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Irrigation Reference Manual (Peace Corps, 1994)
Chapter 3 - Developing water sources
3.6 Wells
(introduction...)
3.6.1. Methods of drilling: Percussion drilling
3.6.2 Methods of drilling: Hand auger rig
3.6.3 Other drilling equipment
3.6.4 Hand dug wells

(introduction...)

A well is a structure that consists of an open hole that penetrates into the water bearing strata
below the surface of the ground. The walls of the well are kept open by a liner or casing,
which is typically made of plastic, metal, or rock. Holes in this casing (the so-called screened
portion) permit water to enter the well from which it is extracted. Wells may be dug by hand,
drilled mechanically with hand or machine tools, or the casing may be driven into the ground,
creating the hole as it penetrates. The hydraulics, hydrogeology, and methods of well drilling
are generally too complex and extensive to be treated in this manual. The irrigation specialist
who must know more about wells should review References 5, 13, and 15. In this manual,
some basic concepts of well drilling are discussed. Details are presented on the construction
of only driven wells and hand drilled wells. These wells are low cost and, in areas where
water tables are within 30 feet (10 meters) of the surface, will generally provide sufficient
water for irrigating garden-sized farm plots.

3.6.1. Methods of drilling: Percussion drilling

In percussion drilling, a heavy bit is repeatedly lifted and dropped, progressively boring
through the earth. In rotary drilling, the drilling results from the continuous scraping of the bit
under constant pressure. The hole is cleaned out as the drilling progresses, either with a
drilling fluid (mud), with high velocity air or, in auger drilling, by the mechanical lifting of
the auger.

Cable tool drilling is one of the most common methods of percussion drilling. It is usually
done by commercial well drillers with motorized equipment. In some countries, however,
manual means of raising and lowering the bit have been developed.

In cable tool drilling, a chisel faced bit is repeatedly raised and dropped. The bit breaks and
pulverizes the materials. A slurry of water and cuttings, which is formed by the drilling
action, is periodically removed by a bailer. Water is continually added to the borehole as
needed. With manual methods, the 40 to 80 kg drill is lifted and dropped through a tripod and
pulley arrangement operated by four to six people.

Wells may often be constructed by communities or individuals, without the need for
commercial drillers. The three types of wells commonly encountered, which can be
constructed relatively inexpensively, are the driven wells, hand augered wells, and hand dug
wells. The description of driven and hand auger techniques that follows is extracted from
"Appropriate Well-Drilling Technologies" by the National Water Well Association (Ref. 15).
Sketches of other types of drilling equipment useful in drilling small capacity irrigation wells
are included in Figures 3.38 through 3.44.

EQUIPMENT AND METHOD - Driven Wells

Whenever the water table lies at shallow depths (23 feet or 7 meters), a well screen equipped
with a drive point may be driven through the overlying soil and into the water-bearing
formation. This method employs a drive hammer. Three basic types of drive hammers are in
common use: (1) the hand driver, consisting of a sliding weight and an attached pipe that fits
over the riser pipe (Figure 3.38), (2) an internal driving bar, which strikes directly upon the
driving point (Figure 3.38), or (3) a sliding weight and drive stem or guide that attaches to the
uppermost riser pipe coupling (Figure 3.39).

The basic equipment required for a driving rig ranges from a 4-foot (1.2 meter) section of
oversized pipe (used as a sliding hand driver) to more elaborate systems requiring a tripod,
pulley, rope, and driving bar or drive stem and sliding hammer. The driving rig will also
require two or three pipe wrenches and a shallow well hand pump to develop and remove soil
debris from the well screen.

Geological Applications
Driven wells are generally one of the most efficient methods of drilling whenever the water
table is within 23 feet (7 meters) of the surface and the soil consists principally of sand with
minor quantities of silt and clay. Under ideal soil conditions, a small diameter well point may
be driven to a depth of 25 feet (7.6 meters) in 15 minutes. In heavy soils such as stiff clay, or
soils that contain numerous boulders, drilling with an auger or percussion bit is faster than
driving with a well point.

Hand-driven well points of 1 1/4 to 2 inches (3 to 5 centimeters) in diameter can be driven up

to 25 feet (7.6 meters). If heavy, 100-300 lb. (45 to 135 kg) drive hammer assemblies are
used, 4-inch (10 centimeters) well points and casings can be driven to depths of 33 to 49 feet
(10 to 15 meters).

Figure 3.38 Methods for Driving Well Points (Ref. 15) (a) Hand Driver
Figure 3.38 Methods for Driving Well Points (Ref. 15) (b) Internal Rod Driver

These assemblies provide an effective means for driving both well screens and casings.
Figure 3.39 Heavy Duty Sliding Hammer and Drive Stem Assemblies (Ref. 15) (a)
Internal guide driver hammer & Drive stem with sliding hammer
Figure 3.39 Heavy Duty Sliding Hammer and Drive Stem Assemblies (Ref. 15) (b)
Cross-section of sliding hammer and drive stem
Figure 3.40 Hand Auger Drilling (Ref. 15)

Figure 3.41 Typical Hand Augers and Equipment (Ref. 15) (a) Sand Augers for Non-
Cohesive Soils

Figure 3.41 Typical Hand Augers and Equipment (Ref. 15) Helical Auger
Figure 3.41 Typical Hand Augers and Equipment (Ref. 15) (b) Cohesive Soil Augers

Figure 3.41 Typical Hand Augers and Equipment (Ref. 15) Bucket Auger
Figure 3.41 Typical Hand Augers and Equipment (Ref. 15) Typical Drill Rod
Connection

Figure 3.41 Typical Hand Augers and Equipment (Ref. 15) Hard-Wood Rod Handle

Figure 3.42 Rod or auger Fork Locally Fabricated From 1/4" (6 mm) Steel Plato (Ret.
15)
- When placed around a drill rod or auger, the fork acts as a support for the drilling tools. In
this manner, rods and augers may be added or removed from the drill string with little danger
of dropping sections down the bore hole.
Figure 3.43 Manual Jetting Equipment (Ref. 15)

Figure 3.44 Hydra-Drill (Ref. 15)

- One person may operate this equipment to depths of 50 feet (15 m). Greater depths may be
attained when the engine and drill rod are suspended from a tripod.

Labor Requirements

Given the proper soil and water table conditions, small diameter driven wells may be
completed by one to two unskilled persons. Large diameter driven wells require a heavy-duty
drive hammer and a tripod assembly. The crew necessary for operation of this equipment
consists of six people for manual methods, and two or three for a motorized cathead system.
Fabrication Skills

All well point driving equipment can be constructed easily from locally available scrap pipe
or steel bars and standard pipe fittings. The fabrication of simple drive hammers requires
basic metal working and blacksmith abilities. Construction of heavy-duty drive hammers,
which weigh in excess of 50 lbs. (22.5 kg), will require the aid of an electric arc welder or
basic metal casting techniques.

Cost of Equipment

Excluding the initial cost of a well screen, drive point, and riser pipe, a locally constructed
hand drive system that requires no tripod will be relatively inexpensive. Heavy-duty systems
may cost more for the fabrication of both drive hammer and drive stem, depending on the
type of tripod used. If a driving rig incorporates a motorized cathead, the system price could
increase again. A hub-driven cathead would cost considerably less but would require a
support vehicle.

3.6.2 Methods of drilling: Hand auger rig

EQUIPMENT AND METHOD - Hand auger Rig

The hand auger method of drilling is one of the oldest and most basic forms of low-cost labor
intensive well drilling. In hand augering, the drilling action is applied by manually rotating a
cutting blade or auger (Figure 3.40). AS drilling progresses, the auger fills with soil and must
be periodically lifted to the surface and emptied. Drilling by this method is fairly rapid for the
first 20 feet (6 m). Thereafter, the number of drill rod sections that must be coupled and
uncoupled each time the auger is brought to the surface adds considerably to the drilling time.

The basic components of a hand auger rig are:

 support tripod,
 drill rod, fork, and auger handle,
 auger,
 rope and pulley,
 sand bailer,
 temporary casing to case hole through caving soil, and
 drill bit to break up hard soil and boulders.

Most light duty hand auger drilling systems utilize an inexpensive wood or pipe tripod.

Drill rods are constructed from locally available 3/4 inch (2 centimeters) galvanized or black
iron pipe. All connections between drill rods and augers are of box and pin-type construction
(Figure 3.41). Joining pins for the connections are made from either toggle bolts or standard
nut and bolt assemblies. Both pin systems have proven to be highly reliable.

To avoid dropping a disconnected section of drill rod down the borehole, a rod fork or auger
fork is slid under a coupling to support and retain lower sections of the drill stem (Figure
3.42). This rod fork may be constructed from a 1/4 inch (6 millimeter) steel plate, or from a
notched hardwood board. In either case, the notch must be wide enough to slide around the
drill rod, but narrow enough to retain a coupling.

An auger handle is constructed by clamping two hardwood handle sections around the drill
rod (Figure 3.41). As the borehole advances, the bolts are loosened, and the handle is
relocated to a more convenient height.

Auger construction falls into two main categories, those for use in cohesive soils and those
for non-cohesive soils. The cohesive soil augers (Figure 3.41) are designed for use in soils
that adhere or stick together. These soils commonly contain a mixture of sand, silt, and clay.
Augers designed for use in non-cohesive soils (Figure 3.41) are best suited to loose sand and
gravel formations.

Each type of auger can be produced locally using discarded sections of casing, pipe, sheet
metal, or perhaps the tubular section of an automobile drive shaft. Local soil types determine
the type of construction used. In general, the best performance in soft cohesive soils can be
obtained with an open blade or helical auger. Hard clay soils may be excavated with the
bucket auger. In non-cohesive soil, the tapered tube auger is most effective (Figure 3.41).

In addition to a tripod, rope and pulley are also primary components of the drilling
equipment. On a hand auger rig, a rope and pulley are often used to handle the drill rods
when a long pull of 20 or more feet (6 meters) is necessary to raise the auger. This long pull
saves time and eliminates the need for disconnecting numerous drill rods.

A rope and pulley are also necessary to handle other drilling equipment such as well casings,
wet bailers, and percussion bits. These accessories provide a useful means for continuing

the well when water saturated or hard-pan formations are encountered.

The most frequently used wet bailer on a hand auger rig is the flap valve bailer, also used in
bail-down drilling.

A percussion drill bit is also commonly used in conjunction with hand auger equipment. Its
ability to break up and loosen hard soil and boulders that cannot be excavated with a hand
auger permits drilling under a wide variety of conditions.

Geological Applications

Hand augered wells are particularly well adapted to alluvial deposits consisting primarily of
silt, clay, sand, and limited quantities of gravel. Maximum depths for hand augered wells
range up to 122 meters (400 feet); however, normal hand augering, is best suited to maximum
depths ranging from 15 to 25 meters (49 to 80 feet). Hand auger wells of these depths were
used for an extensive hydrological survey of specific community well sites in Tanzania.
Other significant hand auger well projects include wells in the following locations: Western
Pakistan, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, India, Togo and the Ivory Coast Region of Africa, and in
Ecuador.
Labor Requirements

The operation of a hand auger rig requires a minimum crew of four to five people. One
member of the crew must be trained in basic well drilling, as well as development techniques.
The remainder of the crew may be unskilled local labor. Under ideal conditions,
inexperienced crews have drilled to depths of 49 feet (15 meters) in a single morning.
However, greater drilling depths will require a considerably longer period due to the time and
effort spent in removing and emptying the auger.

Fabrication Skills

All hand auger tools and equipment are easily produced using locally available sheet metal
and pipe.

3.6.3 Other drilling equipment

Other types of equipment used in drilling operations are shown in Figures 3.45. and 3.46.
Figure 3.45 Drilling Equipment (Ref. 15)

Figure 3.46 Hydraulic Rotary Rig Mounted on a 1-Ton Pickup Truck (Ref. 15)

3.6.4 Hand dug wells

Hand dug wells have been used through the centuries as a source of water for domestic and
irrigation uses. Figure 3.47 shows a schematic of one such well. Most hand dug wells are less
than 20 meters in depth, even though some wells have been constructed deeper than 60
meters.

The use of hand dug wells is limited to areas with fairly shallow water tables (generally 20
meters or less), in contrast to some wells that can be drilled to several meters. The
construction of hand dug wells is a very slow process, especially in rock formations that
require blasting for the penetration process. These wells are generally limited to small flow
rates, as the wells generally do not penetrate deep below the water table. Fluctuations in
water tables will usually cause significant variations in the yield of the well.

Constructing a hand dug well is a labor-intensive process requiring a minimum of five

workers for wells deeper than 5 meters. In loose soil, the excavation speed may be 1/3 to 1
meter per day, while in rock formations it may be even slower. Hand dug wells should be dug
during the dry season, when the water table is lowest.

Details on the construction of hand dug wells are presented in ICE Manual M-9, entitled
"Wells Construction." This manual should be considered indispensable for Volunteers who
are contemplating well construction for the development of water supplies.
Figure 3.47 Hand Dug Well