FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid is a term that includes both gases and liquids which are able to flow.
The gases are compressible and liquids are incompressible.

Considering the fluids that flow, there should encounter some resistance and some
flow freely when attempting to flow. Hence the word viscosity was introduced,
where high viscosity liquids do not flow while gas generally has low viscosity.

DENSITY
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
Density of liquid, gas or solid defined as = p=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

Because the density of solids and liquids varies with the temperature, a standard
temperature of 4oC is used when measuring the density of each. Although the
temperature do not change the mass of the substance, the do change the volume
through thermal expansion and contraction. This volume change, means that there
is a change in density of the substance.

Standard conditions for the measurement of gas density is established at 0oC and a
pressure of 101.25mb.

A large mass in a small volume means a high density, and a vice versa. The unit of
density depends on the units of mass and volume; eg. Density = kg/m3 in SI units.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Relative Density)

Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of water - at a specified temperature, and can be
expressed as

SG = ρ substance / ρH2O (3)

where

SG = Specific Gravity of the substance

Ρ substance = density of the fluid or substance (kg/m3)

ρH2O = density of water - normally at temperature 4 oC (kg/m3)

It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF) as a reference since water

at this point has its highest density of 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.

Specific Gravity - SG - is dimensionless and has the same value in the SI system and
the imperial English system (BG). Water is normally also used as reference when
calculating the specific gravity for solids.

The relative density for both water and air is 1.

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
So, Relative Density =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

And

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
RD = (for liquids)
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (relative

density) of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of
water. A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and
a bulb weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance to flow. Fluids resist the
relative motion of immersed objects through them as well as to the motion of
layers with differing velocities within them.

The more usual form of this relationship, called Newton's equation, states that the
resulting shear of a fluid is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely
proportional to its viscosity.

Viscosity is first and foremost a function of material. The viscosity of water at 20 ℃

is 1.0020 millipascal seconds (which is conveniently close to one by coincidence
alone). Most ordinary liquids have viscosities on the order of 1 to 1000 mPa s,
while gases have viscosities on the order of 1 to 10 μPa s. Pastes, gels, emulsions,
and other complex liquids are harder to summarize. Some fats like butter or
margarine are so viscous that they seem more like soft solids than like flowing
liquids. Molten glass is extremely viscous and approaches infinite viscosity as it
solidifies. Since this process is not as well defined as true freezing, some believe
(incorrectly) that glass may still flow even after it has completely cooled, but this is
not the case. At ordinary temperatures, glasses are as solid as true solids.

From everyday experience, it should be common knowledge that viscosity varies

with temperature. Honey and syrups can be made to flow more readily when
heated. Engine oil and hydraulic fluids thicken appreciably on cold days and
significantly affect the performance of cars and other machinery during the winter
months. In general, the viscosity of a simple liquid decreases with increasing
temperature (and vice versa). As temperature increases, the average speed of the
molecules in a liquid increases and the amount of time they spend "in contact"
with their nearest neighbours decreases. Thus, as temperature increases, the
average intermolecular forces decrease. The exact manner in which the two
quantities vary is nonlinear and changes abruptly when the liquid changes phase.

Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids under extreme pressure

often experience an increase in viscosity. Since liquids are normally incompressible,
an increase in pressure doesn't really bring the molecules significantly closer
together. Simple models of molecular interactions won't work to explain this
behavior, there is no generally accepted more complex model that does. The liquid
phase is probably the least well understood of all the phases of matter.

While liquids get runnier as they get hotter, gases get thicker. (If one can imagine a
"thick" gas.) The viscosity of gases increases as temperature increases and is
approximately proportional to the square root of temperature. This is due to the
increase in the frequency of intermolecular collisions at higher temperatures. Since
most of the time the molecules in a gas are flying freely through the void, anything
that increases the number of times one molecule is in contact with another will
decrease the ability of the molecules as a whole to engage in the coordinated
movement. The more these molecules collide with one another, the more
disorganized their motion becomes.

STREAMLINE FLOW
An important concept in the study of aerodynamics concerns the idea of
streamlines. A streamline is a path traced out by a massless particle as it moves
with the flow. It is easiest to visualize a streamline if we move along with the body
(as opposed to moving with the flow). The figure above shows the computed
streamlines around an airfoil and around a cylinder. In both cases, we move with
the object and the flow proceeds from left to right. Since the streamline is traced
out by a moving particle, at every point along the path the velocity is tangent to
the path. Since there is no normal component of the velocity along the path, mass
cannot cross a streamline. The mass contained between any two streamlines
remains the same throughout the flowfield. We can use Bernoulli's equation to
relate the pressure and velocity along the streamline. Since no mass passes
through the surface of the airfoil (or cylinder), the surface of the object is a
streamline.

Airplanes fly by moving through almost still air, yet we design and test them using
wind tunnels, where the airplane model is fixed and the air is made to move past
the model. This idea of keeping the airfoil fixed and having the air stream past the
airfoil can be a bit confusing. Yet you experience the same kind of thing every day!
When you stand on the corner and watch a car go by, the air around you is
relatively still. As the car moves through the air there are aerodynamic forces
present. Now if you were in the car and put your hand out the window, you could
feel the aerodynamic force pushing on your hand. It feels like the air is moving past
your hand as fast as the car is moving. The forces on the car are the same, whether
you are standing on the corner or riding in the car. Well this same thing is true of
airplanes. Whether the airplane moves through the air, or the air is pushed past
the airplane, the forces are exactly the same. It's usually easier, less expensive, and
(in some cases) less dangerous to test airplanes in a wind tunnel before trying to fly
them.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes
irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid
moves in smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point
is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction. The flow of
wind and rivers is generally turbulent in this sense, even if the currents are gentle.
The air or water swirls and eddies while its overall bulk moves along a specific
direction.
STREAMLINE FLOW APPLICATIONS
Engineers often use dyes in water or smoke in air in order to see streaklines, from
which pathlines can be calculated. Streaklines are identical to streamlines for
steady flow. Further, dye can be used to create timelines.[5] The patterns guide
their design modifications, aiming to reduce the drag. This task is known as
streamlining, and the resulting design is referred to as being streamlined.
Streamlined objects and organisms, like steam locomotives, streamliners, cars and
dolphins are often aesthetically pleasing to the eye. The Streamline Moderne style,
an 1930s and 1940s offshoot of Art Deco, brought flowing lines to architecture and
design of the era.

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
Bernoulli's principle, physical principle that states that as the speed of a moving
fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases.

An increase in the velocity of a fluid that is accompanied by a decrease of pressure.

In most cases, the pressure in a liquid or gas decreases as the liquid or gas moves
faster. This explains in part why a wing lifts an airplane.
 The Lift of a Wing

The curved top of a wing creates a longer distance from front to back than the
straight bottom. This causes the air on top to travel farther, and thus faster, to
reach the back than the air underneath, creating a difference in pressure between
the two surfaces.

Applications
1. Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the
behaviour of the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if
the air flowing past the top surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than
the air flowing past the bottom surface, then Bernoulli's principle implies
that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above than
below. This pressure difference results in an upwards lifting force. Whenever
the distribution of speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is
known, the lift forces can be calculated (to a good approximation) using
Bernoulli's equations – established by Bernoulli over a century before the
first man-made wings were used for the purpose of flight. Bernoulli's
principle does not explain why the air flows faster past the top of the wing
and slower past the underside.

2. The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to

create a region of low pressure to draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it
thoroughly with the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi
can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is
moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.

3. The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the
airspeed of the aircraft. These two devices are connected to the airspeed
indicator, which determines the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the
aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference between stagnation pressure
and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the airspeed
indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed appropriate to the
dynamic pressure.