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This article builds on previous works by Robert Stone (1997) and Richard Sermon Why A Solunar Calendar
(2001). It begins with a brief discussion of the notion of a solunar calendar. There We know the Pagan English used a
follows discussion of the practical and philosophical considerations behind using solunar calendar because we have
lunar months starting on the first crescent. Next comes a refinement of our notions of documentary evidence. In addition,
the English’ rules for determining which years have an extra month. Finally, there is there would have been five compel-
some discussion of what holy days would have appeared in each month. ling reasons for a culture to use a
solunar calendar. (1) Strictly solar
calendars such as those of the May-
Solar Year, Lunar Months ans, Egyptians, or Romans require
The ancient English, and probably most pre-industrial cultures, used a solunar long written matrices of days. In
calendar. A solar year with lunar months cannot complete all the months that start in turn, this requires durable written
the solar year. The English calendar of the Heathen era starts 12 lunar months most records. (2) Both lunar and solar
years and is occasionally adjusted to start 13 months based on an observation of a phases are important, and (3) a
solstice or equinox in relation one of the lunar cycles. I write of “starting” lunar strictly lunar calendar does not track
months instead of “including” them because a series of lunar months never solar years accurately. Also, (4) it is
corresponds exactly to a solar cycle. The following sections discuss the details of practical for a society that is techno-
their solunar system. (See also the sidebar, “Why a Solunar Calendar”. An earlier logically close to nature to work
study of this matter is in Lord et al, n. d.).) with a solunar calendar. The lunar
cycles are relatively easily observed
The observations and inferences indicated below are probably relevant for other if the night-time sky is clear for a
Teutonic nations and some other pre-Christian cultures. The holidays might differ, large part of the month. The series
but the general scheme of solunar events would still hold. of lunar months can be corrected as
needed with no more than one pre-
cise solar-phase measurement per
Months year. A solar phase check would
The first crescent starts the month. Robert Stone (1997) contends that a new month require a piece of outdoor equip-
started on the first crescent of the waxing moon, not on the full moon as many ment impervious to (or protected
suppose (for example, see Lord, 1998). The first-crescent hypothesis is quite from) rain, wind, flood, fire, ani-
plausible on two points. (1) It is the most practical of the lunar signs to use for a new mals, plant overgrowth, and vandal-
month, and (2) it is reasonably consistent with Teutonic Pagan philosophy. ism. Not every village or temple
could have such equipment, but
maintaining a solunar calendar
P C
RACTICAL ONSIDERATIONS would require only infrequent com-
Mr. Stone's argument is that most cultures that used lunar months used the first sliver munication and very few staff. Prob-
of the new moon to start the new month. He argues specifically that the Moslems ably any culture at least as technic-
(Arabs), Babylonians, and Hebrews used the first sliver of the waxing moon. He ally advanced as Neolithic could use
adds that if the day begins at sunset, then by analogy the month would begin on the such a calendar for both religious
first sliver of the waxing moon. and secular purposes. Lastly (5)
people tend to prefer that their reli-
We can figure out why most cultures using lunar months might rely on the new gion have a strong archaic flavor.
crescent. However, data in this paper are not sufficient to verify nor to deny that We who would reconstruct ancient
most cultures using lunar months started the month on the first sliver of the new ways are not alone in this tendency,
moon. The way to test that hypothesis is to count of all cultures using lunar months for most new religions that become
and then count of all cultures using the first crescent as a sign of a new month. Such widely adopted present themselves
data may or may not be available somewhere. as returns to ancient traditions.
Therefore, English Pagans would
The new moon is the most practical clue to use because it is the most objective not have revised their calendars
indication. The moon looks full or new for about three days at a time, so with a little when they had the means to
overcast there could be disputes over what day started the month. The quarters and precisely calculate days.
half-moons are not objective except for very skilled observers. The last of the old moon is not known for sure to many
observers until the new moon "appears" (or rather disappears -- it reflects practically no light). The first crescent is easier for
the less skilled to discern, and those who are very perceptive about these things could tell whether the moon was at first
crescent after a period of overcast.
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Another consideration is the need for a clue that the new day is the start of a new month. The ancient Anglo-Saxon day
started at sunset. The full moon rises in the east at sunset and is an excellent indicator except for that problem of its looking
the same for three days. The new moon is not visible even in the most cloud-free sky. However, the first crescent of the new
moon is visible in the western sky at sunset on clear days and is conveniently alongside
the setting sun and well above the horizon — visible over trees and hills. The full moon A Little Help from My Friends
can be seen rising in the east but is not well above the horizon until well after sunset. It The principle inspiration for this
can also be seen well above the horizon in the west an hour or two after dawn, but by article is a work by Robert Stone
that time the day is more than half over. cited here. I am quite critical of
some of his conclusions but
could not have done this work
without his paper. The most
P HILOSOPHICAL ONSIDERATIONSC important primary source is the
A philosophical reason to start each month on the sighting of the first crescent is that Venerable Bede’s famous chap-
this practice gives each month a life cycle of growth, prime, and decline. This provides ter “De Mensibus Anglorum”,
an analogy to human and other life cycles and can be used to help people anticipate and cited in the text under the
accept transitions in their own lives. Also, it just seems natural that a month would have editor’s name (Jones, 1943). I
a life cycle. was assisted in understanding
this chapter ― which is publish-
There are also clues in Teutonic religious philosophy, which emphasizes that Nothing ed in the original Medieval
comes before Something. Consider the myth that tells us that Darkness is the mother of Church Latin ― by an anony-
Light. The story is told in the Deluding of Gylfi, and it is alluded to in stanza 25 of mous translation provided by
Vafthrudnir's Sayings and in Skaldskaparmal. There is a very dark giantess named Gárman Lord (1998 – supple-
Night. In one of her marriages was to Shining One. Day was Night's only offspring in mented by personal correspon-
this marriage. Day was "bright and beautiful", favoring His father's side. The All-Father dence). Also important was
(Oðin) put Night and Day into the sky and gave them each a horse and a vehicle. Day's assistance by She-Wolf, whose
horse has a mane bright enough to light up half the world at a time. It is the job of this translation is less paraphrased
mother and son to circle around the world every twenty-four hours with the mother in than is the anonymous work. She
the lead. (By the way, mother and son are giants, not deities). Consider also that the deserves credit for behind-the-
Teutonic cosmogony beings with a Yawning Gap in which ice and fire meet to get scenes work, for she has been an
things started. Consider that the Old English Rune Poem's strophe “Nyd” tells us that important friend to me, to others,
lack can turn into help and salvation. (Faulkes, 1987: 90, 137; Larrington, 1996: 43-44; and to the Pagan community in
Stanfield, 2000a; Stanfield, 2001a; Young, 1954: 37-38). the Kansas City area for years.
These clues from Teutonic religion imply that as lack precedes have, as night precedes day, so invisible moon precedes
visible moon. Therefore, we would expect that each month would begin on the new moon or just after the last of the old
moon. This hurts the argument presented here, for starting the new month at the first crescent of the new moon is like starting
the day at sunrise and violates the principle we just saw in Teutonic religion.
Use of the first-crescent clue can be explained as a compromise for sake of practicality. We have seen that there are practical
problems with using the new moon as a clue, and Teutonic Pagans were practical people.
In what follows, we first infer the name of the extra month. The next question is “how do we know which annual cycles
require 13 months?” To begin solving this problem, we have to be clear about when the solar year begins and ends from the
Pagan English point of view, so the next section is “Determining the Annual Cycle”.
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the other Liða months imply that the extra Liða month very probably came between the other Liðas. Therefore, a reasonable
practice would be to refer to the extra Liða as “Midd Liða” (the Liða amidst) to clarify which month we mean to indicate.
This rule can be tested by counting lunar cycles for solar years during the conventional years 1991-2002 (using the table in
Robert Stone’s article). For example, a first-crescent moon appeared in the sky on 25 December 1992, and the inter-winter-
solstice year 1992-1993 had thirteen lunar-month startups. There follow a couple of 12-lunar-month cycles. Then a lunar
month starts on 23 December 1995, and there were thirteen first-sliver moons before the next winter solstice (1995-1996).
The next solar year required only 12 lunar months. Then a lunar month started on 31 December 1997, and there were 13 lunar
months started before the next winter solstice (1997-1998). A lunar month started on 27 December 2000, and the Gregorian
year 2002 will have to see a Midd Liða if the Pagan English calendar is to stretch to the next winter solstice. During the
twelve years under examination here, no period between winter solstices required a third Liða except in accordance with this
rule.
Holidays
The liturgical schedule would be based on the months with seasonal holidays occurring in the same month each year. Since a
first-crescent lunar month has a life cycle of growth, prime, and decline, most major holidays would probably have occurred
about the same day each month ― in the prime of the month. There might have been some variation depending on the nature
of the holiday. In general, though, it would have been a comfortable cycle for most months to have an emotional and physical
buildup, then the excitement and power of a major ceremony, and finally a clean-up and rest period.
The first holiday of the annual cycle would have been Mother’s Night, and it would have begun at sundown on the first day
of Æftera Geola. Bede tells us that the ancients reckoned their calendric year as starting on Mothers’ Night, which he pegged
as eight days before 1 January, the same day as Christmas eve. However, it is likely that before adopting the Julian calendar
Mothers’ Night was a day that would have been predictable and detectable in the solunar calendar described in this article.
Moreover, Bede says that the first month of the new year was a Geola. Bede tells us that the holiday was celebrated with an
all-night ritual.
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The second holy day was in Solmónaþ. Bede tells us that the ancients offered cakes to their deities. However, cake as we
know it is made with abundant refined sugar. It is possible that the ancients used breads. Wiccans often celebrate the High
Holy Day of Brigid, or Candlemas, on 2 February. In February some Asatrúists celebrate Charming of the Plow. Both groups
seem to feel that this is a time for welcoming the breaking of frost and coming of the warm growing season. However, other
than our knowledge that the weather in England during Pagan times was much warmer than nowadays, we do not know much
about what they did during this month. However, a planting ritual would have been timed to occur on the waxing moon, most
likely at the very beginning of this month. In Missouri, late January or early February is too cold for planting these days, but
the Julius Work Calendar indicates that the Pagan English might have been planting early in Solmónaþ. In Sweden, the
holiday observed around the time when Solmónaþ would have been starting is Disting Day, an honoring of personal and
familial spirits (Idises or Dísir). Most likely, a major ceremony in Solmónaþ would have been on the full moon in part to
keep it out of the way of early planting. Religious planting rituals would have been brief affairs conducted the day before
plowing began. Perhaps the full moon of Solmónaþ would have been the time to celebrate Lent. (See Gundarsson, 1993a and
1993d; Lacy and Danziger, 1999; Sermon, 2001; Starhawk, 1979).
The third Holy Day would have been dedicated to Hreða. Bede tells us that there were sacrifices to Her, but she is otherwise
forgotten. However, Bede also tells us that the ancient English divided the year into two six-month seasons (winter and
summer) and that the winter season started during Winterfylleþ. This implies that the summer season would have started in
the third moon, or Hréða’s Month. Such a holiday suggests timing at the first of the month to catch the young moon’s power,
but if this celebration mirrors that of Winterfylleþ, the holy day would have been on the full moon. As Winterfylleþ is not a
harvest ritual, this is not likely to have been a fertility or planting ritual. Instead, it would have focused on deeper
psychological matters, as implied by our modern Halloween customs relating vaguely to the dead.
Easter’s holiday has been discussed at length (Stanfield, 2001b). It is a low holy day in the Wiccan system, but very popular
nonetheless. One interesting point can be added: the new or full moon of Easter’s Month is the first after the vernal equinox.
You cannot count on the equinox falling in Hréða’s or in Easter’s Month, but you always know that that first full moon after
the equinox will occur in Eastermónaþ. Therefore, this would be the month for a vernal equinox celebration on a solunar
calendar. As winter officially began on a full moon, so the summer also would have been begun in mid-month.
It is quite possible that during the full moon of Þrímilici the English observed a holiday something like Beltane or Walpurgis-
nacht, called May Eve or May Day. Since the month was named in observance of a need to milk cattle three times per day,
this would be a time to celebrate seasonal prosperity. Winifred Hodge (2000) has discussed this celebration at length, and she
is probably right that this was a major Pagan celebration with different versions in different places. Based on relatively recent
observances, the ancient English seem to have celebrated in day-time and to have emphasized sexuality, freedom, renewal,
(adult) youth, and joy. For the Scandinavians, this might have been the welcoming of spring-time, but the weather in the
British Isles would have been warmer in Teutonic Pagan times than now, and springtime would be well under way in
England. Probably, in those days neither the celebrations of Þrímilici nor Hreðmónaþ nor of Eastermónaþ would by itself
have signaled springtime. Indeed, Solmónaþ would have been the initial welcoming of Spring.
The summer solstice was very probably celebrated, but we cannot be sure in what month. If an analogy to Yule-tide holds,
then the main ceremony would have been on the first day of Æftera Liða. The month during which the summer solstice
would occur would depend on whether the current year was a twelve- or thirteen-month cycle. However, the thirteen-month
cycles were probably considered something special and some kind of Midd Liþa ceremony took place. We do not know just
what the ancients did, however, so we have to do the best we can.
Bede tells us that “Halegmonath mensis sacrorum.” This could mean either that the month was filled with frequent social
rites or that there were no public rituals and private meditations or devotional ceremonies were the norm. Most likely, there
were many public and private rituals. Practice of many rituals implies variety, so we may reasonably infer that this was a time
of honoring the entire pantheon, or at least all the deities who had cults. A harvest celebration during this month would
roughly correspond to an equinox but would not necessarily occur on the full moon. If the work or harvesting was timed on
the full moon, a harvest celebration would have to be timed not to interfere. Incidentally, although the fall equinox would
always occur during Halígmónaþ, the full moon of this month is sometimes prior to and sometimes after the equinox. For
example, in 1991-1992 and in 1999-2002, the full moon of Halígmónaþ fell on 15 September. During 1992-1993 (a 13-
month year), Halígmónaþ began on 18 September, and its full moon was well after the equinox. In 12-month years, the full
moon just after the equinox would be observed in Winterfylleþ.
The Winter Full Moon observance would have fallen in Winterfylleþ, perhaps explaining the name of the month. We do not
know how this was observed in a fully Pagan system, but this would probably be related to the more recent All-Hallows Day
or Halloween – and the Celtic Samhain. Also, full moon focus and night-time ritual seem to go together. This corresponds to
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a high holy day in Wicca (where many European traditions relating to this holiday are observed), and even Christian or non-
religious people enjoy vestiges of this famous Pagan occasion. It speaks deeply to the soul, as does Easter’s celebration.
Blótmónaþ was the month of sacrifices. In order to economize on livestock feed, many farmers of ancient times slaughtered
livestock before the deepest cold arrived. Also, candles and soap were made from byproducts of livestock slaughter and
required working near hot fires ― and therefore relatively cool weather. What might seem remarkable about this month’s
sacrifices is the sharing with the deities without eating a substantial proportion of the meat, for much of the meat would have
been dried and stored. The major focus of the moment might have been preparing for the future, militating against hardship
and laying aside resources for planting, cleaning, building, or breeding early next year.
New Moon on or Lunar Month Starts on This Date in the Solar Holidays
after Winter Solstice Year 2001-2002
1 Æftera Geola 27 December 2001 Mothers’ Night, the Pagan New Year’s Eve
2 Solmónað 26 January 2002 Offering of breads to deities.
3 Hréðmónað 25 February 2002 Sacrifices to Hréða. “Summer” starts.
4 Eastermónað 27 March 2002 Celebration of Easter, patron of children
5 Þrimilici 25 April 2002 Celebration of renewal, vigor, and fertility.
6 Ærra Liða 25 May 2002 (Usually) Summer Solstice
6a Midd Liða 23 June 2002 (In Þrimilíci) Summer solstice.
7 Æftera Liða 22 July 2002
8 Weodmónað 21 August 2002
9 Halígmónaþ 20 September 2002 Many sacred rites honoring many deities.
10 Winterfylleð 18 October 2002 Winter Full Moon. “Winter” starts.
11 Blótmónaþ 17 November 2002 Consecration and slaughter of animals.
12 Ærra Geola 16 December 2002
References
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Faulkes, Anthony. 1987. Edda. By Snorri Sturluson (1220). London: Everyman.
Gundarsson, Kveldulf. 1993a. Teutonic Religion. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.
Gundarsson, Kveldulf. 1993d. "Idis-Þing". In Our Troth, ed. Kveldulf Gundarsson, 578-583. Seattle, WA, USA: The Ring of
Troth.
Gundarsson, Kveldulf, 1993e. “Waluburg’s Night. In Our Troth, ed. Kveldulf Gundarsson, 596-603. Seattle, WA, USA: The
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Stanfield, Gary G. 2001a. “Giants in Teutonic Religion.” The Rune, 11 (Spring): 32-37.
Starhawk. 1979. The Spiral Dance. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
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