Various types of air navigation aids are in use today, each serving a special purpose.

These aids have varied owners and operators, namely: the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), the military services, private organizations, individual states
and foreign governments. The FAA has the statutory authority to establish, operate,
maintain air navigation facilities and to prescribe standards for the operation of any
of these aids which are used for instrument flight in federally controlled airspace.
These aids are tabulated in the Airport/Facility Directory

NONDIRECTIONAL RADIO BEACON (NDB)

A low or medium frequency radio beacon transmits nondirectional signals whereby the
pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings and "home" on the
station. These facilities normally operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535
kilohertz (kHz) and transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or 1020 hertz (Hz)
modulation. All radio beacons except the compass locators transmit a continuous
three-letter identification in code except during voice transmissions.

a. When a radio beacon is used in conjunction with the Instrument Landing System
markers, it is called a Compass Locator.

b. Voice transmissions are made on radio beacons unless the letter "W" (without
voice) is included in the class designator (HW).

c. Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that may result in erroneous bearing
information. Such disturbances result from such factors as lightning, precipitation
static, etc. At night, radio beacons are vulnerable to interference from distant
stations

NDB navigation consists of two parts – the Automatic Direction Finder (or ADF)
equipment on the aircraft that detects an NDB's signal, and the NDB transmitter itself.

The ADF can also locate transmitters in the standard AM

mediumwave broadcast band

When receiving the NDB signal turn the aircraft so that the head of the ADF needle
 is pointing to TDC, then check the heading from the compass. That heading is the
track required to home directly to the NDB, for our example 060° magnetic. Rotate
the ADF compass card to set 060° at TDC and the needle head will also indicate
060°. Remember that all heading changes should be logged.

. As the flight progresses, holding the 060° heading, the

crosswind causes the aircraft to drift to the south of the
060°
required track and the ADF needle has moved left about
5° to 055°.

automatic direction finder (ADF)

Some aircraft are equipped with an ADF receiver. They receive radio signals in the
medium frequency band of 190 Khz to 1750 Khz. The ADF receiver can “Home” on
both AM radio stations and Non-Directional Beacons. Commercial AM radio stations
broadcast on 540 to 1620 Khz. Non-Directional Beacons (NDBs) operate in the
frequency band of 190 to 535 Khz.
The aircraft equipment consists of two antennas, the ADF Receiver, and the ADF
Instrument. The two antennas are called the (1) LOOP antenna and the (2) SENSE
antenna.

The loop antenna can sense the direction of the signal from the station, but cannot
discriminate whether the station is in front or behind the aircraft. The sense antenna
can discriminate direction, and solves the ambiguity of the loop antenna.

The receiver unit has tuning dials to select the station frequency A volume control
allows the audible volume to be controlled for identifying the station. The volume can
be reduced to prevent interference with other communications. You should, however,
continuously monitor the identifier while using the NDB for navigation.

The navigational display contains a compass rose dial graduated in 5 degree

increments from 0° to 355°, a pointer with an arrow on one end, and a square
form on the other end. We will call the arrow end the “Pointer”, and the
square end the “Tail” for the sake of identification.

There are 2 types of compass rose dials that can exist in the navigational unit. One is
a fixed compass rose, called a “Fixed Card” ADF. Zero degrees is always shown on top
of the card. The “Rotateable Card” ADF allows the compass rose card to be rotated.
Interpretation of these displays will be more fully described in later paragraphs.

ADF Orientation

The pointer end of the ADF navigation unit ALWAYS POINTS TO THE STATION. The
degree reading on the display is dependent on the aircraft heading. In the diagram
if the heading of the aircraft changes, the arrow will always point to the station
and the degree reading on the instrument which the pointer indicates also
changes.. Tracking to an NDB

A useful ADF application in visual navigation is to locate a particular NDB and then track – or home – directly to it.
The ADF receiver is tuned to the NDB frequency, and the audio volume turned up, so that the NDB can be
identified as soon as the aircraft comes within range. The ADF needle indicates the bearing to the NDB and the
wind correction angle necessary to maintain that track is then ascertained by bracketing, a technique which bears
some similarity to the double track error method. The term 'bracketing' is derived from the artillery technique
for ranging the target by deliberately placing initial rounds behind and in front of it.

Note: this sequence is best performed if the heading being flown is positioned on the ADF card at TDC, the
diagrams in the left column below indicate the readings with those settings.

 
Fixed Card ADF
The relationship of the aircraft to the station is referred to as
“bearing to the station” (MB). There are 2 elements to
determining MB. One is the Relative Bearing (RB) which is the
reading of the ADF DIAL: the other the Magnetic Heading (MH)
of the aircraft. This relationship is given by the equation
 

MB (to the station) = RB + MH

 

In the example, the MH of the aircraft is 270° as read on the compass. The RB read
from the ADF dial is 45° . Therefore the MB to the station = 270° + 45° = 315°. This
equation applies to any problem on the FAA Written Exam relating to the Fixed Card
ADF. If any two values are known, the third can be computed.

Moveable Card ADF

Some aircraft are equipped with an ADF instrument in which the dial face of the
instrument can be rotated by a knob. This is called a Moveable Card ADF. By rotating
the card such that the Magnetic Heading (MH) of the aircraft is adjusted to be under
the pointer at the top of the card, the Bearing to the Station (MB) can be read
directly from the compass card. More sophisticated instruments of later design
automatically rotate the compass card of the instrument to agree with the magnetic
heading of the aircraft. Thus MB to the station can be read at any time without
manually rotating the compass card on the ADF face.

VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)

VOR's operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz frequency band and have a power
output necessary to provide coverage within their assigned operational service
volume. They are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies
proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment. Most VOR's are equipped for
voice transmission on the VOR frequency. VOR's without voice capability are indicated
by the letter "W" (without voice) included in the class designator (VORW). The only
positive method of identifying a VOR is by its Morse Code identification or by the
recorded automatic voice identification which is always indicated by use of the word
"VOR" following the range's name. Reliance on determining the identification of an
omnirange should never be placed on listening to voice transmissions by the Flight
Service Station (FSS) (or approach control facility) involved. Many FSS's remotely
operate several omniranges with different names. In some cases, none of the VOR's
have the name of the "parent" FSS. During periods of maintenance, the facility may
radiate a T-E-S-T code (-  l l l l  -) or the code may be removed. Voice identification
has been added to numerous VOR's. The transmission consists of a voice
announcement, "AIRVILLE VOR" alternating with the usual Morse Code identification.
The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon proper use and adjustment of both ground
and airborne equipment.

The accuracy of course alignment of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or
minus 1 degree.On some VOR's, minor course roughness may be observed, evidenced
by course needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are more susceptible to
these irregularities than others). At a few stations, usually in mountainous terrain,
the pilot may occasionally observe a brief course needle oscillation, similar to the
indication of "approaching station." Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are cautioned
to be on the alert for these vagaries, and in particular, to use the "to/from" indicator
to determine positive station passage.

WORKING

VORs are assigned radio channels between 108.0 MHz (megahertz) and 117.95 MHz
(with 50 kHz spacing); this is in the VHF (very high frequency) range.

The VOR uses the phase relationship between a reference-phase and a rotating-phase
signal to encode direction. The carrier signal is omni-directional and contains an
amplitude modulated (AM) station Morse code or voice identifier. The reference 30 Hz
signal is frequency modulated (FM) on a 9960 Hz sub-carrier. A second, amplitude
modulated (AM) 30 Hz signal is derived from the rotation of a directional antenna array
30 times per second. Although older antennas were mechanically rotated, current
installations scan electronically to achieve an equivalent result with no moving parts.
When the signal is received in the aircraft, the two 30 Hz signals are detected and then
compared to determine the phase angle between them. The phase angle is equal to the
direction from the station to the aircraft, in degrees from local magnetic north, and is
called the "radial."

In many cases the VOR stations have colocated DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
or military TACAN (TACtical Air Navigation -- the latter includes both the distance
feature, DME, and a separate TACAN azimuth feature that provides military pilots data
similar to the civilian VOR). A co-located VOR and TACAN beacon is called a
VORTAC..

TACAN

"Tacan" stands for "Tactical Air Navigation" and is a system which, working in the
u.h.f. band, between 962 and 1,214 Mc/s, gives to a pilot continuous information as
to his range and bearing from a beacon. The airborne equipment consists of an
interrogating transmitter and a receiver which includes suitable demodulating circuits
to enable the information contained in the beacon's response to be extracted. The
ground equipment consists of a beacon provided with a rotating aerial system. In the
absence of interrogating signals the beacon transmits a series of random pulses
together with groups of marker or reference pulses which are locked to the aerial
rotation. Bearing information can be obtained without interrogation since the beacon
is continuously transmitting.
OPERATION

TACAN in general can be described as the military version of the VOR/DME system. It
operates in the frequency band 960-1215 MHz. The bearing unit of TACAN is more
accurate than a standard VOR since it makes use of a two frequency principle, with
15 Hz and 135 Hz components.

The distance measurement component of TACAN operates with the same

specifications as civil DMEs. Therefore to reduce the number of required stations,
TACAN stations are frequently co-located with VOR facilities. These co-located stations
are known as VORTACs. This is a station composed of a VOR for civil bearing
information and a TACAN for military bearing information and military/civil distance
measuring information. The TACAN transponder performs the function of a DME
without the need for a separate, co-located DME. Because the rotation of the antenna
creates a large portion of the azimuth signal, if the antenna fails, the azimuth
component is no longer available and the TACAN downgrades to a DME only mode.

Because the azimuth and range units are combined in one system it provides for
simpler installation. Less space is required than a VOR because a VOR requires a large
counterpoise and a fairly complex phased antenna system. A TACAN system
theoretically might be placed on a building, a large truck, an airplane, or a ship, and be
operational in a short period of time. TACAN, for example, are used on air refueling
tankers.

For military usage a primary drawback is lack of the ability to control emissions
(EMCON) and stealth. Naval TACAN operations are designed so an aircraft can find the
ship and land. There is no encryption involved, an enemy can simply use the range and
bearing provided to attack a ship equipped with a TACAN. Some TACANs have the
ability to employ a "Demand Only" mode wherein they will only transmit when
interrogated by an aircraft on-channel

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

a. In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a specific spacing are sent out from the
aircraft (this is the interrogation) and are received at the ground station. The ground
station (transponder) then transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same
pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time required for the round trip of
this signal exchange is measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated into
distance (nautical miles) from the aircraft to the ground station.

b. Operating on the line-of-sight principle, DME furnishes distance information with a

very high degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received at distances up to 199
NM at line-of-sight altitude with an accuracy of better than 1/2 mile or 3 percent of
the distance, whichever is greater. Distance information received from DME
equipment is SLANT RANGE distance and not actual horizontal distance.
c. DME operates on frequencies in the UHF spectrum between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz.
Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will receive distance information from a
VORTAC automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR must have a separate DME
airborne unit.

d. VOR/DME, VORTAC, Instrument Landing System (ILS)/DME, and localizer (LOC)/DME

navigation facilities established by the FAA provide course and distance information
from collocated components under a frequency pairing plan. Aircraft receiving
equipment which provides for automatic DME selection assures reception of azimuth
and distance information from a common source when designated VOR/DME, VORTAC,
ILS/DME, and LOC/DME are selected.

e. Due to the limited number of available frequencies, assignment of paired

frequencies is required for certain military noncollocated VOR and TACAN facilities
which serve the same area but which may be separated by distances up to a few
miles. The military is presently undergoing a program to collocate VOR and TACAN
facilities or to assign nonpaired frequencies to those that cannot be collocated.

f. VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME facilities are identified by synchronized

identifications which are transmitted on a time share basis. The VOR or localizer
portion of the facility is identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or a
combination of code and voice. The TACAN or DME is identified by a coded tone
modulated at 1350 Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification is transmitted one
time for each three or four times that the VOR or localizer coded identification is
transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is inoperative, it is important to
recognize which identifier is retained for the operative facility. A single coded
identification with a repetition interval of approximately 30 seconds indicates that
the DME is operative.

g. Aircraft equipment which provides for automatic DME selection assures reception of
azimuth and distance information from a common source when designated VOR/DME,
VORTAC and ILS/DME navigation facilities are selected. Pilots are cautioned to
disregard any distance displays from automatically selected DME equipment when VOR
or ILS facilities, which do not have the DME feature installed, are being used for
position determination.

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

Two models of TCAS exist today for air carriers or aircraft owners and operators. Both
TCAS systems are transponder based. If a nearby aircraft has a transponder that is not
functioning or is in the "OFF" position, then the TCAS system will not detect the threat
aircraft. Three basic components make up the TCAS systems. The first in the antenna
system; the second the TCAS processor; and the third component is the instrument
panel display.
TCAS I provides three levels of alert. The first level of alert is indicated on the display
as an open diamond shape, with the altitude separation indicated between the host
and threat aircraft and an arrow indicating if the threat aircraft is climbing,
descending, or at the same altitude.

This is referred to as Other Traffic (OT). OT is not an immediate threat but is within
the surveillance area and the pilot should be aware of existing traffic.

The second level of alert is Proximity Alert (PA) and is displayed with the same
information as OT, with the exception that the diamond shape is now a solid shape on
the traffic display. Both OT and PA alerts are white on a colour display or are not
highlighted on a monochromatic display.

Traffic with a calculated intercept course for altitude and direction become a Traffic
Alert (TA). When a TA is encountered, the intruder traffic is indicated as an orange
colour circle, or becomes highlighted on a monochromatic display. The pilot is also
alerted by an automated voice alert that says "Traffic, Traffic!"

This aural alert diverts the pilot’s attention to the panel mounted display to ascertain
the location of the threat alert, determine the degree of threat, and decide what
action may have to be taken to avert a mid-air collision. The alert is based on time to
closure rate. The maximum alert is 30 seconds at a maximum 1,200-knot closure,
which calculates to a ten mile distance.

TCAS II provides a similar level of alerts as the TCAS I with the addition of Resolution
Advisories (RA). When the TCAS II system detects an imminent intercept course, the
instrument panel display changes the intruder aircraft to a red colour circle and the
pilot is instructed by the TCAS II system to "Climb" or "Descend" by the voice alerter to
avert a mid air collision. Both aircraft must be equipped with TCAS II systems to
experience Resolution Advisories.
 TCAS I system

GPWS
A ground proximity warning system (GPWS) is a system designed to alert pilots if their
aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle. The U.S. FAA
defines GPWS as a type of terrain awareness warning system. More advanced
systems, introduced in 1996,[2] are known as enhanced ground proximity warning
system, although sometimes confusingly labeled with the TAWS term.Prior to the
development of GPWS, large passenger aircraft were involved in 3.5 fatal CFIT
accidents per year,[citation needed] falling to 2 per year in the mid-1970s. Since 1974, when
the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration made it a requirement for large aircraft to carry
such equipment, there has not been a single passenger fatality in a CFIT crash by a
large jet in U.S. airspace.

COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
The FAA specifications have detailed requirements for when certain warnings should
sound in the cockpit.

The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as determined by a radar

altimeter. A computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will
warn the captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined
flying configurations ("modes").

1. Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL UP")

2. Altitude loss after take off or with a high power setting ("DON'T SINK")
3. Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW - TERRAIN" "TOO LOW - GEAR" "TOO
LOW - FLAPS")
4. Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
5. Excessively steep bank angle ("BANK ANGLE")
6. Windshear protection ("WINDSHEAR")
 IFF

In telecommunications, identification, friend or foe (IFF) is a cryptographic identification

system designed for command and control. It is a system that enables military, and
national (civilian-located ATC) interrogation systems to distinguish friendly aircraft,
vehicles, or forces, and to determine their bearing and range from the interrogator.

IFF was first developed during World War II. The term is a bit of a misnomer, as IFF can
only positively identify friendly targets but not hostile ones. If an IFF interrogation
receives no reply, the object can only be treated as suspicious but not as a positively
identified foe.

There are many reasons for not replying to IFF by friendly aircraft: battle damage, loss
of encryption keys, wrong encryption keys, or equipment failure. Aircraft hugging terrain
are very often poor candidates for microwave line-of-sight systems such as the IFF
system. Microwaves can't penetrate mountains, and very often atmosphere effects
(referred to as anomalous propagation) cause timing, range, and azimuth issues.

MODES OF OPERATION

IFF is still in use by both military and civilian aircraft. Modes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are for
military use only. Modes 1, 2 and 3 are collectively known as Selective Identification
Feature (SIF) modes. Civilian aircraft use modes A, C and S. Mode C which includes
barometric pressure altitude information is often used in conjunction with Mode A. Mode
A is often referred to as mode 3/A due to the similarity to the military Mode 3. Mode S a
new civilian mode developed to replace both Mode A and C.

An IFF transponder responds:

 in a military aircraft, vehicle, or unit by returning a coded reply signal only when
the incoming interrogation is identified as part of the friendly forces network;
if no IFF response is generated, a civil (Selective Identification Feature - SIF)
interrogation may then be generated and the aircraft, by returning various mode
replies can then be identified or sorted.

Long Range Navigation (LORAN)

LORAN operates on the principle of time measurement. A Master station and up to to

4 secondary stations transmit a synchronized pulse. The time differential between the
master station pulse and the secondary pulses is measured. From this data, the
communication receiver can calculate the position of the aircraft within 0.25 Nm or
better. The North East LORAN chain is shown. A database of airports and navigational
facilities can be loaded into the memory of the LORAN unit.

The LORAN unit can indicate:

Present Position - in Latitude/Longitude and/or relative to a destination, waypoint or

checkpoint.
Bearing and distance to your destination.
Groundspeed and estimated time enroute.
Course Deviation Indicator.
Storage in memory of all US airports, pilot selected fixes, minimum enroute and
obstruction clearance altitudes, and Class B and C airspace warnings.
Continuous computation of bearings and distances to the nearest airports.
Computation of wind direction and velocity.
Add ons, such as fuel flow analyzers to estimate fuel needed to reach destination and
alternates; ELT’s to transmit exact location of ELT.

Add-on programmable and updatable databases.

Since LORAN operates on a low-frequency signal, it is subject to the same
disturbances that AM radio sustains. It is possible to loose signal when operating
near thunderstorm and in heavy rain areas.

Principle

The navigational method provided by LORAN is based on the principle of the time
difference between the receipt of signals from a pair of radio transmitters.[3] A given
constant time difference between the signals from the two stations can be represented
by a hyperbolic line of position (LOP). If the positions of the two synchronized stations
are known, then the position of the receiver can be determined as being somewhere on
a particular hyperbolic curve where the time difference between the received signals is
constant. In ideal conditions, this is proportionally equivalent to the difference of the
distances from the receiver to each of the two stations.

By itself, with only two stations, the 2-dimensional position of the receiver cannot be
fixed. A second application of the same principle must be used, based on the time
difference of a different pair of stations. In practice, one of the stations in the second
pair may also be—and frequently is—in the first pair. By determining the intersection of
the two hyperbolic curves identified by the application of this method, a geographic fix
can be determined.

LORAN METHOD

In the case of LORAN, one station remains constant in each application of the principle,
the master, being paired up separately with two other slave, or secondary, stations.
Given two secondary stations, the time difference (TD) between the master and first
secondary identifies one curve, and the time difference between the master and second
secondary identifies another curve, the intersections of which will determine a
geographic point in relation to the position of the three stations. These curves are often
referred to as TD lines

LORAN pulse
In practice, LORAN is implemented in integrated regional arrays, or chains, consisting of one
master station and at least two (but often more) secondary (or slave) stations, with a uniform
group repetition interval (GRI) defined in microseconds. The master station transmits a series of
pulses, then pauses for that amount of time before transmitting the next set of pulses

LORAN CHAINS (GRIS)

Every LORAN chain in the world uses a unique Group Repetition Interval, the number of
which, when multiplied by ten, gives how many microseconds pass between pulses
from a given station in the chain. (In practice, the JAW delays in many, but not all,
chains are multiples of 100 microseconds.) LORAN chains are often referred to by this
designation (e.g., GRI 9960, the designation for the LORAN chain serving the Northeast
United States).

. Satcom (satellite)

The Satcom series was a family of communications satellites originally developed and
operated by RCA American Communications (RCA Americom). Satcom was one of the
early geostationary satellites; the first were the Syncom series, in 1964. The first
satellite, Satcom 1 was launched on December 13, 1975. The last satellite, Satcom K2,
was placed into orbit on November 27, 1985 and was de-orbited in February 2002.
Satcom was first superseded and then replaced by the GE series of satellites.

SATCOM stand for satellite communication and it is an artificial satellite that is used to
help telecommunication by reflecting or relaying signals back from space and back
down to Earth. It is the most powerful form of radio and it can cover far more distance
and wider areas than other radios. It can also communicate with words, pictures and
other forms of information.

The Satcom system passed to General Electric with its purchase of RCA in 1986. RCA
Americom became GE American Communications (GE Americom) and the satellite
construction division became GE Astro Space. GE Astro Space was sold to Martin
Marietta (now Lockheed Martin Space Systems) in 1993. In 2001 GE sold GE
Americom to SES Global, creating SES Americom.

Satcom 1 was used as the launching ground for many cable TV services including
Superstation TBS and the CBN cable network (now ABC Family). The Weather Channel
also was launched on Satcom 1 in 1982. A notable legal battle involved Ted Turner
suing RCA to get a Satcom 1 transponder in 1980 for the launch of CNN on June 1,
1980. CNN had been scheduled for a Satcom 3 transponder but that satellite had been
destroyed upon launch on December 7, 1979.

Satcom was the first satellite used by broadcast TV networks in the United States, like
ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute their programming to all of their local affiliate stations.
The reason that Satcom 1 was so widely used is that it had twice the communications
capacity of the competing Westar 1 (24 transponders as opposed to Westar 1’s 12),
which resulted in lower transponder usage costs.

The domestic communication satellite spurred the cable television industry to

unprecedented heights with the assistance of a company known as Home Box Office
(HBO). Cable television networks relay signals to ground-based stations using satellites.
This allowed cable television to enter into the suburban and metropolitan markets, thus
allowing HBO to accumulate 1.6 million subscribers by the end of 1977.

Radar altimeter

A radar altimeter, radio altimeter, low range radio altimeter (LRRA) or simply RA
measures altitude above the terrain presently beneath an aircraft or spacecraft. This
type of altimeter provides the distance between the plane and the ground directly below
it, as opposed to a barometric altimeter which provides the distance above a pre-
determined datum, usually sea level.

PRINCIPLE

As the name implies, radar (radio detection and ranging) is the underpinning principle of
the system. Radiowaves are transmitted towards the ground and the time it takes them
to be reflected back and return to the aircraft is timed. Because speed, distance and
time are all related to each other, the distance from the surface providing the reflection
can be calculated as the speed of the radiowave and the time it takes to travel are
known quantities.

Alternatively, Frequency Modulated Continuous-wave radar can be used. The greater

the frequency shift the further the distance travelled. This method can achieve much
better accuracy than the aforementioned for the same outlay and radar altimeters that
use frequency modulation are industry standard.

APPLICATIONS

Radar altimeters are frequently used by commercial aircraft for approach and landing,
especially in low-visibility conditions (see instrument flight rules, Autoland) and also
automatic landings, allowing the autopilot to know when to begin the flare maneuver.
In civil aviation applications, radio altimeters generally only give readings up to
2,500 feet (760 m) above ground level (AGL).

Radar altimeters normally work in the E-band, or Ka or S bands for more advanced sea-
level measurement. Radar altimeters also provide a reliable and accurate method of
measuring height above water, when flying long sea-tracks. These are critical for use
when operating to and from oil rigs.

Radar altimeters are also used in military aircraft flying extremely low over terrain to avoid radar
detection and targeting by anti-aircraft artillery or Surface-to-air Missiles. Radar altimeter
technology is also used in terrain-following radar allowing fighter aircraft to fly at very low
altitude

MLS

The Microwave Landing System (MLS) is an all-weather, precision landing system originally
intended to replace or supplement the Instrument Landing System (ILS). MLS has a number of
operational advantages, including a wide selection of channels to avoid interference with other
nearby airports, excellent performance in all weather, and a small "footprint" at the airports.

MLS employs 5GHz transmitters at the landing place which use passive electronically scanned
arrays to send scanning beams towards approaching aircraft. An aircraft that enters the
scanned volume uses a special receiver that calculates its position by measuring the arrival
times of the beams.

The US version of MLS was a joint development between the FAA, NASA, and the U.S.
Department of Defense, was designed to provide precision navigation guidance for exact
alignment and descent of aircraft on approach to a runway. It provides azimuth, elevation, and
distance, as well as "back azimuth", for navigating from an aborted landing or missed approach.
MLS channels were also used for short-range communications with airport controllers, allowing
long-distance frequencies to be handed over to other aircraft.

The system may be divided into five functions: Approach azimuth, Back azimuth,
Approach elevation, Range and Data communications.

APPROACH AZIMUTH GUIDANCE

The azimuth station transmits MLS angle and data on one of 200 channels within the frequency
range of 5031 to 5091 MHz and is normally located about 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the stop
end of the runway, but there is considerable flexibility in selecting sites. For example, for heliport
operations the azimuth transmitter can be collocated with the elevation transmitter.
ELEVATION GUIDANCE

The elevation station transmits signals on the same frequency as the azimuth station. A
single frequency is time-shared between angle and data functions and is normally
located about 400 feet from the side of the runway between runway threshold and the
touchdown zone.

RANGE GUIDANCE

The MLS Precision Distance Measuring Equipment (DME/P) functions the same as the
navigation DME, but there are some technical differences. The beacon transponder
operates in the frequency band 962 to 1105 MHz and responds to an aircraft
interrogator. The MLS DME/P accuracy is improved to be consistent with the accuracy
provided by the MLS azimuth and elevation stations.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The data transmission can include both the basic and auxiliary data words. All MLS
facilities transmit basic data. Where needed, auxiliary data can be transmitted. MLS
data are transmitted throughout the azimuth (and back azimuth when provided)
coverage sectors. Representative data include: Station identification, Exact locations of
azimuth, elevation and DME/P stations (for MLS receiver processing functions), Ground
equipment performance level; and DME/P channel and status.

LLTV
Low-light television (LLTV) work in the visible spectrum alone (or possibly near
infrared), but lend themselves to display on a screen rather than goggles or a telescope-
like sight. A number of aircraft, such as the the B-52, carry LLTV such as the AN/AVQ-
22. Obviously, an airplane will not fly indoors, so the problem of not having skylight
never occurs. Pilots of MH-53 PAVE LOW special operations helicopters often wear
NVG.

If the device has light detectors sensitive to different colors (e.g., red-blue-green) LLTV
gives color images, as opposed to the monochrome of passive NIR. It thus can provide
more information, as well as sharper views than a passive infrared viewer that uses
longer wavelengths.

ELINT
ELINT stands for Electronic Signals Intelligence, and refers to intelligence-gathering by
use of electronic sensors. Its primary focus lies on non-communications signals
intelligence. The Joint Chiefs of Staff define it as "Technical and geo-location
intelligence derived from foreign non-communications electromagnetic radiations
emanating from other than nuclear detonations or radioactive sources."

Signal identification is performed by analyzing the collected parameters of a specific

signal, and either matching it to known criteria, or recording it as a possible new emitter.
ELINT data are usually highly classified, and are protected as such.

The data gathered are typically pertinent to the electronics of an opponent's defence
network, especially the electronic parts such as radars, surface-to-air missile systems,
aircraft, etc. ELINT can be used to detect ships and aircraft by their radar and other
electromagnetic radiation; commanders have to make choices between not using radar
(EMCON), intermittently using it, or using it and expecting to avoid defences. ELINT can
be collected from ground stations near the opponent's territory, ships off their coast,
aircraft near or in their airspace, or by satellite.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The GPS system is the latest in technology that can be used by aircraft. It has many of
the attributes of LORAN. The complete system will contain up to 21 satellites in earth
orbit. The "clocks" and "positional data" is updated periodically to insure accuracy of
the data from the satellites. It sense 4 or more satellites in orbit. The system is
maintained by the US Department of Defence.

Like LORAN, it operates on a time-based methodology. Each satellite transmits coded

pulses indicating it’s position, and the precise time the pulses are sent. The GPS unit
listens to the satellite’s signal, and measures the time between the satellites
transmission and receipt of the signal. By the process of triangulation among the
several satellites being received, the unit computes the location of the GPS receiver.
Not only can Latitude and Longitude be calculated, but altitude as well.

Like LORAN, the GPS unit contains data about all the commercial airports in the US,
including runway lengths, directions, and location. There are numerous forms of
display among the various manufacturer. The units can range from “hand held” to
“panel mount” with altitude information input from an encoding altimeter. They can
warn of Class B, C, and Prohibited and Restricted airspace. They can calculate
direction and time to nearest suitable alternate airports in event of emergency.

The database in most units can be updated via a connection to a Personal Computer.
The maximum error is within 100 meters (0.05 Nm). Work is in progress to give the
GPS system adequate precision for instrument approaches.

No frequency tuning is required, as the frequency of the satellite transmissions are

already known by the receiver.

Work is currently underway to provide sufficient accuracy for use of GPS for
instrument approaches.