XASE18 – NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

UNIT-I AIR NAVIGATION

 Definitions
 Navigation is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft
or vehicle from one place to another. (velocity & position)
 Finding the way from one place to another is called NAVIGATION.
 Moving of an aircraft from one point to another is the most important part for
any kind of mission.
 The aircraft may pass over areas of land, water, and icecaps. It deal with the
conditions of overcast, undercast, day, night, altitude changes, turn points, and
air traffic requirements. To handle these conditions at high speeds more
effectively, the navigator uses a navigation system.
 Plotting on the paper or on the map a course towards a specific area of the
earth , in the passed, used to be a task assigned to a specialized member of the
aircraft's crew such a navigator.
 Such a task was quite complicated and not always accurate. Since it depended
on the observation, using simple maps and geometrical instruments for
calculations.
 Today, aerial navigation has become an art which nears to perfection.
 Aircraft fly over thousand of miles with such accuracy that could only be
imagined a few decades ago.
 Pilot needs
To Navigate a pilot needs to follow the following:

Starting point (point of departure)

Ending point ( final destination)

Direction of travel

Distance of travel

Aircraft speed

Aircraft fuel capacity

Aircraft weight & Balance information

With this information flight planning can commence and the proper method of navigation can be
put to use.
 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS
Aids to Navigation Visual Aids  Lighthouses
 Off Shore Fixed Lights
 Light Staffs
 Lighted Buoys
 Projectors
 Leading Lights
 Sector Lights

 Loran C
Radio Aids  Differential GPS
 Radio Beacon(MF, Micro Wave)

Audible Aids  Fog Signals

 Vessel Traffic Signal Stations

Others
 Tidal Stream Signals
PRE-FLIGHT PLAN CHART
 VHF (Omni directional Radio Range(VOR)
Definition:
The VHF omnidirectional radio range (VOR) is an omnidirectional (360° of azimuth)
range station which operates in the very high frequency (VHF) band of the radio spectrum
between 108 to 118MHz, sharing the band from 108 to 112MHz with the localizer
component of the Instrument Landing Systems (ILS).
The VOR is the basic short-range aid used to provide navigation guidance along airways,
air traffic services (ATS) routes, intermediate and final approach tracks, and specified
tracks.
The VHF radio signal includes the station's Morse code identifier and electromagnetic
signals that allows the airborne receiving equipment to calculate the magnetic bearing from
the station to the aircraft.
Bearing information may be used by aircraft to fly toward or away from the VOR
station at any azimuth selected by the pilot or to know the relative position of the
aircraft from the VOR station.
The line of position is called the "radial". Alternatively, the VOR radial may be combined
with magnetic heading from the aircraft compass to provide a bearing relative to the aircraft
axis, which can be used to home to the beacon.
VOR beacons are frequently used as way-points on conventional Airway  systems, or as
the basis for a Non-Precision Approach.  
 CONTINUE…

The 180° ambiguity in this indication is resolved by the provision of a “to/from” of the VOR indicator in
the aircraft avionics. Types: Terminal (terminal area- Near) & En-route (Route fixes, within low or high
airspace)
 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
 ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) is the radio signals in the low to medium frequency
band of 190 Khz. to 1750 Khz.
 It was widely used today. It has the major advantage over VOR navigation in the
reception is not limited to line of sight distance.
 The ADF signals follow the curvature of the earth.
 The maximum of distance is depend on the power of the beacon.
 The ADF can receives on both AM radio station and NDB (Non-Directional Beacon).
 Commercial AM radio stations broadcast on 540 to 1620 Khz. Non-Directional Beacon
operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535 Khz.
 ADF COMPONENTS
 ADF Receiver : Pilot can tune the station desired and to select the mode of operation. The
signal is received, amplified, and converted to audible voice or morse code transmission and
powers the bearing indicator.
 Control Box (Digital Readout Type) : Most modern aircraft has this type of control in the
cockpit . In this equipment the frequency tuned is displayed as digital readout. ADF
automatically determines bearing to selected station and it on the RMI.
 Antenna : The aircraft consist of two antennas. The two antennas are called LOOP antenna
and SENSE antenna. The ADF receives signals on both loop and sense antennas. The loop
antenna in common use today is a small flat antenna without moving parts. Within the antenna
are several coils spaced at various angles. The loop antenna sense the direction of the station
by the strength of the signal on each coil but cannot determine whether the bearing is TO or
FROM the station. The sense antenna provides this latter information.
 Bearing Indicator : Displays the bearing to station relative to the nose of the aircraft.
 Relative Bearing is the angle formed by the line drawn through the center line of the aircraft
and a line drawn from the aircraft to the radio station.
Magnetic Bearing is the angle formed by a line drawn from aircraft to the radio station and a
line drawn from the aircraft to magnetic north (Bearing to station).
 Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing
 Types of ADF indicator: Fixed compass, Rotatable compass, Single needle, Double needle
 ILS (Instrument Landing System)
  An electronic system that provides both horizontal and vertical guidance to a
specific runway, used to execute a precision instrument approach procedure.
 The ILS system provides both course and altitude guidance to a specific runway.
 Installed on each end of a runway.
 It was a accepted as a standard system by the ICAO, in1947.
 Uses radio signals and sometimes coupled with high- intensity lights.
 Enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological conditions

Main Components required by ILS:

1. A localizer provides horizontal (left/right) guidance along the extended centerline
of the runway.
2. A glide slope provides vertical (up/down) guidance toward the runway touchdown
point, usually at a 3° slope.
3. Marker beacons provide range information along the approach path.
4. Approach lights assist in the transition from instrument to visual flight.
 LOCALIZER ANTENNA
 The localizer (LOC) ground antenna array is located on the extended centerline of the
instrument runway of an airport, remote enough from the opposite (approach) end of the
runway to prevent it from being a collision hazard.
 This unit radiates a field pattern, which develops a course down the centerline of the
runway toward the middle markers (MMs) and outer markers (OMs), and a similar course
along the runway centerline in the opposite direction.
 These are called the front and back courses, respectively.
 The localizer provides course guidance, transmitted at 108.1 to 111.95 MHz.
 The localizer course is very narrow, normally 5°.
 This results in high needle sensitivity. With this course width, a full-scale deflection
shows when the aircraft is 2.5° to either side of the centerline.
 This sensitivity permits accurate orientation to the landing runway. 
 Localizer (IMAGE)

Left of On course Right of

course course
 Glide slope
 Glide slope (GS) describes the systems that generate, receive, and indicate the ground
facility radiation pattern.
 The glide path is the straight, sloped line the aircraft should fly in its descent from where
the glide slope intersects the altitude used for approaching the FAF, to the runway
touchdown zone.
 The glide-slope equipment is housed in a building approximately 750 to 1,250 feet down
the runway from the approach end of the runway, and between 400 and 600 feet to one
side of the centerline.
 The glide-slope projection angle is normally adjusted to 2.5° to 3.5° above horizontal, so
it intersects the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at about 1,400 feet above the runway
elevation. The glideslope operates on the UHF band from 329.15 MHz to 335 MHz.
 Glideslope (IMAGE)

Above On Below
glidepath glidepath glidepath
 MARKER BEACON
 Two VHF marker beacons, outer and middle, are normally used in the ILS system.
 A third beacon, the inner, is used where Category II operations are certified.
 A marker beacon may also be installed to indicate the FAF on the ILS back course.
 The OM is located on the localizer front course 4 to 7 miles from the airport to
indicate a position at which an aircraft, at the appropriate altitude on the localizer
course, will intercept the glide path.
 The MM is located approximately 3,500 feet from the landing threshold on the
centerline of the localizer front course at a position where the glide-slope
centerline is about 200 feet above the touchdown zone elevation.
 The inner marker (IM), where installed, is located on the front course between the
MM and the landing threshold. It indicates the point at which an aircraft is at the
decision height on the glide path during a Category II ILS approach.
Marker Beacon (IMAGE)
 COMPASS LOCATOR & Approach Lights
COMPASS LOCATOR:
Compass locators are low-powered NDBs and are received and indicated by the ADF
receiver.
When used in conjunction with an ILS front course, the compass locator facilities are
collocated with the outer and/or MM facilities.
The coding identification of the outer locator consists of the first two letters of the three-
letter identifier of the associated LOC.
For example, the outer locator at Dallas/Love Field (DAL) is identified as “DA.”
The middle locator at DAL is identified by the last two letters “AL.”
APPROACH LIGHTS:
Normal approach and letdown on the ILS is divided into two distinct stages: the instrument
approach stage using only radio guidance, and the visual stage, when visual contact with the
ground runway environment is necessary for accuracy and safety. 
 The ALS provides lights that will penetrate the atmosphere far enough from touchdown to
give directional, distance, and glide path information for safe visual transition.
Runway Lighting
 ILS Categories
There are several categories of ILS, each pertaining to how low the visibility
can be in order for the aircraft to land safely.
The categories are based on ceiling and visibility at the airport when the
airplane arrives.
Decision Height (DH) Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Category I is a DH of 200 feet and an RVR of 2400 feet.
Category II is a DH of 100 feet and an RVR of 1200 feet
Category IIIa is a DH of 100 feet and an RVR of 700 feet.
Category IIIb is a DH of 100 feet and an RVR of 150 feet.
Category IIIc is “0/0”, no visibility, and currently there are no Cat IIIc
airports in the US.

The airplane must be equipped and maintained for the various categories and
the pilots must also be trained and qualified to land in low visibility conditions.
 ILS Limitations
It only has 40 channels.

It only can serve one runway, causing congestion in bad weather.

It is subject to interference by powerful FM broadcasts.

It can be blocked by terrain

There are no special procedures available for slower aircraft, helicopters,

and Short Take Off and Landing (STOL) aircraft.
 Microwave Landing System (MLS)
 Replace ILS
 Advanced precision approach
 Overcome disadvantages of ILS
 Provide greater flexibility to its users
 MLS provides position information and various ground to air data
 It provides Azimuth angle measurement, an elevation measurement and a
range/distance measurement.
 Both lateral and vertical guidance may be displayed on conventional course
deviation indicators.
 Range information can be displayed by conventional DME indicators and also
incorporated into multipurpose displays.
• The system may be divided into five functions:
• 1. Approach azimuth 2. Back azimuth
• 3. Approach elevation 4. Range and Data communications
MLS (IMAGE)
 Advantages of MLS
Can be used to land aircraft on aircraft carriers.
Has 200 channels, instead of just 40.
Can handle curved and stepped approaches.
The glideslope is selectable, which can handle steeper approaches that
helicopters use.
Is not subject to interference from FM radio stations.
Is not subject to blockage from terrain.
MLS is at very few airports, however, this is because it is anticipated to be
replaced by GPS.
 MLS Azimuth Beam
 A narrow scanning beam from the MLS
sweeps back and forth beyond either side of
the runway.

 A new receiver was made to receive MLS,

called a Multi-Mode receiver and can handle
ILS, MLS and GPS.

 An arriving aircraft picks up the sweeps

called “TO” and “FRO”.

 A time difference between the TO and FRO

beams is used to compute where the runway
centerline is.

 A curved approach can be computed if the

aircraft is equipped with a Flight
Management System (FMS).
 Azimuth Transmitter

 One of the major components of an MLS

system is the azimuth transmitter.

 The azimuth signal is similar to the

localizer signal in ILS.

 The azimuth signal sweeps a wide area

beyond the left and right sides of the
runway allowing for many inbound
courses.

 The station is located about 400 feet

beyond the end of the runway as seen by
an arriving aircraft.
 Ground Controlled Approach (GCA)
 It is a type of service provided by air-traffic controllers whereby they guide aircraft to
a safe landing, including in adverse weather conditions, based on primary radar
images.

 Ground-controlled approach is the oldest air traffic technique to fully implement radar
to service a plane.

 The system was simple, direct, and worked well, even with previously untrained
pilots.

 It requires close communication between ground-based air traffic controllers and

pilots in approaching aircraft. 

 Only one pilot is guided at a time (If required max. 2)

 The controllers monitor dedicated precision approach radar (PAR) systems, to

determine the precise course and altitude of approaching aircraft.
 Continue…
 Most commonly a GCA uses information from either a Precision Approach
Radar (PAR, for precision approaches with vertical, glide path guidance) or
an Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR, providing a non-precision surveillance
radar approach with no glide path guidance). 

 The controllers are provide verbal instructions by radio to the pilots to guide
them to a landing.

 The instructions include both descent rate (glide path) and heading (course)
corrections necessary to follow the correct approach path.
Two tracks are displayed on the Precision Approach Radar (PAR) scope:
 Azimuth, showing the aircraft's position relative to the horizontal approach
path.
 Elevation, showing vertical position relative to the published glide path.
 Decision Height - (usually 100–400 ft above the runway touchdown zone) 
Example (IMAGES)
 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)
 DME is a measuring device using ground and air components to determine the slant
range of an aircraft from a point.
FUNCTIONS OF DME:
 Paired pulses at specific spacing (interrogation) are sent to a ground station from the
aircraft via the antenna
 The ground station (transponder) sends the same pulses back to the aircraft at a
different frequency
 Distance is measured in slant range (not horizontal range) 
 Slant range error minimized at lower altitudes
 Operates on the line-of-site principle
 Reliable up to 199 NM accuracy of better than 1/2 mile or 3% of the distance,
whichever is greater (more accurate)
 Due to the limited number of available frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is
required for certain military non-collocated VOR and TACAN facilities which serve the
same area but which may be separated by distances up to a few miles
 Can be identified every 30 seconds
 CONTINUE…
 Required above FL 240 when VOR navigation required (under IFR) as per FAR 91.205(e)
 GS values, if displayed, are only accurate when flying directly to / from the station
 960 MHz to 1215 MHz in accordance with ICAO Annex 10
 DME is required for aircraft operating at or above 24,000 feet.
 TACAN
 TACAN (TACtical Air Navigation System) is a fixed navigation system primarily used
by military, not civilian aircraft.

 It provides electronic information from a single ground station to aircraft during

approach/departure to/from a particular airfield or enroute to a distant airfield.

 Information transmitted by the station consists of angular bearing relative to magnetic

north, station identification, and distance information relative to that ground station.

 This all serves to determine the geographic position of the aircraft.

 The TACAN operates on a fixed channel in the 962 … 1213 MHz range.

 The TACAN periodically transmits its identification call sign in Morse code to enable
aircraft to determine which ground station they are using.

 Distance reply signals are transmitted upon request. TACAN receives an interrogation
code from an aircraft, delays it and retransmits the same code back to the aircraft.
 CONTINUE…
 The time, measured in microseconds, it takes for the code to reach the aircraft determines
the distance from the ground station.

 Approximately 100 aircraft can interrogate the TACAN at any given moment.

 The usable distance of the TACAN is usually 40 nautical miles (NM), but it can be
received up to 200 NM (Line-of-Sight) away.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TACAN
ADVANTAGES:
This system rejects bounced signals.
It has low power consumption.
It is resistant to the shock, vibration and EMI.
It is flawless in the areas having severest sites such as snow, humidity, rain, fungus, sand and dust
regions.
It has no moving parts and hence antennas do not require any maintenance.
It combines both bearing and distance capabilities together.
DISADVANTAGES:
Bearing error is about +/- 3.5 Degreee.
The system has distance slant error
TACAN system is limited to LOS due to UHF band of operation.
It is a stable military navigational aid and will remain in operation for long time.
In spite of GPS more accurate than TACAN.
 Doppler Navigations System
 Doppler navigation systems represent a great advance over earlier types of
aircraft navigation equipment.

 They are independent of surrounding conditions, perform with high accuracy

over land and sea anywhere in the world, and are independent of ground-based
navigation aids.

 A Doppler radar is a specialized radar that uses the Doppler effect  to produce

velocity data about objects at a distance.

 DNS is the self-contained radar system that utilizes the Doppler effect (Doppler
radar) for measuring the ground speed and drift angle of flying apparatus and
accomplishes its dead-reckoning navigation.

 The internationally authorized frequency band of 13.25 to 13.4 GHz has been
allocated for airborne Doppler navigation radar.
 Continue…
 It does this by bouncing a microwave signal off a desired target and analyzing
how the object's motion has altered the frequency of the returned signal.

 This variation gives direct and highly accurate measurements of the radial

component of a target's velocity relative to the radar. 

 Doppler radars are used in aviation sounding satellites,  meteorology radar

guns, radiology and healthcare etc.,

 It requires no external inputs or references from ground stations.

 The system can be used for long distance navigation over oceans and
underdeveloped areas of the globe

 Doppler navigation sensors are often integrated with over a/c navigations
systems
 DOPPLER EFFECT
Doppler Effect:

 The Doppler effect is named after christian Doppler (1803-1853) An

Austrian mathematician and physicist (Mid 1842s)

 His hypothesis was that the frequency of a wave apparently changes as its
source moves closer to, or further away from an observer

 This principle was initially proven to occur with sound; it was

subsequently found to occur with any wave type including electromagnetic
energy

 Example: Fastest trains, Racing cars etc.,

Doppler Effect in Train
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Doppler Navigation
ADVANTAGES:
Velocity and position outputs from the system are provided on a continuous basis.
It requires no ground navigation aids
Velocity outputs are very accurate
Navigation is possible over unaffected by weather (Although certain rainfall
conditions can affect the radar returns)
Navigation is possible over any part of the globe, including oceans and polar regions
The system does not require any preflight alignment.
DISADVANTAGES:
It is dependent upon a directional reference, e.g a gyro magnetic compass
It requires a vertical reference to compensate for aircraft attitude
Position calculations degrade with distance travelled
Short-Term velocity calculations can be inaccurate, e.g. when flying over the tidal
waters, the calculated a/c velocity will be in error depending on the tides direction and
speed
Military users have to be aware that the radar transmission is the effectively giving
away the location of the a/c
 Celestial Navigation
 Celestial Navigation is the art and science of finding your way by the sun, moon,
stars, and planets, and, in one form or another, is one of the oldest practices in
human history.
 It is possible to find your position anywhere on Earth based on the relative positions of
two or more celestial bodies.
 Celestial mechanics is a precise science which means that, for any heavenly body
and for any specific time, the body's exact position in the sky can be precisely pre-
calculated.
 With knowledge of that exact position and by using a sextant to measure the angle
between the horizon of the observer and the star, a Line of Position (LOP) can be
determined. 
 The intersection of two or more LOPs is enough to determine the observer’s
position in latitude and longitude.
 Since 1960s high precision stellar INS have been developed with automatic
daylight and night time star tracking capability.
 In 1970s, the manual celestial fixes were used on transoceanic commercial a/c
 Stellar is highly used for military a/c
 Its provide accurate position and attitude information.
 Example: SR-71 and U-2 reconnaissance a/c and B-2 & B-58 Bombers
 Evaluation process of CNS
 The nearly fixed positions of the stars, and the predictable motion of the earth.
 North star (Polaris)- used to estimate –Latitude position
 Horizon as a local – level reference at the observer’s position
 Estimate both Earth latitude and longitude positions
 Its accurate measure of time, year, month, day of month, and time of day along
star catalog that defines star locations.
 Possible to implement completely automatic – Integrated sextant, onboard
computer system (Star tracking and positioning), telescope, azimuth, zenith
etc.,
 Automatic- Useful to reduce instrument error, high precision, proper outputs
 Star sensor- Gimbal structure – 2 degrees of freedom- azimuth and elevation-
Star tracker.
 Aircraft- night time- Window location- size is more important
Diagram's
 Air Traffic Control (ATC)
What is ATC?
 Air Traffic Control (ATC) is service provided by ground based controllers who
direct the aircraft on the ground and through controlled air space and can provide
advisory services to a/c in non-controlled air space.
 To prevent collisions ATC enforces Traffic Separation Rules, which ensure each
aircraft Maintains a Minimum amount of empty space around it all times.
 In many countries, ATC provides services to all private, military and commercial
operating within its Air space.
 Many a/c also have Collision avoidance systems, which provide additional safety
pilots when other a/c get close.
 The pilot in command is the final authority for the safe operation of a/c and in an
emergency he may deviate from ATC instructions to maintain safe operation of a/c.
 In 1921, Croydon Airport, London was the first airport in the world to introduce
ATC.
 The first ATC tower regulating all activities of a/c at a specific airport, opened in
Cleveland 1930
 Approach/departure control facilities were created after adoption of RADAR in the
1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports.
 ATC Operations linked with…
 Airport control- Separation and efficient movement of a/c, and also vehicles
operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself.
 Ground Control- Is responsible for the airport movement areas, as well as
areas not released to the airlines or other users. This is generally include
taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas and some transitional aprons.
 Local Control/Air control- If local control detects any unsafe condition, a
landing a/c may be told to “go- around” and be re-sequenced into the landing
pattern by the approach or terminal area controller. (Get approval from local
control to cross an active runway with any a/c or vehicle)
 Approach and Terminal Control- Responsible for providing all ATC services
within their airspace
i. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and Over- Flights
ii. Its responsible for ensuring a/c are at an appropriate altitude when they are
handed off, and the a/c arrive at a suitable rate for landing.
AIRPORT VIEW FROM ATC
 Problems faced by ATC
Two major problems:

 Traffic- Arrivals of flights, Departures, Hopping a/c, Layovers, Availability of

aero bridges, Vacant runways.

 Weather- Heavy Rains, Low visibility of runway and a/c, Thunderstorms,

Turbulence, Crosswinds at airport, Heavy snow fall
 GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)

Most significant recent advance in navigation

and positioning technology. In the past, the
stars were used for navigation. Today's world
requires greater accuracy in real-time.  The
constellation of artificial stars provided by
GPS do this.
GPS uses satellites and ground equipment to
determine position and time anywhere on
Earth. 

User Segment

Control Segment

Space Segment
 SMALL HISTORY OF GPS
 The GPS project was developed in the year of 1973.

 The Global Positioning System, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning
System, was initiated as a joint civil/military technical program in 1973.

 It became fully operational in 1995.

 GPS was invented by two American engineers Ivan Alexander, Bradford Parkinson and an
American Scientist Roger L. Easton with the co-operation of US Department of Défense
(DoD).

 By creating a system that overcame the limitations of many existing navigation systems,
GPS became attractive to a broad spectrum of users worldwide.

 The Global Positioning System has been successful in virtually all navigation and timing
applications, and because its capabilities are accessible using small, inexpensive
equipment, GPS is being used in a wide variety of applications across the globe.
 How the system works?

Space Segment
24+ Satellites
The Current
Ephemeris is
Transmitted to
Users

Monitor Stations End

User

GPS Control
 User Segment & SPACE SEGMENT
 USER SEGMENT:
 Dual Use System Since 1985 (civil & military)
 Civilian community was quick to take advantage of the system
1. Hundreds of receivers on the market
2. 3 billion in sales, double in 2 years
3. 95% of current users
 DoD/DoT Executive Board sets GPS policy
 SPACE SEGMENT:
1. 24+ satellites
a) 6 planes with 55° inclination
b) Each plane has 4-5 satellites
c) Broadcasting position and time info on 2 frequencies
d) Constellation has spares
e) Operating on Solar Energy
f) Radio signal
g) Signals travels at speed of light 3*10^8 m/sec.
 CONTINUE…
2. Very high orbit
1) 20,200 km
2) 1 revolution in approximately 12 hrs.
3) Travel approx. 7,000mph
4) Two revolution around earth in one day
3. Considerations
1) Accuracy
2) Survivability
3) Coverage
 Control Segment

Monitor and Control

Colorado
Springs

Ascension Kwajalein
Hawaii
Islands
Diego
Garcia

Master Control Station

Monitor Station
Ground Antenna
 Sources of Error

 Clock Error
 Differences between satellite clock
and receiver clock
 Ionosphere Delays
 Delay of GPS signals as they pass
through the layer of charged ions
and free electrons known as the
ionosphere.
 Multipath Error
 Caused by local reflections of the
GPS signal that mix with the desired
signal

60
 Common Uses for GPS

 Land, Sea and Air Navigation and

Tracking

 Surveying/ Mapping

 Military Applications

 Recreational Uses

61
 Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
 The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), also known as the Airborne
Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) is an airborne system designed to increase cockpit
awareness of nearby aircraft and service as a last defense against mid-air collisions.

 The system monitors airspace around an aircraft for other transponder equipped aircraft that
may present a collision threat.

 TCAS operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide pilots with guidance

on how to avoid a potential collision.

 Aircraft with Mode C transponders will respond to interrogations with altitude information

 Aircraft with Mode S transponders will respond to interrogations with address information

 If another aircraft is within range, it will respond to the interrogation, the first aircraft will
measure the time difference to compute the range of the other aircraft.

 Because TCAS operates aircraft-to-aircraft, it is not dependent on ground stations.

 CONTINUE…

The TCAS system issues 2 types of alerts:

a TA which is a threat advisory that alerts the pilot that another aircraft is cl se enough to
be a potential threat
a RA is a resolution advisory that means the other aircraft IS a threat (30 seconds to a
possible collision) and issues commands to evade a collision.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TCAS
ADVANTAGES:
All threats taken into account
Detection of all transponding aircraft, including those which are not displayed on the air
traffic’s controllers screen
Independent system, which acts as a last resort measure to avoid mid-air collision when
other safety precautions fail.
TCAS reduce the risk of mid-air-collision.
DISADVANTAGES:
TCAS can not display aircraft without TCAS antenna/transponder
TCAS Warnings
 ATC integrated RADAR

 The Transportable ATC system consists of a Control Centre integrated with a

radar system in order to combine the performance of a fixed system with the
distinctive features (easy deployment and set-up) of a mobile system.
 Useful as a gap filler or in case of maintenance, the system can manage the
Approach and Terminal Area along with emergency scenarios.
 Currently, systems in the ATC domain are moving towards a global two-way
interoperability concept for Civil and Military traffic, in order to improve
system efficiency, guaranteeing the appropriate level of security and safety in
each scenario at the same time.
 The ATC system can be used as gap filler in joint operations in harsh
environments when no fixed ATC infrastructure is available.
 It is based on a combination of a state-of-the-art Control Centre and a Primary
and Secondary Surveillance Radar systems.
 CONTINUE…
The system can face many critical situations, e.g. :
Crisis management in case of natural disasters to support Civil Protection first aid
activities
Service Continuity in case of fault, upgrade or maintenance situation for fixed systems
(entire or partial)
Special events (e.g. Olympic games, high visibility events)
Gap Filler or Inter-forces Operations in critical and not outfitted environments
Low and very low altitude Air Defence, coastal surveillance and border protection
applications, integrated within Air and Coastal Defence networks.
Based on a long standing expertise in ATC and surveillance radars, as well as on system
integration, the ATC Transportable system stands out for the following key points:
High level of modularity and flexibility to follow any operational needs and site-specific
requirements
High versatility based on a fast set up ensuring a sustainable solution minimising
environmental impact
 Improvement of situational awareness in case of emergency to support decision making
processes
 CONTINUE…
 Fast Installation without use of external tools
 NBC Protection inside shelters
 Low Cost Solution supporting civil-military coordination within specific operational
scenarios
 Integration Method
Coherent Integration Non-Coherent Integration

Pre-detection Integration Post-detection Integration

Phase information of the echo signal is Detector destroys phase information.

preserved Less efficient than pre-detection.

If n pulse are integrated, the SNR of If n pulse are integrated, the SNR of
integrated signal is SNR. integrated signal is lesser than SNR.

Difficult to implement Easy to implement

 Integration Efficiency
 The integration efficiency may be defined as

Ei(n) – Integration efficiency,

SNR(1) – Single pulse SNR required to produce a specific Pd if there is no
integration,
SNR(n) – Single pulse SNR required to produce a specific Pd if n pulses
are integrated perfectly.
 The improvement in SNR if n pulses are integrated, (post detection) is nE i(n)
 Ii(n) = nEi(n) is called as Integration improvement factor, or the equivalent
number of pulses integrated (neq).
 In Predetection, (neq) = n
 In postdetection (neq) < n.
XASE18 – NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
UNIT-II INSTRUMENTS
 Units of measurement of distances and height

 Feet for height

 Knots for airspeed (Nautical Miles/Hour)

 Some old airplanes still use Miles/Hour (MPH)

 Nautical Miles or feet for distance

 Statue Miles or feet for weather (visibility and RVR)

 Mach for high speed flight

 Inches of Mercury for altimeter settings

 Pounds/square inch for pressure

 Pounds for the fuel quantity on the aircraft (read by the fuel gauges)

 Pounds/hour for fuel flow

 Gallons to order/purchase fuel

 CONTINUE…
These are pretty standard in most of the Americas (North/Central/South), but in certain
parts of the world some of the units are different:

Meters for height

Kilometers or meters for distance and weather

HectoPascals (hPa/Millibars) for altimeter settings

Kilograms for fuel quantity on the aircraft

Kilograms/hour for fuel flow

Liters to order/purchase fuel

 Functions of Navigational Instruments
 The instruments are used for surveying surroundings, orienting present location,
measuring distance on a chart or map, and determining the best route to a given
destination.
 The intended voyage shall be planned in advance taking into consideration all
pertinent information and any course laid down shall be checked before the voyage
commences.
 During the watch the course steered, position and speed shall be checked at
sufficiently frequent intervals, using any available navigational aids
 Containing maps, which may be displayed in human readable format via text or in a
graphical format
 Determining a vehicle or vessel's location via sensors, maps, or information from
external sources
 Providing suggested directions to a human in charge of a vehicle or vessel via text or
speech
 Providing directions directly to an autonomous vehicle such as a robotic probe or
guided missile
 Providing information on nearby vehicles or vessels, or other hazards or obstacles
 Providing information on traffic conditions and suggesting alternative directions
 Simultaneous localization and mapping
 Types of Navigation Instruments (In General)
1. Gyro Compass
2. RADAR
3. Magnetic Compass
4. Azimuth Circle
5. Auto Pilot
6. Telescopic Alidade (Bearing of an object)
7. Stadimeter (Optical Range finder)
8. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)
9. ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aid Displays)
10. Echo Sounder
11. Fish Finder
12. ECDIS (The Electronic Chart Display and Information System)
13. The ADF selector
14. AIS (Automatic Identification System)
15. Rudder Angle Indicator
16. Voyage Data Recorder
 Continue..
18. GPS

19. Turn and Bank Indicator

20. Speed and Distance Indicator

21. Rate of climb indicator

22. Directional Gyro

23. Mach Meter

24. Fluxgate Compass ADI

25. RMI

26. Altimeter and others

 Types of Airspeed
 Speed is the rate of change of position, or distance covered per unit of time.
 Airspeed gets input from Pitot tube and static air source.
 It is expressed in linear units per hour. As there are three main linear units,
there are three main expressions of speed:
 ** Knots (kts) - nautical miles per hour
 ** Miles per hour (mph)
 ** Kilometres per hour (kph)
 Indicated—Airspeed shown on the airspeed indicator (This airspeed is
uncorrected for all errors associated with airspeed measurement)
 Calibrated—Indicated airspeed corrected for installation error and instrument
error
 Equivalent—Speed at sea level – Corrected for compressibility effect.
 True—Calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and temperature or density.
 Groundspeed—Airplane’s actual speed over the ground- corrected for wind.
 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
 An airspeed indicator is an instrument in the cockpit that displays an aircraft’s
airspeed
 Determines airspeed by measuring the difference between dynamic pressure
and static pressure
 Gets its data from a system called the pitot-static system
 Pitot tube captures dynamic as well as static pressure
 Pitot tube’s pressure chamber sends the total pressure to the airspeed indicator
 Static port sends static pressure to the airspeed indicator
 When the dynamic pressure changes, airspeed indicator shows either increase
or decrease
Diagram
 Airspeed Indicator Markings
 Airspeed indicator has color-coded markings
 White arc— Aircraft’s operating range for approaches and landings
 Green arc—Aircraft’s normal operating range
 Yellow arc—Range in which a pilot should be cautious
 Red line—Pilot should never exceed this speed
 Variometer/VVI/VSI/Rate of climb indicator
 A vertical velocity Indicator (VVI) is one of the flight instruments in an aircraft used to
inform the pilot of the near instantaneous (rather than averaged) rate of decent or climb.
 It can be calibrated in knots, feet per minute (101.333 ft/min = 1 kn) or meter per second,
depending on country and type od Aircraft.
 The area surrounding the diaphragm is vented to the static port through a calibrated leak
(which also may be known as a “restricted diffuser).
 When the aircraft begins to increase altitude, the diaphragm will begin to contract at a
rate faster than that of the calibrated leak, causing the needle to show a positive vertical
speed.
 The reverse of this situation is true when an aircraft is descending
 The calibrated leak varies from model to model but the average time for the diaphragm to
equalize pressure is between 6 to 9 seconds.
Diagram
 Altimeter
 The altimeter is an instrument that measures the height of an aircraft above a given
pressure level.
 Since the altimeter is the only instrument that is capable of indicating altitude, this is one
of the most vital instruments installed in the aircraft.
 The pressure altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the pressure of the
atmosphere at the level where the altimeter is located, and presents an altitude indication
in feet.
 The altimeter uses static pressure as its source of operation.
 Air is denser at sea level than aloft—as altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases.
 This difference in pressure at various levels causes the altimeter to indicate changes in
altitude.
 Adjustments for nonstandard pressures are accomplished by setting the corrected pressure
into a barometric scale located on the face of the altimeter.
DIAGRAM
 Effects of Nonstandard Pressure
 If altimeters could not be adjusted for nonstandard pressure, a hazardous situation could
occur.

 For example, if an aircraft is flown from a high pressure area to a low pressure area
without adjusting the altimeter, a constant altitude will be displayed, but the actual height
of the aircraft above the ground would be lower then the indicated altitude.
 Magnetic Compass
 The magnetic compass was one of the first flight instruments developed.
 A compass is simple instrument containing a freely suspended magnetic
element.
 A compass is a simple magnetic bar suspended in fluid
 It floats in a hardened steel pivot in its center that rides inside a special
spring-loaded hard glass jewel cup
 The magnetic compass is a reliable, self-contained unit requiring no external
power source.
 It is extremely useful as a standby or emergency instrument
 A graduated scale called a card is wrapped around the float and viewed
through a glass window with a lubber line across it
 The card is marked with letters representing the cardinal directions, north,
east, south, and west, and a number for each 30° between these letters
 -There are long and short graduation marks between the letters and numbers,
with each long mark representing 10° and each short mark representing 5°
 Continue…
Magnetism:
 The Earth is a huge magnet with lines of flux which make its magnetic field
 These lines extend from the poles around the Earth
Characteristics:
 Any magnet that is free to rotate (such as an aircraft's magnetic compass) will
align with them
 An electrical current is induced into any conductor that cuts across them
 A magnet, typically made of iron, attracts and holds lines of flux
 Magnets have a north and a south pole
 Opposite poles attract, while similar poles repel
Continue…
 Magnetic Compass Construction
 The float and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its center that rides
inside a special, spring-loaded, hard-glass jewel cup
 An aircraft magnetic compass has two small magnets attached to a metal float
sealed inside a bowl of clear compass fluid.
 The compass housing is entirely full of compass fluid, similar to kerosene, to
avoid freezing at lower temperatures/higher altitudes
 The buoyancy of the float takes most of the weight off the pivot, and the fluid
damps the oscillation of the float and card
 This jewel-and-pivot type mounting allows the float freedom to rotate and tilt up
to approximately 18° angle of bank
 At steeper bank angles, the compass indications are erratic and unpredictable
 To prevent damage or leakage when the fluid expands and contracts with
temperature changes, the rear of the compass case is sealed with a flexible
diaphragm or with a metal bellows in some compasses
 Operations
 The magnets align with the Earth's magnetic field and the pilot reads the
direction on the scale opposite the lubber line
 When the pilot is flying north as the compass shows, east is to the pilot's right,
but on the card "33", which represents 330° (west of north), is to the right of
north
 The reason for this apparent backward graduation is that the card remains
stationary, and the compass housing and the pilot turn around it, always viewing
the card from its backside
 A compensator assembly mounted on the top or bottom of the compass allows
an aviation maintenance technician (AMT) to create a magnetic field inside the
compass housing that cancels the influence of local outside magnetic fields
 This is done to correct for deviation error
 The compensator assembly has two shafts whose ends have screwdriver slots
accessible from the front of the compass
 Each shaft rotates one or two small compensating magnets
 The end of one shaft is marked E-W and its magnets affect the compass when
the aircraft is pointed east or west
 The other shaft is marked N-S and its magnets affect the compass when the
aircraft is pointed north or south
 Compass Errors
 The magnetic compass is the simplest instrument in the panel, but it is
subject to a number of errors that must be considered
 These errors can be remembered with the acronym "VD-MONA"
 Variation
 Deviation
 Magnetic Dip
 Oscillation
 Northerly Turning Error (part of magnetic dip)
 Acceleration/Deceleration Errors (part of magnetic dip)
 Flux gate Compass System
 The basic fluxgate compass is a simple electromagnetic device that employs
two or more small coils of wire around a core of highly permeable magnetic
material, to directly sense the direction of the horizontal component of
the Earth's magnetic field.
 The advantages of this mechanism over a magnetic compass are that the
reading is in electronic form and can be digitized and transmitted easily,
displayed remotely, and used by an electronic autopilot for course correction.
 A fluxgate compass is a very important and unique tool in marine/Aircraft
navigation as it does not operate automatically like other magnetic compasses. 
 Technically a fluxgate compass is an electromagnetic compass which solves
the purpose of a conventional compass.
 The fluxgate compass is used in ships/Aircraft mainly for the purpose of
steering.
 The difference between a magnetic compass and an electronic compass is that
in the former variety there is a pointer that constantly moves indicating the
direction. 
 Continue…
 An electronic compass there are no pointers that specify the direction.
 Electric currents that pass through coils of wire that are kept inside the
compass indicate the geographic direction through signals that are displayed
digitally.
Construction:
 There are two coils of wire that are located perpendicular to each other around
a permeable magnetic material. When electric current is passed through the
coils the core material works an electromagnet and senses the direction of the
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. This completely eradicates
the problem caused due to the interference of the magnetic north is completely
avoided.
 Turn and Bank Indicator
 Turn and Bank indicator, aircraft instrument containing one indicator to show
turning, or rotation about the vertical axis, and another to show banking, or
rotation about the longitudinal axis.
 The two indicators are essentially separate instruments, but they are
customarily placed together.
 The bank indicator is the simpler of the two and consists of a curved glass
tube filled with a damping liquid in which a small steel ball rolls.
 When the craft is horizontal, the ball is located in the lowest part of the tube;
as the craft banks, gravity holds the ball at the lowest point as the tube rotates
from side to side.
 The tube can be calibrated to show the angle of banking.
 The turn indicator contains a gyroscope that develops a torque when the craft
rotates.
 This torque controls a pointer that indicates to the pilot in degrees per unit of
time the rate at which the craft is turning.
DIAGRAM
 Directional Gyro
 Directional gyroscope known as directional gyro
 The equipment directional gyro is used to determine direction of aircraft.
 This helps pilot in navigation to fly aircraft above the earth safely.
 It is also known as heading indicator.
 It is sometimes referred to by its older names, the directional gyro or DG, and also direction
indicator or DI.
 It looks like compass but it does not operate based on magnetic field of the earth.
 Hence it is more accurate compare to compass.
 The gyroscopic heading indicator is unaffected by dip and acceleration errors.
 DG’s are used because they are not effected by magnetic disturbances
 The heading indicator has no direction-seeking qualities of its own, it must be set to agree with the
magnetic compass

 Following are the uses of directional gyro. 

• It shows aircraft heading. 
• It uses magnetic compass information. 
• Pilot sets magnetic compass heading into the Directional gyro.
 Continue..
 The heading indicator works using a gyroscope, tied by an erection mechanism
to the aircraft horizontal, i.e. the plane defined by the longitudinal and the
lateral axis of the aircraft. 
 The gyroscope is spun either electrically, or using filtered air from a vacuum
pump
 The errors caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro pump
 The Directional Gyroscope (DG) creates "rigidity in space". This will create
stable heading reference. 
 Bearing friction will cause directional gyro to precess. 
 Precession cause heading errors. 
 Adjustment knob-Pilot can reset DG to magnetic compass heading. 
 Pneumatic vacuum pump creates vacuum downstream from DG Gyro. This
will
 pull air past DG gyro vanes which spins the gyro. 
 Pneumatic vacuum pump connected to engine crankshaft will turn it.
 Consecutively pump creates vacuum.
DIAGRAM…
 Mach Meter
 A Machmeter is an aircraft pitot-static system flight instrument.
  It shows the ratio of the true airspeed to the speed of sound
 a dimensionless quantity called Mach number. 
 This is shown on a Machmeter as a decimal fraction. 
 An aircraft flying at the speed of sound is flying at a Mach number of one,
expressed as Mach 1.
Operations:
 Modern electronic Machmeters use information from an air data computer
system which makes calculations using inputs from a pitot-static system.
 Some older mechanical Machmeters use an altitude aneroid and
an airspeed capsule which together convert pitot-static pressure into Mach
number.
 The Machmeter suffers from instrument and position errors.
Diagram
 Radio Magnetic Indicator
 To save space in the instrument panel and to consolidate related information
into one easy to use location, the radio magnetic indicator (RMI) has been
developed. 
 It is widely used. 
 The RMI combines indications from a magnetic compass, VOR, and ADF
into one instrument.
 Some RMIs have two needles and others have only one needle.
 The RMI can be used for VOR navigation as well as ADF navigation. 
 Most single-needle RMIs have a switch that allows the pilot to select either an
ADF or VOR station to which the needle can point.
 The ADF needle is yellow and the VOR needle is green.
 The azimuth card of the RMI is rotated by a remotely located flux gate
compass. 
 Thus, the magnetic heading of the aircraft is always indicated. 
 The lubber line is usually a marker or triangle at the top of the instrument
dial. 
 Continue…
 The VOR receiver drives the solid pointer to indicate the magnetic direction TO
a tuned VOR station. 
 When the ADF is tuned to an NDB, the double, or hollow pointer, indicates the
magnetic bearing to the NDB.
 Pilot workload is reduced
 The pointers indicate where the VOR and ADF transmission stations are located
in relationship to where the aircraft is currently positioned.
 Push buttons allow conversion of either pointer to either ADF or VOR for
navigation involving two of one type of station and none of the other.
 Horizontal Situation Indicator
 The HSI is a combination of two instruments: the heading indicator and the
VOR.
 By bringing these two instruments together you are able to get a much clearer
picture in a quicker amount of time.
 This instrument is particularly handy when flying on instruments or under an
IFR flight plan.
 The HSI provides a basic horizontal view of the aircraft's navigation picture. 
 The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) was designed to eliminate some of the
work of using very-high-frequency omnidirectional range (VOR) navigation
and instrument landing systems (ILS)
 HSIs can vary in appearance and operation by brand.
 Fundamentally, however, all HSIs indicate an aircraft’s horizontal position
relative to a selected VOR or ILS.
 The HSI works by combining a VOR/DME receiver and an heading indicator
(electrically).
  The heading indicator shows the aircraft’s magnetic heading and its green
pointer shows the course the pilot has selected.
 Continue..
 The small airplane in the center of the HSI always points straight ahead,
indicating the direction the aircraft is traveling. 
 The To/From indicator shows that the aircraft is flying toward the station.
 A course deviation indicator (CDI) shows the position of the selected radial
relative to the aircraft’s current position.
 A dotted scale indicates the amount of deviation from course. (number of
degrees of deflection)
 The HSI also has an ADF for cross-reference, and includes a glide slope
indicator and scale for ILS approaches. 
 HSI makes the job easier, and that should mean a safer flight.
 HSI
1.Name of current station
2.DME range to station
3.Course deviation indicator (CDI)
4.Selected course indicator
5.Heading bug
6.Groundspeed readout
7.To/From indicator
8.Glide slope indicator
9.ADF needle (tail end)
10.Course setting
11.Course selector knob
12.NAV/GPS selector switch
13.Heading bug knob
14.ADF indicator