ferrite- solid solution of carbon in BCC structure of iron
1. It has same structure of α-ferrite.

2. Stable only at high temperatures of about 1394oC
3. Melts at 1538oC
Iron carbide / Cementite phase :
This is an intermaetallic compound which is meta stable. It remains as a

compound indefinitely at room temperature but decomposes into α-Iron and
carbon between 650oC-700oC.
NOTE : Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron. It forms a solid solution

with α, γ & δ phases of iron. When the iron has less than 0.008 weight % of
carbon in α-ferrite region at room temperature, it is still considered as pure
iron itself. When the percentage of carbon is in between 0.008 - 2.14 Weight
percentage it is called as steel and the percentage of carbon is in between
2.14% - 6.7%, it is called cast iron.
CAST IRON:
 Most widely used type of iron.
 Here the carbon will be in the form of flakes.
 Composition: 2.5% - 4% carbon, 1% - 3%silcon, rest is all iron and
hence the name cast iron.
Properties:
• High fluidity.
• Very high compressive strength.
• Good vibration damping.
• Low cost.

Application:
Pressure vessels, cylindrical heads, and clutch plates.
In the simplest form, steels are alloys of iron and carbon. Since iron carbon
phase diagram is a complex mechanism only the portion and the 7% carbon
considered.
WHITE CAST IRON:
 Here carbon is present in a combined form of cementite and perlite
against pure carbon.
 They are brittle and extremely difficult to machine.
 Used as source materials for producing malleable iron.
 Composition: 1.8% - 3.3% carbon, 0.3% - 1.8% silicon rest is all iron.
Properties:
 Very hard and brittle.
 Wear resistant.
 Lack of ductility and malleability.
 Cannot be machined
o Applications:
 Liners for cement mixtures.
 Ball mills.
 Exclusion nozzle.
MALLEABLE CAST IRON:
 Also called as temper carbon as it is obtained on heating white cast
iron.
 Composition: 1.8% - 3.2% carbon, 0.3% - 1.8% silicon rests is all iron.
Properties:(same as white cast ion)
 Good malleability
 Ductility
 Machinability
Application:
 Connecting rods
 Transmission gates
 Plungers , Pipe Fittings
NODULAR IRON:
 As the name itself implies it is characterized by the presence of carbon
in the form of nodules and hence the name nodular iron.
 Compositions: 3% - 4% carbon, 1.6% - 2.3% silicon, minute % of
phosphorous and rest is iron.
o Properties:
 Highly ductile
 good machinability
 high corrosion resistance and creep resistance
o Applications:
 fly wheels
 door furnace
 lathe chucks
 ranches
Influence of alloying elements on the properties of STEEL
NICKEL STEELS:
 Increases toughness and resistance to impact.
 Widens the ranges of heat treatment methods.
 Increases the strengths of steel.
 Doesn‘t m ix with carbon.
SILICON STEEL:
 Imporous oxidation resistance.
 Strengthens low alloy steels.
 Acts as a deoxidizers.
MOLYBEDNUM STEEL:
 Promotes hardness of steels.
 Increases tensile and creep strength at a high temperature.
 Enhances corrosion resistance.
 Makes steel fine grained.

TUNGSTEN STEEL:
 Increases hardness (finer the grain structure greater the hardness)
 Promotes fine grain growth
 Resist heat
 Promotes strength at elevated temperatures.
STAINLESS STEEL:
 They are steels that contain a minimum of 10% chromium and are
more resistant to corrosion than normal steel,
Properties
 High oxidation resistance.
 High resistance to attack from acids.
 Lower electrical conductivity.
o Applications:
 Architecture.
 Bridges.
 Monuments.
 Aircrafts.
NON FERROUS MATERIALS
Drawbacks of ferrous material and its alloys:
 Relatively high density.
 Comparatively low electrical conductivity.
 An inherent susceptibility to corrosion in some environment.
a) Aluminium and its alloys.
 Alloys in which Al is the predominant metal.
 Typical alloying elements are Cu, Mg, Mn, Si and Zn.
 Al alloys are widely used in engineering structures and
components where light weight or corrosion resistance is
required.

Characteristics:
 Al alloy surfaces will keep their apparent shine in a day environment
due to the formation of a clear, protective aloxide.
 Al and its alloys are characterised by a relatively low density (2.1
g/cm3) as compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel.
 High electrical and thermal conductivity.
Major Alloying Elements

Pure Al (99% min) = 1000-(series)
Cu (0.2% 3%) = 2000
Mn (0.4% to 1.5%) = 3000
Si (4.5% - 6%) = 4000
Mg (2.2 – 5.5%) = 5000
Mg & Si = 6000
Zn (1% - 7.3%) = 7000
Other elements (usually lithium) = 8000
Aluminium association designation system.

Additional designation of the state of the Al alloy:
Al alloys can be precipitation hardened and work hardened to different
elements.
a) XXXX-F As fabricated no special control.
b) XXXX-W Solution heat treated (Used only on alloys that naturally age
hardened).
c) XXXX-O Annealed(wrought alloys only)
d) XXXX-H Strain hardened cold worked to increase strength) wrought
alloys only.
e) XXXX-T Thermally treated to produce effects other than F,O and H.

b) Copper Alloys
Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal
component. They have high resistance against corrosion. The best
known traditional types are bronze; where tin is a significant addition,
and brass, using zinc instead. Both these are imprecise terms, and
today the term copper alloy tends to be substituted, especially by
museums
Properties and Importance

Along with strength, fatigue resistance, and ability to take a good finish, the
primary selection criteria for copper and copper alloys are:
· Corrosion resistance
· Electrical conductivity
· Thermal conductivity
· Colour
· Ease of fabrication.
Corrosion Resistance: Copper is a noble metal but, unlike gold and other
precious metals, can be attacked by common reagents and environments.
Pure copper resists attack quite well under most corrosive conditions. Some
copper alloys, however, sometimes have limited usefulness in certain
environments because of hydrogen embrittlement or stress corrosion
cracking (SCC Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the unexpected sudden
failure of normally ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress in a corrosive
environment, especially at elevated temperature in the case of metals.)
C) TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
Titanium
Physical properties:
 Low density
 high strength and ductility
 lustrous
 corrosion resistant and high melting point
 low thermal & electrical conductivity
 Paramagnetic

Titanium alloys
 The crystal structure of titanium at ambient temperature and
pressure is close-packed hexagonal α phase . At about 890°C,
the titanium undergoes an allotropic transformation to a body-
centered cubic β phase which remains stable to the melting
temperature.
 Some alloying elements raise the alpha-to-beta transition

temperature (i.e. alpha stabilizers) while others lower the
transition temperature (i.e. beta stabilizers).
 Aluminium, gallium, germanium, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen
are alpha stabilizers.
 Molybdenum, vanadium, tantalum, niobium, manganese, iron,
chromium, cobalt, nickel ,copper and silicon are beta
stabilizers.
Categories:
 Alpha alloys which contain neutral alloying elements (such as
tin) and/ or alpha stabilizers (such as aluminium or oxygen)
only. These are not heat treatable.
 Alpha & Beta Alloys, which are metastable and generally
include some combination of both alpha and beta stabilizers,
and which can be heat treated.
 Beta Alloys, which are metastable and which contain sufficient
beta stabilizers (such as molybdenum, silicon and vanadium to
allow them to maintain the beta phase when quenched, and
which can also be solution treated and aged to improve
strength.

APPLICATIONS
 ALLOYING
 PAINTS,PAPER,TOOTHPASTE,PLASTICS
 CORROSION RESISTANT TOOLS
 SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS
 AIRCRAFT PARTS AND GEARS
 MARINE VEHICLE PARTS
 PLUMBING EQUIPENTS
 TiCl4 IS USED TO PRODUCE MANY CATALYSTS.
 SPORTS GOODS
 DEGIGNER JEWELLERY
 ORTHOPAEDIC IMPLANTS
Corrosion Science
•Definition: Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of material
by reaction to its environment. It occurs because of natural tendency
for most metals to return to its native state.
•Anode, cathode, electrolyte, electrical connection between anode and
cathode for the flow of electric current.
•If any of the above is missing or disabled – no corrosion .
•Driving force is necessary for electrons to flow between anodes and
cathodes.
•The driving force is the difference in potential between the anodic and
cathode silts.
•This difference exits between each oxidation or reduction reaction
has associated with it a potential. Determined by the tendency for the
reaction to take place spontaneously, the potential is a measure of
this tendency.
Types :
1. Galvanic
2. Crevice
3. Pitting
4. Erosion

1. Galvanic Corrosion:
•Galvanic: dissimilar metals are physically joined in presence of electrolyte.

The more anodic metal corrodes.
Ex; Mg shells cast around a steel case crevice.
2. Crevice Corrosion: Takes place at narrow and confined places
3.Pitting Corrosion : is localized form of corrosion attack. Formation of

holes or pins on the metal surface can cause failure, yet the total corrosion,
as measured by weight loss may be minimal.

4. Erosion Corrosion:
Combined chemical attack and mechanical means
Ex: pipe elbows.
Corrosion Prevention:
•Use metals that passivate form a thin. Adhering oxide layer that
slows corrosion.
• Use metals that are relatively unreactive in corrosion
environment.
• Use inhibitors (solution to decrease reactivity).
• Slow oxidation / reduction by removing agents like O2.
• Reduce Temperature (slower kinetics of O and electrons).
• Physical barriers, films and coatings, agents.
• Cathodic (sacrificial) protection – attach a more anodic material
to the one to be protected.

UNIT – 3
OVERVIEW OF FLEXIBLE ELECTRONICS
What is Flexibility?
Flexible can mean many qualities:
 bendable
 conformally shaped
 elastic
 lightweight
 non breakable
 large-area
Flexible electronics, also known as flex circuits, is a technology for
assembling electronic circuits by mounting electronic devices on
flexible plastic substrates, such as polyimide, PEEK or transparent
conductive polyester film.
Additionally, flex circuits can be screen printed silver circuits on polyester.
Flexible electronic assemblies may be manufactured using identical
components used for rigid printed circuit boards, allowing the board to
conform to a desired shape, or to flex during its use.
History of flexible electronics

 The development of flexible electronics dates back to the 1960s. The
first flexible solar cell arrays were made by thinning single crystal
silicon wafer cells to∼100 μm.
 Beginning in the early 1980s, the roll-to-roll fabrication of a-Si:H solar
cells on flexible steel and organic polymer substrates was introduced.
Today, a-Si:H solar cells routinely are made by roll-to-roll processes.
 The first flexible TFT dates back to 1968, when Brody and colleagues
made TFT of tellurium on a strip of paper and proposed using TFT
matrices for display addressing.

Some other milestones are:
 In the mid-1980s, the active-matrix liquid-crystal display (AMLCD)
industry started in Japan by adopting the large-area plasma
enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) machines.
 In 1994, Constant at Iowa State University demonstrated a-Si:H TFT
circuits on flexible polyimide substrates.
 In 1996, a-Si:H TFTs were made on flexible stainless steel foil.
 In 1997, polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) TFTs made on plastic
substrates using laser-annealing were reported.
Materials used for Flexible Electronics (Substrates)

Mechanical: It must be flexible, which means bendable withstand
twisting and stretching.
Electrical/Electronic: It is preferred to have an electrically insulating
substrate with very high break down voltage.
Optical: It is preferred to have an optically (visible range) transparent
substrate. However it is not mandatory.
Properties of Materials used for Flexible Electronics
(Substrates)
Mechanical: It must be flexible , which means bendable withstand
twisting and stretching.
Electrical/Electronic: It is preferred to have an electrically insulating
substrate with very high break down voltage.
Optical: It is preferred to have an optically ( visible range)transparent
substrate. However it is not mandatory.
Thermal: The working temperature of the substrate must be compatible
with the maximum fabrication process temperature (Tmax).
Chemical: The substrate should not release contaminants and should be
inert against process chemicals.
Magnetic: It is important that the substrate materials for flexible
electronic device applications must be magnetically inert.

 Three types of substrate materials are available for flexible
applications: metals, organic polymers (plastics), and flexible glass.
 Metals: Metal foil substrates less than ∼125 μm thick are flexible and
are attractive substrates.
 Stainless steel has been most commonly used in research because of
its high resistance to corrosion and process chemicals.
 Stainless steel is more durable than plastic and glass substrates.
Thin Film Transistors (TFT)
1. Flexible Substrate: It is made out of glass few micron thick, or

metals and polymers such as PET= Polyethyleneteraphalate. It acts as a
base on which the electronic device is fabricated
2. Gate Electrode: Typically made of chromium, aluminium or gold
depending on the application.
The function of the gate electrode is to provide signal to the
semiconductor thin film which activates the contact between the source
and drain.
3. Insulator: This layer will prevent the electrical shorting between the
semiconductor layer and the gate electrode.
4. Electrode Layers: Conductors such as Gold, silver, chromium
aluminium are deposited on semiconducting surfaces.

Even ITO can also be used as a conducting coating for source and drain
electrodes. The complete device is encapsulated in a polymer or ceramic
material.
Fabrication Steps for TFT
1. The substrate material is chemically cleaned using required
acid/base to remove all the containments that are adhering to its
surface.
2. Metallic gate electrodes are deposited using thermal evaporation
process. Polymer or ceramic electrodes are deposited using dip coating
or inkjet printing process.
3. Insulating coatings are deposited using CVD or PECVD processes.
4. Semiconductor layers are also deposited using dip coating if it is
polymer or spray coating.
The source and drain are similar to the gate electrode process – thermal
evaporation or spray/dip coating as required with suitable mask layers.
Physical Vapour Deposition Technique (PVD)
In the evaporation deposition technique, the material is heated until

fusion by means of an electrical current passing through a filament or
metal plate where the material is deposited (Joule effect).
The evaporated material is then condensed on the substrate. Other ways
of heating are used, such as a RF coil surrounding a graphite or BN
crucible, where the material to be evaporated is fused. The assembly of
the technique is simple and results appropriate for depositing metals and
some compounds with low fusion temperature (Al, Ag, Au, SiO, etc.).

Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is a process of deposition of a solid

material, such as nanotubes, nanowires, particle, thin film, and much
more, on a substrate by creating reactive species in the gaseous phase.
The formation of reactive species occurs when precursor gases come in
contact with or pass over the heated substrate. The Processing chamber
which is typically stainless steel is evacuated using a vacuum pump.
Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)
What is OLED?
OLED stands for Organic Light Emitting Diode.
The "organic" in OLED refers to organic material. Carbon is the basis of
all organic matter. Examples of carbon-based substances include sugar,
wood and the majority of plastics. The "LED" stands for "Light Emitting
Diode" and describes the process of converting electric energy into light.
There are two types of OLEDs small molecule OLED and polymer OLED.
Sony uses the small molecule type because it has a longer lifespan.

How do OLEDs work?
An OLED is made by placing a series of organic thin films between two
conductors. When electrical current is applied, a bright light is emitted.
OLED displays stack up several thin layers of materials. They operate on
the attraction between positively and negatively charged particles. When
voltage is applied, one layer becomes negatively charged relative to
another transparent layer. As energy passes from the negatively charged
(cathode) layer to the other (anode) layer, it stimulates organic material
between the two, which emits light visible through an outermost layer of
glass.
Batch Processing
The term batch processing in flexible electronic devices means

production of a set of few 100 to 1000 pieces.
For example, a thin film capacitor will have two electrodes with a
dielectric layer in between. The substrate could be glass or polymer.
Each step shown in the block diagram is done in a separate chamber and
hence it is called as a ―Batch Processing Chamber‖
(Multiple capacitors are prepared in one bath as shown in this sketch)

Multiple Capacitors Are Prepared in one
Batch as shown in this sketch
Cleaning Of Deposition Of Masking Of The CVD Coat

The Electrode Layer Surface Di-Electric Layer
Substrate (Thermal Evapor.)
Second Masking Deposition Of Encapsulation

Layer Electrode Layer and Wire Bonding
(Top)
1. Cleaning of the substrate

2. Deposition of electrode layer –thermal evaporation
3. Masking the surface
4. CVD coating of dielectric layer
5. Second masking layer
6. Deposition of electrode layer (top)
7. Encapsulation and wire bonding
Flexible sheet substrates may be handled in several ways during

processing:
• On a rigid carrier, facing up and loose;
• On a rigid carrier, facing up or down and bonded to the carrier for the
duration of processing;
• In a tensioning frame, facing up or down;
• In a frame, facing down and loose;
• Electrostatically bonded to a rigid carrier;
• Magnetically attached to a rigid carrier

The flexibility of the substrate is given by its flexural rigidity D =
Et3/12(1–ν2), where E is Young‘s modulus, t is the thickness of the
substrate, and ν is its Poisson ratio.
The substrate was flattened and temporarily bonded with water to plate
glass for photolithography.
However, holding the substrate loosely is a technique confined to the
laboratory, because device films may crack or the sample may curve from
mismatch strain between the deposited films and the substrate.
Since varying curvature corresponds to varying size of the flattened
sample, any variation of the stress induced curvature between alignment
steps is synonymous with misalignment in mask overlay.
Temporarily bonding the foil substrate to a rigid carrier for processing
can improve the dimensional stability.
Bonding may be particularly advisable if inorganic device materials are
deposited on compliant polymer substrates, because of the large strain
this combination may generate.
The adhesive must provide sufficient shear strength between the
substrate and the carrier, resist the process chemicals, degas little and
release few contaminants.
At the end of processing it must be removed without damaging the
electronics.
Roll to Roll Processing

In ‗roll to roll‘ to processing the flexible substrate is in the form of a roll
as shown in the figure. The roll is similar to newspaper printing
particularly multicolour prints, where each colour is applied one after the
other in different stations and finally you get a product with required
number of layers.

PEDOT
ITO
PSS
IN 1 2 3 4 OUT
Station 1: Substrate is cleaned and dip coated with indium tin oxide and
dried.
Station 2: PEDOT coating is provided in this station on top of coating.
Station 3: PSS coating is provided in this station on top of PEDOT coating
So now we have p and n layer.
Station 4: Substrate is then coated with ITO and the two sheets are
sandwiched.
The rate of deposition of each layer, the coating thickness,
drying temperature, the substrate material varies from device to device.
The goal of roll-to-roll fabrication of flexible electronics is stimulating

innovations in equipment and process design process recipes, and
system integration.
Tools for roll-to-roll processing that are available today include web
cleaner, PECVD, sputtering, plasma etcher, develop etch strip line (for
printed circuit boards with high-density interconnects), die punch,
evaporator(with linear source to improve film uniformity in roll-to-roll
applications), laser writer, inkjet printer, screen printer, and inspection
devices.

Additive Printing
During the process of research and development it may be required to
prepare/produce only a set of capacitors, diodes or transistors<10 nos,
on the same substrate as shown in the figure below.
Using a computer and suitable software the shape/material of the

layers to be deposited on the surface of the substrate is finalised.
Example in station 1- polyaniline is filled in cartridge, it is deposited on
the substrate. The nozzle has z axis motion, while the table is given x-y
axis motion.
Next in station 2- we have polyfluorene or any other suitable liquid such
as PSS. This layer is applied. Typical thickness and dimensions of
coating varies from few nanometres and few microns. Thus additive
manufacturing process gives R & D engineers the flexibility to design,
deposit and test different configuration of electronic devices before it is
taken up for batch or roll processing.
Additive printing is roll- to-roll process compatible, is a high-throughput
process, uses device materials efﬁciently, may not require vacuum, and
may provide a solution to overlay registration problem through digital
compensation.
Noble-metal conductors, organic conductor, semiconductors and
insulators can be printed.
Masks for etching or lift-off patterns, as well as certain inorganic
materials can be printed. Printing metallic conductors from nanoparticles
may reduce the required sintering temperature to values acceptable for
plastic substrates.

Low-Temperature Amorphous and Nano crystalline Silicon Materials
Introduction
• The use of flexible substrates enables the development of such new

products as roll-able light-weight displays, flexible solar cells integrated
into clothing, or cylindrical and spherical cameras for security
applications
• The fabrication cost of electronic devices on flexible substrates can be

reduced compared to existing planar or flat-panel technology due to
implementation of high-throughput roll-to-roll technology
• A roll of thin plastic or metal foil used as the substrate can be kilo-
meters long and meters wide compared to a silicon wafer diameter of 10–
12__ in integrated circuit technology, or a glass sheet size of about 2 m×2
m in a flat-panel display (FPD) manufacturing process
• Unlike traditional electronics, where the value is added by down scaling

the devices, the value is added by increasing the fabrication area in
flexible electronics.
• There is a variety of electronic materials that can be used in flexible

electronics: organic semiconductors, high-temperature inorganic
semiconductors and low-temperature materials.
Organic Semiconductors
• Organic semiconductors are attractive due to low-temperature and

large-area fabrication process compatibility. In particular, polymers can
be deposited at room temperature by low-cost spin coating, or by roll-to-
roll technology compatible with ink-jet printing. The carrier mobility in
organic semiconductors is already comparable to that of amorphous
silicon (a-Si:H) (∼1 cm2 V−1 s−1)

• These materials, however, degrade in air and, therefore, need
encapsulation, which is inorganic thin film based . Thus, inorganic thin-
film technology still has to be used in organic electronics fabrication
process, increasing its cost.
• The carrier transport in organic semiconductors, such as pentacene, is

sensitive to contamination and is strongly interface-dependent, thus
demanding very smooth substrates and various interface preparation
procedures.
High-temperature semiconductor
• The existing high-temperature semiconductor technology to flexible
substrates with high maximum working temperatures (e.g., high
temperature plastics such as polyimide (PI) , flexible glass, and metal
foils or by transferring the devices prefabricated on rigid substrates onto
plastic foils.
• This approach facilitates the utilization of high fabrication temperature
and electronic materials with improved device performance (e.g.,
polycrystalline Si(poly-Si) with the carrier mobility exceeding 100 cm2
V−1 s−1)
• High substrate and process costs restrict this technology to a limited
number of applications, mainly very high added-value products (such as
high-resolution flexible displays and high-end radio frequency (RF) ID
tags).
• A more direct approach to integrate high-performance devices on low-
melting point platforms is to reduce the maximum fabrication
temperature of inorganic thin film transistors (TFTs) to a level compatible
with the thermal budget of the low-cost substrates. This approach has
several advantages:
Wider variety of substrate materials available, including low-cost plastics,
paper, or tissue

Lower thermal budget materials can be integrated in the process, such as
adhesives, polymers, and biomaterials
Thermal deformations of the substrate are reduced, and so is mechanical
stress occurring due to mismatch between thermal expansion coefficients
of the substrate and the films
Materials science, device physics, fabrication process, and equipment are
already well established, for example, in a-Si:H technology.
Fundamental Issues for Low-temperature Processing
• In traditional plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD),
thin-film silicon process used in FPD manufacturing, the substrate
temperature, Ts , is in the range of 200–300◦C. Its reduction below 150◦C
leads to the change in deposition mechanisms.
• The concentration of defects (dangling Si bonds) increases, the
concentration of di- and polyhydride-bonded hydrogen in the films
increases, the mass density decreases, and the doping efficiency drops
• The films have low mass density and high charge trapping, and their
electronic properties are generally poor.
• This change is usually attributed to reduced surface mobility of the
film-building radicals due to lower thermal energy on the growth surface.
Solution
• The thermal energy loss can be compensated by using ―soft‖ ion
bombardment by light ions (H+, He+) with the energy less than 50 eV, or
by producing exothermic chemical reactions.
• Following this approach, the deposition parameters can be adjusted at
low substrate temperature to increase the surface energy and thus to
provide the growth conditions similar to those at higher Ts but without
overheating the substrate.
One of the key concerns of low temperature process is defects. In the past
it has been observed that at low temperature there are more defects
affecting the performance of the device.
This problem can be overcome by surface treatment like ion-
bombardment (He+). For devices manufactured using aSi:H and ncSi:H.
These are must to achieve performance comparable to polycrystalline
silicon.
• The deposition process for a-Si:H films at 120°C and 75°C. The a-Si:H
properties are presented in the table above together with those of ―device
quality‖ material deposited by standard PECVD at higher Temperature
(180°C).
• The films have dark conductivity below 10−10 Ω−1 cm−1, optical band-
gap between 1.7 and 1.9 eV, Urbach parameter of 50 meV, hydrogen
concentration of about 10 at.%,
• Microstructure parameter R about zero, which is indicative of
predominant hydrogen monohydride bonding. As seen, these a-Si:H films
deposited at low temperatures have the properties suitable for electronic
device applications.
• By comparison, the properties of nc-Si deposited at 75°C are presented

in Table 3.2 together with those of ―device quality‖ material deposited at
higher temperature (260°C) and those of highly doped n+ nc-Si contact
layer deposited at 75°C. It is seen that the low-temperature nc-Si is
comparable with its high temperature counterpart.

• Both materials have average crystal size of 15–25 nm. The 100-nm-
thick films have the crystalline property of 75% and above, and low dark
conductivity. Thus, as it follows from Tables 3.1–3.2, device quality a-
Si:H and nc-Si films can be deposited at a temperature as low as 75°C
using existing industrial plasma deposition equipment.
Low-temperature Dielectrics
aSi:H:B Di-electric/Insulator
Substrate
Characteristics
 Breakdown voltage high
 Low charge trapping
 Good interfaces

CERAMICS
A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat
and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly
crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a glass). Because most
common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted
to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the non-crystalline glasses.
CHARACTERISTICS
Some of the typical characteristics of ceramics include
• Ceramics are reasonably stiff and strong
• Ceramics are extremely hard and brittle.
• Electrical conductivity of ceramics are poorer than other matrix
materials.
• Ceramics exhibit resistance to extreme environmental conditions.

CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMICS:
CERAMICS
PROCESSING OF CERAMICS
1. SLIP CASTING.

Slipcasting is a technique for the mass-production of pottery, especially for
shapes not easily made on a wheel. A liquid clay body slip (usually mixed in
a blunger) is poured into plaster moulds and allowed to form a layer, the
cast, on the inside cavity of the mould. In a solid cast mould, ceramic
objects such as handles and platters are surrounded by plaster on all sides
with a reservoir for slip, and are removed when the solid piece is held
within. For a hollow cast mould, once the plaster has absorbed most of the
liquid from the outside layer of clay the remaining slip is poured off for later
use. The cast piece is removed from the mould, "fettled" (trimmed neatly)
and allowed to dry. This produces a green ware piece which is then dried
before firing, with or without decoration and glaze. The technique is suited
to the production of complex shapes, and is commonly used for sanitary
ware, such as toilets and basins, and smaller pieces like figurines and
teapots. The technique can also be used for small-scale production runs or
to produce limited editions of objects.
POWDER METALURGY TECHNIQUE

In this process materials in the form of fine powders are compacted and
then heated in a controlled atmosphere. Fig shows the process of developing
the ceramic composites by powder metallurgy. Discontinuous fibres and
whiskers produce considerably good results when compared to other forms
of reinforcements in this technique. Matrix ceramic powder and fibres are

assorted and then pressed to consolidate. This may be followed by sintering
to attain good bond between the fibre and the matrix.
The Principle processing steps in powder metallurgy technique are
 Metallic powders are produced by any one of the following methods
like automation, reduction, electrolysis, milling and crushing.
 Mixing, blending (wet or dry) or mechanical alloying of the matrix
powders and the reinforcements. Binders and lubricants are also
added. In this step it is essential to obtain identical reinforcement
distributions.
 Application of sufficient pressure to obtain necessary contact and also
to avail required shape and green strength.
 In order to obtain the permanent bond the compacted powders are
heated at temperatures slightly below their melting temperatures.
Fig.2.3 Powder Metallurgy Process

2.5.1.1.2 .1 Advantages and Limitations of Powder Metallurgy
Advantages
 Elimination or saving of machining.

 High production rates.
 Multifarious shapes to be produced.
 Materials with wide variety of characteristic‘s can be produced.
 Wide distinction in configurations can be availed.
Limitations
 Cost of the die is relatively high compared to other techniques.

 Materials produced by this technique have relatively less strength.
 High material cost and complex shapes cannot be designed.
 Density discrepancy produces variations in properties.
EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional
profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-
section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing
processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work
materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive
and shear stresses. It also forms parts with an excellent surface finish.
The alloyed press bars are cut into smaller pieces and heated up in an
induction furnace to 450-500°C. The bar is then pressed with very high
force using speeds between 5-50 m/min through a hollowed tool. As a result
a profile is formed. The length of the profile ranges between 25-45 m.
immediately after the pressing operation, profile is cooled with air or water.
The profile is straightened and internal stresses released by stretching it in a
pulling machine just after cooling. The profile is then cut into required
lengths. Finally ageing gives the strength of the material.

APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS
1. Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer
than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can snap from a fall
onto a hard surface.
2. Ceramic brake disks for vehicles are resistant to abrasion at high
temperatures.

3. Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for
most modern armoured fighting vehicles because they offer superior
penetrating resistance against shaped charges (such as HEAT rounds) and
kinetic energy penetrators.
4. Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic
armoured vests to repel large-calibre rifle fire. Such plates are known
commonly as small arms protective inserts, or SAPIs. Similar material is
used to protect the cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low
weight of the material.
5. Ceramics can be used in place of steel for ball bearings. Their higher
hardness means they are much less susceptible to wear and typically last
for triple the lifetime of a steel part.
6.Clay construction products, such as bricks, clay pipe, and building tile
7. Refractory ceramics, which are capable of high temperature applications
such as furnace walls, crucibles, and moulds
8.Cement used in concrete, used for construction and roads (concrete is a
composite material, but its components are ceramics)
9.Whiteware products, including pottery, stoneware, fine china, porcelain,
and other tableware, based on mixtures of clay and other minerals
10.Glass used in bottles, glasses, lenses, window panes, and light bulbs
11.Glass fibers for thermal insulating wool, reinforced plastics (fiberglass),
and fiber optics communications lines
12.Abrasives, such as aluminium oxide and silicon carbide
13.Cutting tool materials, including tungsten carbide, aluminium oxide,
and cubic boron nitride
14.Ceramic insulators, which are used in applications such as electrical
transmission components, spark plugs, and microelectronic chip substrates
15.Magnetic ceramics, for example, in computer memories
16.Nuclear fuels based on uranium oxide (UO2)
17.Bioceramics, which include materials used in artificial teeth and bones

Advanced ceramics.
In general, ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be
divided into two groups: traditional ceramics, and the engineering ceramics.
Typically, traditional ceramics are made from three basic components: clay,
silica (flint) and feldspar. For example bricks, tiles and porcelain articles.
However, engineering ceramics consist of highly pure compounds of
aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitride (Si3N4).
Glasses:
Glasses are a familiar group of ceramics – containers, windows, mirrors,
lenses, etc. They are non-crystalline silicates containing other oxides,
usually CaO, Na2O, K2O and Al2O3 which influence the glass properties and
its color. Typical property of glasses that is important in engineering
applications is its response to heating. There is no definite temperature at
which the liquid transforms to a solid as with crystalline materials. A
specific temperature, known as glass transition temperature or fictive
temperature is defined based on viscosity above which material is named as
super cooled liquid or liquid, and below it is termed as glass.
Clay products:
Clay is the one of most widely used ceramic raw material. It is found in
great abundance and popular because of ease with which products are
made. Clay products are mainly two kinds – structural products (bricks,
tiles, sewer pipes) and white-wares (porcelain, chinaware, pottery, etc.).
Refractories:
These are described by their capacity to withstand high temperatures
without melting or decomposing; and their inertness in severe
environments. Thermal insulation is also an important functionality of
refractories.
Abrasive ceramics: these are used to grind, wear, or cut away other material.
Thus the prime requisite for this group of materials is hardness or wear
resistance in addition to high toughness. As they may also exposed to high

temperatures, they need to exhibit some refractoriness. Diamond, silicon
carbide, tungsten carbide, silica sand, aluminium oxide / corundum are
some typical examples of abrasive ceramic materials.
Cements:
cement, plaster of paris and lime come under this group of ceramics. The
characteristic property of these materials is that when they are mixed with
water, they form slurry which sets subsequently and hardens finally. Thus it
is possible to form virtually any shape. They are also used as bonding
phase, for example between construction bricks.
Advanced ceramics: these are newly developed and manufactured in limited
range for specific applications. Usually their electrical, magnetic and optical
properties and combination of properties are exploited. Typical applications:
heat engines, ceramic armors, electronic packaging, etc.
Some typical ceramics and respective applications are as follows:
Aluminium oxide / Alumina (Al2O3):
it is one of most commonly used ceramic material. It is used in many
applications such as to contain molten metal, where material is operated at
very high temperatures under heavy loads, as insulators in spark plugs, and
in some unique applications such as dental and medical use. Chromium
doped alumina is used for making lasers.
Aluminium nitride (AlN):
because of its typical properties such as good electrical insulation but high
thermal conductivity, it is used in many electronic applications such as in
electrical circuits operating at a high frequency. It is also suitable for
integrated circuits. Other electronic ceramics include – barium titanate
(BaTiO3) and Cordierite (2MgO-2Al2O3-5SiO2).
Diamond (C):
it is the hardest material known to available in nature. It has many
applications such as industrial abrasives, cutting tools, abrasion resistant
coatings, etc. it is, of course, also used in jewelry.
Lead zirconium titanate (PZT):
it is the most widely used piezoelectric material, and is used as gas igniters,
ultrasound imaging, in underwater detectors.

Silica (SiO2):
is an essential ingredient in many engineering ceramics, thus is the most
widely used ceramic material. Silica-based materials are used in thermal
insulation, abrasives, laboratory glassware, etc. it also found application in
communications media as integral part of optical fibers. Fine particles of
silica are used in tires, paints, etc.
Silicon carbide (SiC):
it is known as one of best ceramic material for very high temperature
applications. It is used as coatings on other material for protection from
extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive material. It is used as
reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based composites. It is a
semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics. Silicon
nitride (Si3N4) has properties similar to those of SiC but is somewhat lower,
and found applications in such as automotive and gas turbine engines.
Titanium oxide (TiO2):
it is mostly found as pigment in paints. It also forms part of certain glass
ceramics. It is used to making other ceramics like BaTiO3.
Titanium boride (TiB2):

it exhibits great toughness properties and hence found applications in armor
production. It is also a good conductor of both electricity and heat.
Uranium oxide (UO2):
it is mainly used as nuclear reactor fuel. It has exceptional dimensional
stability because its crystal structure can accommodate the products of
fission process.
Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG, Y3Al5O12):
it has main application in lasers (Nd-YAG lasers).
Zirconia (ZrO2):
it is also used in producing many other ceramic materials. It is also used in
making oxygen gas sensors, as additive in many electronic ceramics. Its
single crystals are part of jewelry.

Ceramics in Biomedical Applications
• Ceramic are used extensively in the bio-medical fields, including
 Orthopedic implants, Eye glasses, laboratory ware, thermometers, and
most importantly dental applications
 The main reasons of its application in biomedical field are:
 Biocompatibility
 Corrosion resistance
 High stiffness
 Resistance to wear in applications where surface articulation exists
(denture materials and hip and knee joints), and low friction
 In addition, the main advantage of some of the ceramics is they bond
well to bone(implant-tissue attachment) .

Polymers:
Introduction:
Polymer: High molecular weight molecule made up of a small repeat unit

(monomer).
A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A
Monomer: Low molecular weight compound that can be connected together
to give a polymer
Oligomer: Short polymer chain
Copolymer: polymer made up of 2 or more monomers.
Types of Polymers
Based on the mechanical response at elevated temperatures polymers are
classified as
Thermoplasts: Meltable Plastic
 Get soften when heated and harden when cooled- processes are totally
reversible and may be repeated.
 These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous
application of heat and pressure.
 Processing of thermoplastics is difficult.
 They can take more loads before failure.
 Shelf life is indefinite.
Thermosets- Cannot be melted
 After heating they become permanently hard.
 Can be fabricated at lower fabrication temperatures.
 Before failure they can take very less strains
 They have a definite shelf life.
 To conclude thermosets cannot be recycled , do not melt and are
usable at high temperatures than thermo plastics and are more
chemically inert.

POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization mechanism explains how the small molecules combine to
form large molecules.
There are three general methods of polymerizations
 Addition Polymerization
 Copolymerization
 Condensation Polymerization
Addition Polymerization
The polymer is produced by adding a second monomer to the first , then a
third monomer to the dimer , a fourth to the trimer and so on until a long
polymer chain is terminated .
Termination may take place because of collision between active ends of two
growing chains resulting in their combination.
Co Polymerization:
It is another kind of addition polymerization .Many monomers will not
polymerize with themselves but will co polymerize with other compounds.
Co polymerization is the addition polymerization of two or more different
monomers
Eg: CH2 =CH-CH = CH2+CH=CH2

Condensation Polymerization
Bakelite, the first commercial plastic owes its origin to the process called
condensation polymerization.
Condensation polymerization occurs in the combination of a compound
with itself or other compounds, accompanied by elimination of simple
compounds such as H2O, HCl, as a result of polymerization.
Phenol+ Formaldehyde -------

C6H5OH+CH2O---------------
Intrinsically conducting polymers

Conductive polymers are organic polymers that conduct electricity.
The biggest advantage of conductive polymers is their process ability, mainly
by dispersion.
Conductive polymers can offer high electrical conductivity but do not show
similar mechanical properties compared to commercially available polymers.

UNIT – 4
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
A composite material is defined as a structural material created

synthetically or artificially by combining two or more materials having
dissimilar characteristics .The constituents are combined at macroscopic
level and are not soluble in each other. One constituent is called a matrix
phase and the other is called a reinforcing phase. Reinforcing phase is
embedded in matrix phase to give the desired properties
Eg, concrete, boron fibre reinforced polymer, Glass fibre reinforced polymer.
Classification of Composites

Selection of Composites:
• The main advantage of composite material over conventional material
like a monolithic metal is the combination of different properties
which are seldom found in conventional materials.
• The unusual combination of properties include high strength to weight
ratio, improved fatigue resistance, higher stiffness to weight ratio ,
improved corrosion resistance, higher resistance to thermal expansion ,
excellent optical and magnetic properties in combination with wear
resistance and fracture toughness.
Hand Layup Process
• Resins are impregnated by hand into fibres which are in the form of
woven, knitted, stitched or bonded fabrics. This is usually
accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use of nip-
roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of
rotating rollers and a bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under
standard atmospheric conditions
• Typical Applications:
Standard wind-turbine blades, production boats, architectural
moldings.

Diffusion Bonding
• Diffusion bonding is mainly adopted to fabricate MMCs with light
metal matrix with continuous reinforcement fibres.
• The process involves stacking of Al foils and fibres in proper sequence
with the help of fugitive binder.
• A combination of heat and pressure is applied to cause the matrix to
flow around the fibre and make a bond.
In order to increase the wettability of the fibre with the matrix the fibres are
given suitable coatings.
General Properties of PMCs:

• They are strong and tough and can be plastically deformed easily.
• Metals with the exception of metallic glasses are crystalline. Common
crystal structures include BCC,FCC,HCP .
• The crystal structures makes the metal to posses excellent properties
like thermal and electrical conductivity , high malleability and
ductility .
• Metals can be strengthened by a number of strengthening
mechanisms.
• Metals contain imperfections which make them to deform plastically

General Properties of MMCs
• Polymers make ideal matrix materials as they can be processed easily
posses light weight and offer desirable mechanical properties .
• They are structurally more complex than metals and ceramics.
• Polymers in general have poor strength and modulus
• They get degraded on prolonged exposure to ultraviolet rays.
• Unlike metals and ceramics which have fixed melting point, polymers
do not have a fixed melting point. Temperature at which crystallinity
is destroyed is called Glass Transition temperature
Applications of Composite Materials
(FRPs)
1. Fibre glass which is a composite consisting of glass fibre within a
polymer matrix is extensively used in making pipes, roofing's, storage
containers, industrial floorings and automotive bodies
2. Carbon reinforced polymer matrix composites are used in making
sports and recreational equipment's, pressure vessels and aircraft
structural components.
3. Boron fibre reinforced polymer composites have been used in military
aircraft components, helicopter rotor blades and in some sporting
goods.
4. Sic and Al2O3 fibre reinforced composites are used in tennis rackets,
circuit boards and rocket cone noses.
(CMCs)
5. Concrete which contains steel rods in a matrix of cement , sand and
crushed stones is extensively used in construction applications.
6.Sic particles reinforced in Titanium –di –boride matrix has good wear
and corrosion resistance and hence can be used to produce heat
exchangers.
(MMCs)
7. Boron fibre reinforced aluminium alloy matrix composites are used as
structural members in space shuttles owing to its strength to weight
ratio.

8. Al2O3 reinforced aluminium matrix finds applications in producing
sporting equipment's and automobile engine parts.
Rule of Mixtures

• This condition is called iso stress condition because the stress acting
across the cross section of both fibre and matrix portions are the
same.
• Ec=Ef*Em/(VfEm+VmEf)… is the equation for rule of mixtures .

PROBLEMS
Problem 1
Continued On Page 71

Problem 2

NANO MATERIALS
 Nano scale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least
one dimension is approximately 100 nanometers.
 Nano materials are of interest because at this scale unique optical,
magnetic, electrical and other properties emerge.
These emergent properties have the potential for great impacts in
electronics, medicine and other fields.
Classification of Nano materials
Carbon Nanotubes
 A Carbon Nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having
a diameter measuring on the nanometer scale.
 Carbon Nanotubes have many structures, differing in length,
thickness, and in the type of helicity and number of layers.
Although they are formed from essentially the same graphite sheet, their
electrical characteristics differ depending on these variations, acting either
as metals or as semiconductors.

 The intrinsic mechanical and transport properties of Carbon
Nanotubes make them the ultimate carbon fibers.
 Overall, Carbon Nanotubes show a unique combination of stiffness,
strength, and tenacity compared to other fiber materials which
usually lack one or more of these properties.
 Thermal and electrical conductivity are also very high, and
comparable to other conductive materials.
SOL GEL PROCESS
 This process involves the evolution of inorganic networks through the

formation of colloidal suspension (SOL) and the gelation of SOL to
form a network in a continuous liquid phase(GEL).
 The precursors for synthesizing these colloids are made of metal and
are usually surrounded by various legands.
 The starting material is processed to form a dispersible oxide and
forms a SOL in contact with water.
 Removal of water from the SOL yields to GEL and the SOL/GEL
transition controls the particle size and shape.

Electron Microscope
To acquire images in the scanning EM, the specimen is coated with a metal,
which will lead to the emission of secondary electrons. A 3-nm focal beam
of electrons is then used to scan the surface of the sample. The image
collected by the sensor will eventually look three-dimensional (it will not
contain any internal information), as secondary electrons are emitted off the
specimen and recorded during scanning time, providing details about the
surface structure of the specimen. In transmission EM, by contrast, an
image is acquired as a projection of the entire sample (including any internal
information); however, due to electron absorption, typically only thin
specimen sections are used to produce a two-dimensional image on the
viewing screen (phosphorescent screen, layer of photographic film, or sensor
such as a CCD camera). Moreover, the brightness of any specific area seen
in the image is proportional to the quantity of electrons that penetrate
through the specimen

X-ray Diffraction
Particle Size Analyser

 Laser diffraction measures particle size distributions by measuring the
angular variation in intensity of light scattered as a laser beam passes
through a dispersed particulate sample.
 Large particles scatter light at small angles relative to the laser beam
and small particles scatter light at large angles, as illustrated below.
The angular scattering intensity data is then analyzed to calculate the size of
the particles responsible for creating the scattering pattern, using the Mie
theory of light scattering.
The particle size is reported as a volume equivalent sphere diameter

UNIT – 5
ADVANCED MATERIALS
Biomaterials
A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with
biological systems. As a science, biomaterials are about fifty years old. The
study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced
steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing
large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials
science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue
engineering and materials science.
The iridescent nacre inside a nautilus shell.

Introduction
Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in the
laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches utilizing metallic
components, polymers, ceramics or composite materials. They are often
used and/or adapted for a medical application, and thus comprises whole or
part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or
replaces a natural function. Such functions may be benign, like being used
for a heart valve, or may be bioactive with a more interactive functionality
such as hydroxy-apatite coated hip implants. Biomaterials are also used
every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. For example, a
construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the
body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug over an extended period

of time. A biomaterial may also be an autograft, allograft or xenograft used
as a transplant material.
Materials scientists are currently paying more and more attention to the
process inorganic crystallization within a largely organic matrix of naturally
occurring compounds. This process typically occurs at ambient temperature
and pressure. Interestingly, the vital organisms through which these
crystalline minerals form are capable of consistently producing intricately
complex structures. Understanding the processes in which living organisms
are capable of regulating the growth of crystalline minerals such as silica
could lead to significant scientific advances and novel synthesis techniques
for nanoscale composite materials—or nanocomposites.
Applications
Biomaterials are used in:
 Joint replacements
 Bone plates
 Bone cement
 Artificial ligaments and tendons
 Dental implants for tooth fixation
 Blood vessel prostheses
 Heart valves
 Skin repair devices (artificial tissue)
 Cochlear replacements
 Contact lenses
 Breast implants
 Drug delivery mechanisms
 Sustainable materials
 Stents
 Nerve conduits
Biomaterials must be compatible with the body, and there are often issues
of biocompatibility which must be resolved before a product can be placed
on the market and used in a clinical setting. Because of this, biomaterials

are usually subjected to the same requirements as those undergone by new
drug therapies.
All manufacturing companies are also required to ensure traceability of all of
their products so that if a defective product is discovered, others in the same
batch may be traced.
Heart valves
In the United States, 45% of the 250,000 valve replacement procedures
performed annually involve a mechanical valve implant. The most widely
used valve is a bileaflet disc heart valve, or St. Jude valve. The mechanics
involve two semicircular discs moving back and forth, with both allowing the
flow of blood as well as the ability to form a seal against backflow. The valve
is coated with pyrolytic carbon, and secured to the surrounding tissue with
a mesh of woven fabric called Dacron(du Pont's trade name for polyethylene
terephthalate). The mesh allows for the body's tissue to grow while
incorporating the valve.
Skin repair
Most of the time "artificial" tissue is grown from the patient's own cells.
However, when the damage is so extreme that it is impossible to use the
patient's own cells, artificial tissue cells are grown. The difficulty is in
finding a scaffold that the cells can grow and organize on. The
characteristics of the scaffold must be that it is biocompatible, cells can
adhere to the scaffold, mechanically strong and biodegradable. One
successful scaffold is a copolymer of lactic acid and glycolic acid.
Compatibility
Biocompatibility is related to the behavior of biomaterials in various
environments under various chemical and physical conditions. The term
may refer to specific properties of a material without specifying where or
how the material is to be used. For example, a material may elicit little or no
immune response in a given organism, and may or may not able to integrate
with a particular cell type or tissue). The ambiguity of the term reflects the
ongoing development of insights into how biomaterials interact with the
human body and eventually how those interactions determine the clinical
success of a medical device (such as pacemaker or hip replacement). Modern

medical devices and prostheses are often made of more than one material—
so it might not always be sufficient to talk about the biocompatibility of a
specific material.
Also, a material should not be toxic unless specifically engineered to be so—
like "smart" drug delivery systems that target cancer cells and destroy them.
Understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the action site is essential
for a biomaterial to be effective. An additional factor is the dependence on
specific anatomical sites of implantation. It is thus important, during design,
to ensure that the implement will fit complementarily and have a beneficial
effect with the specific anatomical area of action.
Biopolymers
Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms. Cellulose and
starch, proteins and peptides, and DNA and RNA are all examples of
biopolymers, in which the monomeric units, respectively, are sugars, amino
acids, and nucleotides. Cellulose is both the most common biopolymer and
the most common organic compound on Earth. About 33% of all plant
matter is cellulose.
Some biopolymers are biodegradable. That is, they are broken down into
CO2 and water by microorganisms. In addition, some of these biodegradable
biopolymers are compostable. That is, they can be put into an industrial
composting process and will break down by 90% within 6 months.
Biopolymers that do this can be marked with a 'compostable' symbol, under
European Standard EN 13432 (2000). Packaging marked with this symbol
can be put into industrial composting processes and will break down within
6 months (or less). An example of a compostable polymer is PLA film under
20 μm thick: films which are thicker than that do not qualify as
compostable, even though they are biodegradable. A home composting logo
may soon be established: this will enable consumers to dispose of packaging
directly onto their own compost heap.

High Temperature engineering materials Applications (3000oC)
Carbon is important element for all living things on the earth and its many
forms are used in various aspects of human activity because of its
extraordinary characteristic. It is combined with other elements or by itself
to form high performance structural carbon materials. These include
classical carbon materials (i.e. allotropes of carbon) such as diamond,
graphite and amorphous carbon to newly developed carbon materials like
high density isotropic graphite, high performance carbon fibers, fullerenes,
carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon/carbon composites (CCs), etc. Further, by
making best use of theoretical properties of carbons, still newer versions of
carbons, especially advanced CCs are being developed with improvement in
properties because of their technological importance in high tech
applications like nuclear, energy, space sectors, etc .
CCs are basically a generic class of synthetic, pure carbon materials
consisting of carbon fibers reinforced in a carbon matrix. As mentioned
before, these are the most advanced versions of carbon, as the carbon fibers
reinforcement makes them stronger, tougher and more resistant to thermal
shock than bulk graphite. With low density of carbon, the specific strength
(strength/density), specific modulus (modulus/density) and specific thermal
conductivity (thermal conductivity/density) of CCs are the highest among
composites. In addition, the coefficient of thermal expansion is ~ zero and
they retain strength at high temperature (3000°C) in non-oxidizing
atmosphere. Thus, the combination of above properties makes CCs more
preferable than any other engineering materials in high thermal
management [1]. Fig. 1 depicts the variation of specific strength of CCs with
that of other engineering materials relative to temperature. In this,
increment of mechanical strength of CCs with temperature is seen in
contrast to the strength of other engineering materials. This behavior is
expected due to the change in morphology of constituents of CCs during
their exposure to high temperature [1].

Figure 1. Variation of strength of engineering materials with temperature
Processing
Coming to the fabrication of CCs, this is carried out using three main
methods [1], namely (a) solid phase pyrolysis using thermosetting resins, (b)
liquid phase pyrolysis using pitch, and (c) chemical vapor infiltration (CVI)
technique using hydrocarbon gases. The first two methods start with
preparation of a resin-matrix or pitch-matrix composites using carbon
reinforcement, which are derived from different precursors such as
polyacrylonotrile (PAN) or pitch, and are available commercially as high
strength (HT), high modulus (HM) and intermediate modulus (IM) fibers with
varying physical and mechanical properties. Further, these are available in
chopped, continuous and woven forms. The latest are also available from
two dimensions to higher-dimensions and are widely used in advanced
composites. Once the resin or pitch based composites are ready,
subsequently, carbonization (by heating at 1000-1500°C in an inert
atmosphere) of resin or pitch is done to form a carbon matrix under normal
or high pressure (i.e. using hot isostatic press) conditions. After
carbonization, porosity is substantial in the carbon matrix and it is
eliminated by densification process. In this, subsequent steps of
impregnation and carbonization cycles are followed by using resin or pitch.
Four to six such impreganation-carbonisation cycles are repeated in order to
reduce the porosity to an acceptable level. Graphitization (by heating at
2000-3100°C in an inert atmosphere) may follow (typically in final cycle) in
order to develop graphite matrix. However, this is an expensive step, some or

all of the impregnation-carbonization cycles may be replaced by CVI
technique, in which a carbonaceous gas infiltrates the composites and
decomposes to form carbon, but this is a time consuming process. Further,
the effects of both carbonization and graphitization on the properties of CCs
fabricated by different routes are highlighted in the subsequent paragraph.
Depending on the carbonization/graphitization temperature, the resulting

carbon matrix can range from amorphous to graphite. The amorphous
structure is semi-crystalline or randomly oriented in nature, which can
arrest the crack propagation and thus increases the strength of the
composites. In graphite, the matrix is crystalline, which is responsible for
high thermal and electrical properties, and higher the oxidation resistance,
but more brittle the composites. Among mentioned precursors,
thermosetting resin route results amorphous matrix, which can be
graphitized by heating more than 3000°C. Whereas, CVD/pitch routes show
the development of crystalline structure at lower temperature range
compared to that of thermosetting resin route.
Furthermore, the fiber/matrix interface also plays a significant role on the
fabrication parameters such as heat treatment temperature (HTT), number
of densifications cycles, as well as on the toughening and other properties of
CCs .As it is vast, it is difficult to cover all the things. However, only crucial
aspects are discussed as following. The strong interface between HT fibers
and thermosetting resin precursor can lead to matrix of graphite structure
around the fibers, which is obtained at low HTT 2000°C also known as
stress graphitization. This is expected due to stresses generated during
fabrication. Moreover, stress graphitization correlates the fiber/matrix
interface and improves the final properties of CCs. Generally, the
intermediate interfacial bond strength is recommended for tough CCs as in
the case of other ceramic composites. About densification cycles, the
number can be minimized by using HM fibers, which makes low interfacial
bond strength and helps in effective densification compared to other type of
fibers.

In recent years, CCs of extremely high physical and mechanical properties
have been developed and are continue to be developed using above
fabrication methods. This is achieved either by using high performance
carbon reinforcements such as vapor grown carbon fibers (VGCF), CNTs
added/coated carbon fibers or by modifying the carbon matrix with the
addition of carbon nanomaterials such as carbon black, graphite powder,
carbon nanofibers, nano spheres, CNTs etc. in the carbon matrix precursors
.Thus, by selecting the carbon reinforcement with controlled properties and
volume fraction, and by varying the carbon structure in the matrix systems,
the CCs of different densities in the range 1.6-2.0 g/cm 3 with varying
mechanical, thermal and electrical properties can be obtained .
Applications
Nuclear: CCs increasingly are being used for plasma-facing components

(PFCs) in magnetic-confinement plasma-fusion devices because of their
additional advantages such as low atomic number, low activation, low
plasma contamination and its ability to tailor with other materials to meet
specific component property requirements. Fig. 2 shows the cross section of
the magnetically confined fusion reactors, which highlights three primary
PFCs: the first wall, the diverter, and the limiter. Further, heat exchangers
of advanced molten salt reactors are also manufactured by CCs .
Figure 2. Cross section of the magnetically confined fusion reactors

Energy: CCs of low permeability, corrosion resistance and high specific
strength are used in making of bipolar plates for proton exchange
membrane (PEM) fuel cells .Fig. 3 shows the bipolar plate arrangement in
fuel cell stack.
Figure 3. Fuel Cell
Space: An additional advantages like high specific heat, good operational

experience and excellent high-temperature friction and wear characteristics
of CCs make them potential materials in special applications in brakes pads
of air-crafts, nose tips, leading edges of space shuttle etc. as shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 4 . (a) Brake pads of air crafts, (b) nose tip and (c) leading edge of
space shuttle.
The ANEML ( Advanced Nano Engineering Materials Laboratory ) group,
Department Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science Programme, at

IITK, is developing a new versions of CCs for high temperature applications,
especially for nuclear and space applications . In this work, carbon fibers
are coated with CNTs to make it high performance surface engineered
carbon, and using them as reinforcement, CCs are fabricated by solid phase
pyrolysis method. Further, these newly fabricated CCs are characterized to
ensure both the physical and mechanical properties required for final
applications.
Construction Materials:
A wide range of building materials is available for the construction of rural
buildings and structures. The proper selection of materials to be used in a
particular building or structure can influence the original cost,
maintenance, ease of cleaning, durability and, of course, appearance.
Several factors need to be considered when choosing the materials for a
construction job, including:
1. Type and function of the building or structure and the specific
characteristics required of the materials used, i.e. great strength, water
resistance, wear resistance, attractive appearance, etc.
2. Economic aspects of the building/structure in terms of original
investment and annual cost of maintenance.
3. Availability of materials in the area.
4. Availability of the skilled labour required to install some types of material.
5. Quality and durability of different types of material.
6. Transportation costs.
7. Selection of materials with compatible properties, dimensions and means
of installation.
8. Cultural acceptability or personal preference

Fibre-reinforced concrete
Fibre-reinforced concrete members can be made thinner than those with
conventional reinforcement because there is n0 need for a corrosion-
protection covering over the steel bars. The fibres improve flexible strength
and resistance to cracking.
Commonly used fibres include asbestos, steel (0.25 mm diameter), and sisal
and elephant grass.
Reinforcement meshes for ferro-cement
a. Hexagonal wire mesh (chicken wire mesh)
b. Welded wire mesh - strongest
c. Woven mesh - strong
d. Expanded wire mesh
Asbestos cement (AC)

Asbestos, which is a silicate of magnesium, is found as a rock that can be
split into extremely thin fibres ranging from 2 mm to 900 mm long. These
have good resistance to alkalis, neutral salts and organic solvents, and the
varieties used for building products have good resistance to acids. Asbestos
is non-combustible and able to withstand high temperatures without
alteration. Inhalation of asbestos dust causes asbestosis (a disease of the
lungs) and asbestos is now used only where no alternative fibre is available.
Workers must wear masks and take great care not to inhale any asbestos
dust!
As the fibres are strong in tension and flexible, they are used as
reinforcement with Portland cement, lime and bitumen binders, in asbestos-
cement and asbestos silica- lime products, vinyl floor tiles and in bitumen
felts. Asbestos-cement is used in farm structures for corrugated roofing
sheets, ridges and sanitary pipes.

Sisal-fibre-reinforced cement (SFRC)
Sisal and other vegetable fibres have only recently come into use for cement
reinforcement. Sisal fibre can be used as short, discontinuous fibres (15–75
mm in length), or as continuous long fibres exceeding 75 mm in length.
Sometimes both short and long fibres are used together. The manner in
which the fibres are incorporated into the matrix affects the properties of the
composite, both in the fresh state and in the hardened state. Sisal fibres
may deteriorate if not treated. Although the alkalinity of the concrete helps
to protect the fibres from outside attack, it may itself attack the fibres
Chemically by decomposing the lignin. Sisal fibre reinforcing is used with
various cement-sand mixing ratios, depending on the use:
 Wall plastering 1:3
 Guttering 1:2
 Roofing tiles 1:1
 Corrugated roofing sheets 1:0.5
The sand should be passed through a sieve with 1.5 mm to 2 mm holes (e.g.
mosquito netting). The mixing water must be pure and the mix kept as dry
as possible, while still being workable.
Between 16 grams and 17 grams of short (25 mm), dry sisal fibres are added
to the mix for each kilogram of cement. The short fibres are mixed into the
dry cement and sand before adding water. As sisal fibres have a high water-
absorption capacity, some extra water may have to be added to the mix to
compensate for this. When mixing, there is a tendency for the fibres to ball
and separate out from the rest of the mix. This tendency will increase with
longer fibres but, if fibres
Shorter than 25 mm are used, the reinforcing effect will be reduced. In most
cases, the mix is then troweled onto a mesh of full-length sisal fibres.

Metals
Several ferrous metals (those containing iron) are useful in the construction
of farm buildings and other rural structures. Cast iron is used for making
sanitary waste pipes and fittings. Steel consists of iron, plus a small
percentage of carbon in chemical combination. High-carbon or ‗hard‘ steel is
used for tools with cutting edges. Medium carbon steel is used for structural
members such as I-beams, reinforcing bars and implement frames. Low
carbon or ‗mild‘ steel is used for pipes, nails, screws, wire, screening,
fencing and corrugated roof sheets. Non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium
and copper,
are corrosion-resistant and are often chosen for this quality. Copper is used
for electric wire, tubing for water supply and for flashing. Aluminium is most
commonly used for corrugated roofing sheets, gutters and the accompanying
nails. Using nails of the same material avoids the problem of corrosion
caused by electrolytic action. Brass is a corrosion-resistant alloy of copper
and zinc used extensively for building hardware.
Corrosion-inhibiting coatings
Copper, aluminium, stainless steel and cast iron tend to form oxide coatings
that provide a considerable amount of self protection from corrosion.
However, most other steels require protective coatings if they are exposed to
moisture and air. Methods used include zinc coating (galvanizing), vitreous
enamel glazing and painting. Painting is the only practical method for field
application, although grease and oil will provide temporary protection.
Before painting, the metal surface must be clean, dry and free from oil. Both
bituminous and oil-based paints
With metallic oxide pigments offer good protection, if they are carefully
applied in continuous layers. Two to three coats provides the best
protection.

Applications for Shape Memory alloys
Shape Memory metals that were developed by NASA for the space industry,
and have been used for increasing applications down on earth. The following
is a list of just some of the applications that shape memory alloys have been
used for.
Bioengineering:
Bones: Broken bones can be mended with shape memory alloys. The alloy
plate has a memory transfer temperature that is close to body temperature,
and is attached to both ends of the broken bone. From body heat, the plate
wants to contract and retain its original shape, therefore exerting a
compression force on the broken bone at the place of fracture. After the
bone has healed, the plate continues exerting the compressive force, and
aids in strengthening during rehabilitation. Memory metals also apply to hip
replacements, considering the high level of super-elasticity. The photo above
shows a hip replacement.
Reinforcement for Arteries and Veins:

For clogged blood vessels, an alloy tube is
crushed and inserted into the clogged
veins. The memory metal has a memory
transfer temperature close to body heat,
so the memory metal expands to open the
clogged arteries.
Dental wires: used for braces and dental arch wires, memory alloys
maintain their shape since they are at a constant temperature, and because
of the super elasticity of the memory metal, the wires retain their original
shape after stress has been applied and removed.

Anti-scalding protection: Temperature selection and control system for
baths and showers. Memory metals can be designed to restrict water flow by
reacting at different temperatures, which is important to prevent scalding.
Memory metals will also let the water flow resume when it has cooled down
to a certain temperature.
Fire security and Protection systems: Lines that carry highly flammable
and toxic fluids and gases must have a great amount of control to prevent
catastrophic events. Systems can be programmed with memory metals to
immediately shut down in the presence of increased heat. This can greatly
decrease devastating problems in industries that involve petrochemicals,
semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, and large oil and gas boilers.
Golf Clubs: a new line of golf putters and wedges has been developed using
Shape memory alloys are inserted into the golf clubs. These inserts are
super elastic, which keep the ball on the clubface longer. As the ball comes
into contact with the clubface, the insert experiences a change in
metallurgical structure. The elasticity increases the spin on the ball, and
gives the ball more "bite" as it hits the green.
Helicopter blades: Performance for helicopter blades depend on vibrations;

with memory metals in micro processing control tabs for the trailing ends of
the blades, pilots can fly with increased precision.
Figure : Helicopter blades

Eyeglass Frames: In certain commercials, eyeglass companies demonstrate
eyeglass frames that can be bent back and forth, and retain their shape.
These frames are made from memory metals as well, and demonstrate
super-elasticity.
The photo to the right demonstrates flexible eyewear.
Tubes, Wires, and Ribbons: For many applications that deal with a heated
fluid flowing through tubes, or wire and ribbon applications where it is
crucial for the alloys to maintain their shape in the midst of a heated
environment, memory metals are ideal.
Different sizes of NiTinol tubes

Question Bank: Engineering Materials
1. Based on chemical make-up and atomic structure classify materials
along with their application‘s?
2. What are the properties of metals which make them suitable for
industrial applications?
3. Write short notes on the following
(a) Composites (b) Semiconductors (c) Biomaterials (d) Smart
materials
(e) Nano engineered materials.
4 Differentiate conductors, semiconductors and insulators
5 Explain the charge carriers
6. Distinguish the types of magnetism in materials with examples
7. Explain the growth of magnetic domains with a M-H plot
8. Explain magnetic hysteresis using B-H plot
9 With the help of stress strain curve explain the mechanical behavior of
Cast Ironand Mildsteel?
10 Define the following (a) Stiffness (b) Elastic strength (c) Resilience (d)
Yield strength (e ) ductility (f) Malleability (g) Ultimate Tensile strength
10 State Gibb‘s Phase Rule and its application
11 Define binary phase diagram with example
12 Explain Lever Rule with the help of an isomorphous phase diagram
13 Draw Cu/Ni phase diagram and explain
14 A Copper Nickel alloy contains 47 wt.% Cu and 53wt.% Ni and is at
1300 0C. Calculate the weight percent of copper in the liquid and solid
phase at this temperature? Also calculate weight percent of liquid and solid
in this alloy at this temperature. The tie line at 1300 0C intersects liquidus
at 45 wt.% of Ni and solidus at 53 wt.% of Ni.
15 List five invariant reactions of binary phase alloys
16 Write eutectic and eutectoid transformation reaction for binary alloys
17 Explain different stages of solidification
18 Explain nucleation and growth during solidification of a molten metal
19 Describe the effect of cooling rate on the grain size
20 Differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation
21 Define steel and cast iron
22 Compare properties of steel and cast iron
23 Write composition, properties and applications of following steels
a) Chromium steel b)Nickel steels c)Stainless steels d)Molybdenum
steels e)Tungsten steels
24 Write salient features of stainless steels and tool steels
25 Define corrosion and give few examples of it with respect to materials
for engineering applications.
26 Explain different modes of corrosion
27 Explain electrochemical reactions of metals
28 Describe methods of corrosion prevention
29 Define heat treatment and explain any two methods of heat treatment
30 Describe quenching and tempering processes with their final
microstructures
31 Differentiate between annealing and quenching
32 Write composition, properties and applications of Aluminium and its
alloys
33 compare properties of heat treatable and non-heat treatable
Aluminium alloys
34 Write composition, properties and applications of Copper and its
alloys
35 Write composition, properties and applications of Titanium and its
alloys
36 Briefly explain the following
(a)Fabrication of sheets by BatchProcessing.
(b)Fabrication on web by roll rollprocessing.
37 Write short notes on the following

(a)Additive Printing (b) Low-temperature Amorphous and
NanocrystallineSilicon Materials (c) Low-temperature Dielectrics (d) Low-
temperature Thin-film Transistor Devices
38 Classify ceramic Materials based on its applications?

39 Explain any two processing /synthesis techniques for manufacture of
ceramic materials?
40 List any eight important properties of ceramic materials?
41 Explain briefly the applications of ceramic materials in the following
fields
(a) Industrial (b) Medical and Commercial Applications
42 What are Polymers? Explain any two methods of synthesis of
Polymers?
43 What is Polymerization? Ex plain any two important properties that
affects the characteristics of Polymers?
44 Briefly explain the applications of Polymers?
45 What are composite materials? Give a detailed classification based on
matrices and re inforcement?
46 Explain any two methods of synthesis Composites?
47 Derive an expression for Young‘s modulus of composite under Iso
stress conditions?
48 What is a Nano material? Classify Nano materials based on their
dimensional values?
49 Explain the chemical and physical methods of synthesis of nano
materials?
50 What is Scanning electron microscopy? Explain?
51 With the help of a neat sketch explain the working principle of XRD?
52 Write short notes on the application of advanced material for the
following application
(a) Construction Applications,
(b) Biomedical applications,
(c) High temperature Applications,
(d) Shape Memory Alloys and Composites,
(e) Thin films and coatings.

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(All Sections)

Unit III 8 hours

RV College of Engineering, Bangalore-59 Prepared by Adarsha.H ME .Dept Page 1

1. William D. Callister; ―Materials Science & Engineering- An

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Unit CONTENTS PAGE NO.

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4 COMPOSITES & NANO-MATERIALS

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NANO ENGINEERED MATERIALS

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These are employed in components implanted into a human body for

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Stress Strain Curve for Mild Steel

SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:

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su is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the

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Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to reduce

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● Thermal properties are the response of the material to the application

● A solid material hen heated experiences an increase in temperature

Coefficient of thermal expansion

● When thermal energy is added to the material a change in its

● Specific heat – quantity of heat added to a unit mass of substance to

RV College of Engineering, Bangalore-59 Prepared by Adarsha.H ME .Dept Page 10

● Characteristics of the materials to permit or resist the flow of

● It is that electrical property of a material owing to which it resists the

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The hysteresis loop shows relationship between induced magnetic flux

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UNARY PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE Cu

It is a pressure temperature diagram for a pure metal. Figure shows unary

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BINARY PHASE DIAGRAM

GIBB’S PHASE RULE:-

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Types of solid solutions:-

(i) Uniform/Ordered substitutional solid solutions:-

(ii) Distorted substitutional solid solutions:-

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Mechanism of Solidification in metals & alloys.

Nucleation : This is the starting point of solidification process of any metal

RV College of Engineering, Bangalore-59 Prepared by Adarsha.H ME .Dept Page 20

Where,  = Surface energy per unit area.

Cast Metal Structures:

α Ferrite – solid carbon in bcc structure of iron.

1. Stable form of iron.

RV College of Engineering, Bangalore-59 Prepared by Adarsha.H ME .Dept Page 22

1. Max solubility of carbon is 2.14%

1. It has same structure of α-ferrite.

This is an intermaetallic compound which is meta stable. It remains as a

NOTE : Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron. It forms a solid solution

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Major Alloying Elements

Aluminium association designation system.