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PHS 207 Astronomy for r Monday,
March 4 examining and expanding on
Moche s ch 3.18 -21 & ch. 5.

By the end of class, you should be able

to

 determine a star s location on

the Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram when you know the
star s radius and are given its
luminosity or temperature
 explain a star s birth to death
cycle by using specific terms
such as interstellar medium
(ISM)and dwarf starting with
protostar, and
 know the different types of
binary stars.
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Sample Stellar Evolution TEST QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Protostars are difficult to observe

because

a. the protostar stage is very short.

b. they are surrounded by cocoons of gas
and dust.
c. they radiate mainly in the infrared.
d. all of the above
e. they are all so far away that the light
hasn't reached us yet.

2. The nuclear reactions in a star's core

remain under control so long as

a. luminosity depends on mass.

b. pressure depends on temperature.
c. density depends on mass.
d. weight depends on temperature.

e. temperature depends on mass.

3. Interstellar gas clouds may collapse

to form stars if they
a. have very high temperatures.

b. encounter a shock wave.

c. rotate rapidly.
d. are located near main sequence
spectral type K and M stars.
e. all of the above.

4. The region of the sun just below the

photosphere

a. is undergoing thermonuclear fusion

using the proton-proton chain.
b. is undergoing thermonuclear fusion
using the CNO cycle.
c. is transporting energy to the
photosphere by convection.

d. is not in hydrostatic equilibrium.

e. a and c above
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5. ________________is the thermonuclear
fusion of hydrogen to form helium
operating in the cores of

massive stars on the main sequence.

a. The CNO cycle

100,000
b. The proton-proton chain 10,000
5.
c. Hydrostatic equilibrium 1000
d. The neutrino process 100
40
e. none of the above 10

6.. The Great Nebula in Orion Luminosity 1 10 ' 1

a. is a Herbig-Haro object. 20,000 10,000

b. is a reflection nebula. 5000 2500
c. is an emission nebula.
d. contains only young low mass stars.
e. is believed to be about 5 billion years
old.

7. The diagram to the right is an HR diagram.

The line indicates the location of the
main sequence. Which of the five
labeled locations on the HR diagram
indicates a luminosity and temperature
similar to that of a T Tauri star.

a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 5
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8. What causes the outward pressure that balances the inward pull of gravity in a star?

a. The outward flow of energy.

b. The opacity of the gas.

c. The temperature of the gas
d. The density of the gas
e. c and d

9. Convection is important in stars because it

a. increases the temperature of the star.

b. mixes the gases of the star.
c. transports energy outward in the star.
d. carries the neutrinos to the surface of the star where they can escape.
e. b and c

10. The main sequence has a limit at the lower end because

a. low mass stars form from the interstellar medium very rarely.
b. low mass objects are composed primarily of solids, not gases.
c. pressure does not depend on temperature in degenerate matter.
d. the lower limit represents when the radius of the star would be zero.
e. there is a minimum temperature for hydrogen fusion.

11.- The lowest mass object that can initiate thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen has a mass of about

a. 1 M0.
b. 60 Mo.
c. 0.5 Me.
d. 0.08 M o . e. 0.001 M o .

12. What is the lifetime of a 10 Me star on the main sequence?

a. 3.2 x 107 years b. 320 years

c. 3.2 x 1012 years

d. 1 x 109 years
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e. 1 x 1011 years

13. The extinction of starlight due to the interstellar medium

I. is the greatest in the ultraviolet.

II. is the greatest in the infrared.
III. is caused by ionized hydrogen.
IV. is caused by dust particles.

a. I & II
b. II & III
c . I& IV

d. II & IV

e. only IV

14. Stars are born in

a. reflection nebulae.

b. dense molecular clouds.

c. MI regions.

d. the intercloud medium.

e. the local bubble.

Fill in the Blank Questions

1. The condition of_________________means that the force due to gravity pushing down on a layer is
exactly equal to the pressure pushing outward on that layer.

2. Stars with masses greater than 1.1 solar masses use the____________to convert hydrogen into helium
and produce energy
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Energy transport by is important when photons cannot readily travel through a gas.

True-False Questions

1. Ninety percent of all stars fuse helium to form carbon and lie on the main sequence.

2. Nuclear fusion in stars is controlled by the dependence of density on mass.

2. The sun has a core in which energy travels outward primarily by radiation.

3. The sun makes most of its energy by the CNO cycle.

4. Energy flows by radiation or convection inside stars but almost never by conduction.

5. Hydrostatic equilibrium refers to the balance between weight and pressure.

6. The Orion region contains young main sequence stars and an emission nebula,.

7. The thermal motions of the atoms in a gas cloud can make it collapse to form a protostar.

8. The pressure of a gas depends on the temperature and density of the gas.

Essay Questions

1. Why do nuclear reactions in a star occur only near its center?

2. Explain what keeps the nuclear reaction in a star under control.

3. Why are interstellar absorption lines so narrow?

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4. Why are massive stars more luminous than low mass stars? That is, why is there a mass-luminosity relation?

5. Why is there a lower end to the main sequence? THE END

1. Let s create a table using the NAAP Hertzsprung-Russell Explorer of a star s luminosity versus its temperature for the radius equal to our Sun

NAAP H-R Explorer is at http://astro.unl.edu/naap/hr/animations/hr.html

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Radius = 1 Ro
You can best move the red X in the H-R Explorer by dragging it. Note in the table below how the luminosity (in Absolute Magnitude M)and
temperature change as you move the red X to the different temperature values indicated in the H-R window in the lower left.

At a given temperature determine its Spectra Class by changing x-axis scale in the window below the H-R diagram

Luminosity Luminosity Luminosity Spectral

Temperature Class Type
at 1 Ro at 2 Ro at 10 Ro K degrees for a given
temperature
2300
5000
10000
20000
40000

http://astro.unl.edu/naap/hr/hr_background1.html
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Spectral Classification of Stars

Note that these are all different ways of talking about the surface
temperature of a star.

Types of Spectra
Astronomers are very interested in spectra – graphs of intensity versus wavelength for an object. They basically tell you how much
light is produced at each color. Spectra are described by Kirchoff s Laws:

1. A hot opaque body, such as a hot, dense gas (or a solid) produces a continuous spectrum – a complete rainbow of colors.

2. A hot, transparent gas produces an emission line spectrum – a series of bright spectral lines against a dark background.

3. A cool, transparent gas in front of a source of a continous spectrum produces an absorption line spectrum - a series of dark
spectral lines among the colors of the continuous spectrum.
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It should be noted that the bright lines in the emission spectrum occur at exactly the same wavelengths as the dark lines in the
absorption spectrum. Thus, one can think of the absorption spectrum to the right as the continuous spectrum minus the emission
spectrum.

Absorption Spectra From Stars

The light that moves outward through the sun is what astronomers call a continuous spectrum since the interior regions of the sun have
high density. However, when the light reaches the low density region of the solar atmosphere called the chromosphere, some colors of
light are absorbed. This occurs because the chromosphere is cool enough for electrons to be bound to nuclei there. Thus, the colors of
light whose energy corresponds to the energy difference between permitted electron energy levels are absorbed (and later reemitted in
random directions). Thus, when astronomers take spectra of the sun and other stars they see an absorption spectrum due to the
absorption of the chromosphere.
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Spectral Type
NOAO/AURA/NSF

OBAFGKM
Astronomers have devised a classification scheme which describes the absorption lines of a spectrum. They have seven categories
(OBAFGKM) each of which is subdivided into 10 subclasses. Thus, the spectral sequence includes B8, B9, A0, A1, etc. A traditional
mnemonic for the sequence is Oh, Be, A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me!

Although based on the absorption lines, spectral type tells you about the surface temperature of the star. One can see that there are few
spectral lines in the early spectral types O and B. This reflects the simplicity of atomic structure associated with high temperature.
While the later spectral types K and M have a large number of lines indicating the larger number of atomic structures possible at lower
temperatures.
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Annie Cannon
Image Source: Harvard College Observatory Website

Annie Cannon
Most of the early work on stellar spectra was done early in the 20th century at Harvard University. The principal figure in this story
was Annie Jump Cannon. She joined Harvard as an assistant to Observatory Directory Edward C. Pickering in the 1890 s to participate
in the classification of spectra. She quickly became very proficient at classification examining several hundred stars per hour. She
completed a catalogue of spectral types for hundreds of thousands of stars.

Three blackbody curves at different temperatures.

Planck Curves
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The outward appearance of stars depends more strongly on the underlying continuous spectrum coming from the inner parts of a star
than the absorption at its surface. Continuous spectra for stellar interiors at different temperatures are described by Planck Curves
shown in the figure to the left. Note that as the temperature increases the total amount of light energy produced (the area under the
curve) increases and the peak wavelength (the color at which the most light is produced) moves to smaller more energetic
wavelengths.

Classification Temperature Max Wavelength Color

O0 40,000 K 72.5 nm Blue

B0 20,000 K 145 nm Light Blue

A0 10,000 K 290 nm White

F0 7,500 K 387 nm Yellow-White

G0 5,500 K 527 nm Yellow

K0 4,000 K 725 nm Orange

M0 3,000 K 966 nm Red

This table lists corresponding values of color, spectral type, and peak wavelength. Note that these are all different ways of talking
about the surface temperature of a star.
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Practice Exercise

One can experiment with the relationships between spectral type, temperature, and color with the simple animation below. Use the
animation to answer the following questions:

Drag the slider through different spectral types to see the change in temperature, color, and brightness.

What are the surface temperatures and colors of:

 a hot O2 star?

 a cool M3 red dwarf?

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 a G2 star like the sun?

What is the spectral type of a star with:

 a surface temperature of 10,000 K ?

 a surface temperature of 5,000 K ?

What is the color of a star with:

 spectral type A0?

 surface temperature 4,000 K?

A Star s Life Cycle depends almost entirely on its initial mass.

From Holland and Williams article that is a little later.

Stellar evolution is the necessary fundamental building block and distributive method of most common elements
in the universe. Within the interior of stars, fusion creates new elements from the basic elements (H, He). While
this process takes billions of years as measured by human standards, the life of a star is minor in comparison to
the age of the universe.

Much like its life span, the outcome of one star�s life is insignificant. When we add the efforts of one star,
however, to the production of the billions of stars that have existed, exist and will exist again they are invaluable
to the creation of life. Without the elements produced by stellar evolution (the processes within the interiors of
stars), Carbon-based life as we know it would not be possible. The next time you are star gazing, remember, you
are a product of the stars.
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http://www.cosmosportal.org/files/47101_47200/47109/file_47109.jpg
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http://essayweb.net/astronomy/images/Stellar_Evolution_large.jpg
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http://intouniverse.weebly.com/uploads/5/5/9/8/5598621/star_evolution.jpg
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http://media-1.web.britannica.com/eb-media/50/62750-004-223BCC72.jpg
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Stellar Evolution : The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors

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by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams

Introduction and Why You Should Care

Observations of the stars with calculations of stellar models have give astronomers a comprehension of stellar evolution. Stellar
evolution is the process in which the forces of pressure (gravity) alter the star. With these forces acting upon stars, their characteristics
change dramatically over the period of their existence.

Stellar evolution is inevitable as stars deplete their initial fuel sources. The search for new fuel sources affects the properties of stars as
they evolve. This evolution is a process that consists of many different stages with fuel consumption as the dominant life cycles of an
evolving star.

Stellar evolution, in the form of these fuel consumption stages and their finality, is important because it is responsible for the
production of most of the elements (all elements after H and He). Moreover, stages in the life cycle of stars are a vital part in the
formation of galaxies, new stars and planetary systems.

Time scales of Stellar Fuel Consumption

The time scales of stellar evolution depend on the mass of the star. The rule governing stellar evolution is the more mass present, the
faster the evolution for the star through the fuel consumption stages. Another property directly linked to the mass and evolution of a
star is its luminosity.

The mass-luminosity relation demonstrates that the main sequence on an H-R diagram (a chart plotting the the luminosities of stars
against their surface temperatures) is a progression in mass as well as in luminosity and surface temperature (Kaufmann,1991, pg.
356). The Hertzsprung- Russell diagram is two possible plots of spectral types dependent on absolute magnitude when compared to
temperature and luminosity.

These H-R diagrams allow astronomers to conceptualize visually the mass-luminosity relationship as it pertains to the fuel
consumption evolution of stars. The H-R diagram allows astronomers to plot visually the different stages in the evolving life cycle of
stars.
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A H-R diagram (the red line represents the Main Sequence Stars).

Glossary of bold face items in the following article

absolute zero - Temperature of -273 degrees Celsius where all molecular motion stops; the lowest possible temperature
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accretion disk - A disk of gas orbiting a star or black hole

binary star system - Two stars revolving around each other

black hole - An object that is so strong that its escape velocity exceeds the speed of light

core helium burning - The thermonuclear fusion of helium at the center of a star

degenerate - The phenomenon, due to quantum mechanical effects, whereby the pressure exerted by a gas does not depend on its
temperature

event horizon - The location around a black hole where the escape velocity equals the speed of light; the surface of a black hole

fusion - combination of lower mass nuclides into higher mass nuclides

helium flash - The nearly explosive beginning of helium burning in the dense core of a red giant star

hydrostatic equilibrium - The balance between the weight of a layer in a star and the pressure that supports it

luminosity - The rate at which electromagnetic radiation is emitted from a star or other object

main sequence star - A star whose luminosity and surface temperature place it on the main sequence on an H-R diagram; a star that
derives its energy from core hydrogen burning

mass- luminosity relation - The relationship between the masses and luminosities of main sequence stars

neutrino - A subatomic particle with no electric charge and little or no mass, yet one that is important in many nuclear reactions

neutron star - A very compact, dense star composed entirely of neutrons

planetary nebula - A luminous shell of gas ejected from an old, low- mass star

plasma - A hot ionized gas

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pulsar - A pulsating radio source believed to be associated with a rapidly rotating neutron star

red giant - A large, cool star of high luminosity

red supergiant - An extremely large, cool star of luminosity class I

shell helium burning - The thermonuclear fusion of helium in a shell surrounding a star�s core

shell hydrogen burning - The thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in a shell surrounding a star�s core

singularity - A place of infinite space-time curvature; the center of a black hole

solar mass - The mass of our sun; reference point for the masses of other stars

solar radii - The distance from a star�s core to the surface of its outermost plasma layer

spectral type - A classification of stars according to the appearance of their spectra

supernova - A stellar outburst during which a star suddenly increases its brightness roughly a millionfold

thermal equilibrium - The balance between the input and outflow of heat in a system

thermal pulse - Brief bursts of energy output from the helium- burning shell of an aging low-mass star

thermal radiation - The radiation naturally emitted by any object that is not at absolute zero

thermonuclear reaction - A reaction resulting from the high speed collision of nuclear particles that are moving rapidly because they
are at a high temperature

white dwarf - A low-mass star that has exhausted all of its thermonuclear fuel and contracted to a size roughly equal to the size of
Earth

white hole - A black hole from which matter and radiation emerge
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X-Ray - Electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is between that of ultraviolet light and gamma rays

Star formation Triggered Star Formation

Since massive stars burn so fast they will often go supernova before the rest of the cloud has started making stars

The shock wave from the supernova blast will crush the cloud triggering a new generation of star formation
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Stages in the Life of an Evolving Star

Welcome to the life of a new born star. Main sequence stars are a range of stars based on size and surface temperature starting from
the hot, bright, bluish stars in the upper left corner of a H-R diagram to the cool , dim, reddish stars in teh lower right corner of the
diagram. Life for new stars begins in the Main Sequence. These mature stars undergo a remarkable transformation after they consume
all the hydrogen in their core. With the hydrogen consumed, stars leave the main sequence and expand to form red giants. With this
new stage, the fusion of helium begins to form heavier elements like Oxygen and Carbon. This process of expansion- collapse-
expansion of stars forms the light elements present in the universe (up to Fe).

Life in the Suburbs : a Main Sequence Star. Main sequence stars are stars who s luminosity and surface temperature place it in the
main sequence of a Hertzsprung- Russell diagram.
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A fundamental property of all main sequence stars is thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is the liberation of energy from the
interior of the star balanced by the energy released at the surface of the star. The energy released by a main sequence star is produced
by hydrogen burning in its core (the fusion of 4H into 4He).

Another fundamental property of a main sequence star evolution is hydrostatic equilibrium. Hydrostatic equilibrium reflects the
required pressure in the core of a star to support the weight of the outer plasma layers. The heat produced from hydrogen in the core
burning supports this outward pressure upon the outer plasma layers.

As a main sequence star depletes the supply of hydrogen in the core, thermal equilibrium unbalances and the pressure in the star�s
core lessens. Thermal equilibrium unbalances because the fusion of four hydrogen atoms into one helium atom decreases the number
of particles present in the star�s core. The star beings to collapse inward because the fewer particles cannot maintain the pressure
needed to support the star�s outer layers.

Without the necessary pressure, the star�s core contracts slightly under the weight of its outer layers. This collapse increases the
pressure and temperature of the core causing the luminosity of the star s surface to increase. This increase in pressure on the layers just
outside the core raises their temperature to the necessary point in which the outer layers of hydrogen begin fusion.

This occurrence of hydrogen fusion in the outer layers of a collapsing star is called shell hydrogen burning. Shell hydrogen burning
allows the star to remain in the main sequence for another few million years. Despite this struggle to remain on the main sequence, the
supply of hydrogen for fusion into helium in a star�s inner most layers depletes, which takes the star from the main sequence and to
the next step of solar fuel consumption.

The next stage of solar fuel consumption starts when hydrogen burning in the core ceases and ignites hydrogen burning in the star s
outer layers. When hydrogen burning ceases in the star�s core, it begins to collapse again. At this point, the star converts
gravitational energy into thermal energy because it must maintain thermal equilibrium.

Stars sustain thermal equilibrium within their interiors through the ignition of helium burning. The collapse of the outer hydrogen
burning shell upon the core raises the temperature and pressure in the core and begins helium burning. Because the temperature and
energy needed to ignite helium fusion is greater than that of hydrogen, the energy released by helium fusion in the star�s core is
greater than needed to support the weight of the outer layer.
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This excess energy expands the star�s outer layers beyond its previous radius and star�s volume increases. A star going through this
stage of fuel consumption (collapse and expansion) is a Red Giant. The following diagram shows the dramatic expansion of a main
sequence star as it begins helium fusion.

Our Sun today compared to its future Red Giant self

1 AU is approximately 150 million kilometers or the distance from the sun to the Earth s orbit

The Life of a Red Giant : A Star in Old Age. In the final states of hydrogen fusion the hydrogen burning shell adds to the mass of the
star�s helium core. This added mass and pressure increases the star�s temperature. Temperature within the core of stars
greater than three solar masses soon exceeds the 100 million Kelvin degrees barrier, at which it reaches the
temperature needed for the onset of helium fusion.

Core helium burning reestablishes the thermal equilibrium needed to support the star�s outer layers preventing further gravitational
contraction. With gravitational contraction halted, the heat and energy from the core helium burning again begins the expansion of the
star s outer layers. The method by which a star begins core helium burning depends upon the mass of the star.
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In stars below three solar masses (low-mass stars), helium fusion begins in a more spectacular manner.
Helium burning begins explosively and abruptly. This process of quick ignition of helium fusion is a helium flash. The universe does
not limit helium flash to low-mass stars; Helium is present in red giants and red supergiants as well.

Red supergiants and red giants share the same physical characteristics and properties, with size and luminosity the only major
difference between them. To understand this size difference we use our sun as a reference point. Red giants have solar radii up to 10
to 100 times larger than our sun, while supergiants boast a solar radii 1000 times larger than that of our sun.

A Low-Mass Stars� last gasp. < 4 Mo Stellar evolution can end in several ways. After a long life, an aging star completes its red
supergiant stage of evolution and shell helium burning begins. Since this shell of helium burning is thin, the star becomes unstable.
This instability in the aging star increases the temperature and energy within the star, which thickens the shell of burning helium
surrounding the helium-depleted core.

The shell of burning helium thickens until it can support the pressures of the star�s outer layers. As the shell helium burning
increases the temperature and energy of the surrounding outer layers of the star, it ignites the outer hydrogen shell into fusion through
thermonuclear reactions. This process of outer hydrogen shell fusion is a thermal pulse.

During thermal pulses, the star�s luminosity increases by a factor of ten. This final expansion and ignition of outer layers is the
star�s final moments before death overcomes the star. In its final moments, a star ejects its outer layers emitting ultraviolet radiation.
This emission of ultraviolet radiation ionizes the ejected gases, giving them a glow known as a planetary nebula.
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A planetary nebula, the death of a low mass star

The ejection of stellar remnants is the low-mass star�s supernova. On Earth, we measure the effects of this supernova in the
increased luminosity. After a low-mass star�s death (supernova), it often leaves behind material that forms new stellar bodies.

This is the end of stars with low masses (less than four solar masses) because they cannot reach the appropriate t temperature levels to
begin the fusion of carbon (C) into oxygen (O). These stars burn off or eject their remaining outer layers leaving only the stellar core
behind.

Stellar remnants, a star�s afterlife: white dwarfs, neutron stars and pulsars. Due to the enormous mass of this remaining stellar core,
the core begins to collapse and fuse. As the stellar core collapses, it electrons become degenerate (a phenomenon, due to the quantum
mechanical effects, whereby the pressure exerted by a gas does not depend on its temperature) and stop the gravitation collapse. This
contracted stellar core is a white dwarf.

White dwarf stars are approximately the size of our planet, but their mass and density is much greater. White dwarfs are so dense,
when compared to the Earth, that a teaspoon of matter from a white dwarf would weigh 5.5 metric tons on the Earth�s surface! The
universe places limits on the life of a white dwarf, familiar to the main sequence star from which it originates.

The white dwarf glows for billions of year from the energy released from cooling thermal radiation. Eventually all the radioactive
matter of a white dwarf cools until it reaches the temperature of surrounding space which is a few degrees above absolute zero.
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A Neutron Star

Neutron Stars and Pulsars : Sometimes the core remnant of a low-mass star is too dense to form a white dwarf. In these cases, the
core�s stellar collapse forms a neutron star.

Neutron stars are incredibly dense spheres of degenerate neutrons (a gas in which all the allowed states for particles, electrons or
neutrons, have been filled, thereby causing the gas to behave differently from ordinary gases). Some neutron stars have massive
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magnetic fields that sweep out beams of radiation into space, much like light beams from a lighthouse. Such �pulsating� neutron
stars are called pulsars. This measurable �pulse� of radiation is where this type of neutron star derives its name.

Astronomical models suggest that the properties of superconductivity and superfluity dominate the cores of neutrons stars. These
models also suggest there is an upper l limit in the mass of neutron stars. These upper limits are in the range of the mass of the largest
possible white dwarfs.

The Little Bang : The death of high-mass stars. This death of a low mass star into a white dwarf contrast with the final stages of high-
mass, main sequence stars (i.e., greater than four solar masses). Unlike low mass stars, high mass stars can extend their lives through
the fusion of elements heavier than carbon.

After the fusion of helium ends, high mass stars begin burning carbon as their next fuel consumption stage. Carbon burning begins
when the star s core reaches temperatures greater than 600 million degrees Kelvin. The greater the mass of the original main sequence
star the longer the star continues to burn heavier elements. Incredibly massive stars continue fusion from helium until they create iron
(Fe) in their core.

In this fusion process, these massive stars create neon (Ne), magnesium (Mg), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), silicon (Si) and finally iron (Fe).
Each stage of fuel consumption parallels a raise in the star�s core temperature. Neon fusion begins when the star�s core temperature
reaches one billion degrees Kelvin followed by oxygen at 1.5 billion degrees Kelvin. Silicon fusion does not begin until the star�s
core temperature reaches an amazing 3 billion degrees Kelvin.

As the star begins each new fuel consumption stage, its lifetime in each stage becomes shorter. The following table illustrates the
amount of time an aging star spends in each fuel consumption stage.
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A H-R diagram (The red line represents the Main Sequence stars and their evolution toward
the top right hand corner of the diagram).

These massive stars continue to exist by burning the heavier nuclides (magnesium, silicon, phosphorous et al) until they reach the
heaviest nuclide that fusion can produce, iron. The iron rich cores of these massive stars can reach sizes equivalent to the Earth. The
size of the surrounding shells burning the various lighter elements (H, He, C, O) dwarf this iron core, as they reach sizes that would
extend to the orbit of Jupiter.

When the core of a high-mass star consists completely of iron, fusion can no longer take place. At this point, the mass of the daughter
(one iron nuclide) is heavier than the total mass of the parent nuclides used to produce iron. With this difference in mass, the process
begins to absorb energy instead of releasing it back into the star, whichunbalances thethermal equilibrium of the star.

With fusion ceased and the thermal equilibrium unbalanced, a star�s only source of energy is from the contraction of the star�s
outer layers. This contraction raises the star�s core temperature to 5 billion Kelvin and increases the pressure to the point that the iron
core collapses upon itself.

The incredible pressures that the collapse of the star�s iron core force many of the existing (but not all) protons and electrons to
combine into neutrons. For a moment the star releases this abundance of neutrons as neutrinos. In this brief escape, many neutrinos
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bombard the iron core and combine with iron nuclides to form the elements heavier than iron. These escaping neutrinos and the
electromagnetic forces that repel protons and neutrons force the star into a final expansion.

A Star�s Eulogy, a Supernova. This final expansion sends a shock wave through the star�s outer layers until it reaches the star�s
surface creating a supernova. This shock wave ejects all the material of the star, including the core into the cosmos leaving behind
only a nebula of cooling gasses.
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A section of space
before the supernova
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The same section of space

after the supernova

Creation of Black Holes

Stars too big for their britches : Black Holes. Sometimes high-mass stars are too massive to become white dwarfs or neutron stars. A
high-mass star this massive also has the gravitational forces to prevent the escape of stellar matter through a supernova. Stars with this
great of mass become black holes at the end of their stellar evolution.
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Black holes are the result of the overpowering weight of the star�s massive outer layers pressing inward from all sides on the core
causing the rapid contraction of the dying star. With this great mass pressing inward, the star�s core can no longer support the star�s
outer layer structure.

The matter within a high-mass star in this process is so condensed that the gravity produced is strong enough to prevent the escape of
light energy from the cooling radioactive material. Light cannot escape because the escape velocity at the star�s surface is greater
than that of the speed of light.

Gravity of this magnitude has profound effects upon the star�s shape and on the structure of the surrounding space. With the star
collapsing in upon itself, the star changes from a spherical shape to a broader plane in space. The gravity from the center of this plane
curves its surrounding space to create a whirlpool-like drain that absorbs the star itself and all surrounding matter.

An Artist rendition of a black hole event horizon (notice the whirlpool like shape that leads
to the blackhole s singularity).

This plane at the mouth of the whirlpool-like drain is called an event horizon. The immense gravitational forces of the black hole
compacts all the matter within the star after it moves past the event horizon of the newly formed black hole. The gravity of the black
hole compresses the star�s matter, as well as any other matter captured by the black hole�s gravitational forces through its
existence, to infinite density. This infinitely dense matter within the black hole is called a singularity. The
gravitational pull of a singularity is so great that it pulls matter from all surrounding areas into the event
horizon of the black hole.

If light cannot escape black holes, how do we find them? Until recently black holes were only theoretical speculations, but with
today�s technology we are now finding black holes by measuring x-ray emissions in space.
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As the black holes immense gravity captures surrounding matter, this matter accelerates toward the event horizon and singularity and
releases high amounts of x-rays. These x-rays leave a trail through space as the black hole absorbs the matter into its singularity. X-ray
trails leave �halos� around the black hole called accretion disks.

Another method of detecting black holes in space is their effects on binary star systems. When a black hole occurs close to two stars,
its gravity impacts their spatial relationships. Each star�s gravity has a calculable effect upon the other�s orbit, however the
invisible black hole affects these orbits.

An Artist rendition of a blackhole syphoning plasma gas from a nearby star (this
acceleration of matter emits x-rays that form a accretion disk and make the blackhole detectable [x-ray emissions represented by
the arrows]).

To contrast the idea of black holes being places in the universe with infinite lifetimes where no
matter (including light) ever escapes, the universe holds a few exceptions. The British physicist
Stephen W. Hawking has proven that black holes do in fact have definite lifetimes.

As black holes reach the end of their life, they begin to evaporate. In the final stages of this
evaporation, the black hole reverses itself and pours matter back out into the universe. When a
black hole begins to eject its matter, it is a white hole. With this transformation in the life of a
black hole, the universe appears to maintain the fundamental universal energy-matter law with
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this process. While the black hole, to physics laws, is an unbalancing factor in universal laws,
the white hole exists to restore this matter and balance.

Reference

1. Universe (fourth edition). Kaufmann, William J. III. W. H. Freeman and Company New York, 1994.

2. http://www.astro.washington.edu/strobel/evolution.notes/evolutio n.notes.html

http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys230/lectures/star_age/evol_hr.swf

http://rainman.astro.illinois.edu/ddr/stellar/pics/hr.jpeg
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http://archive.ncsa.illinois.edu/Cyberia/NumRel/BlackHoleAnat.html

Expo/Science & Industry/Spacetime Wrinkles

| Forward | Back | Up | Map | Glossary | Information |

Anatomy of a Black Hole

By definition a black hole is a region where matter collapses to infinite density, and where, as a result, the curvature of spacetime is
extreme. Moreover, the intense gravitational field of the black hole prevents any light or other electromagnetic radiation from
escaping. But where lies the "point of no return" at which any matter or energy is doomed to disappear from the visible universe?
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The Event Horizon

Applying the Einstein Field Equations to collapsing stars, German astrophysicist Kurt Schwarzschild deduced the critical radius for a given mass at
which matter would collapse into an infinitely dense state known as a singularity. For a black hole whose mass equals 10 suns, this radius is about
30 kilometers or 19 miles, which translates into a critical circumference of 189 kilometers or 118 miles.

Schwarzschild Black Hole

If you envision the simplest three-dimensional geometry for a black hole, that is a sphere (known as a
Schwarzschild black hole), the black hole s surface is known as the event horizon. Behind this horizon, the
inward pull of gravity is overwhelming and no information about the black hole s interior can escape to the
outer universe.

At the singularity, though, the laws of physics, including General Relativity,

break down. Enter the strange world of quantum gravity. In this bizzare realm in which space and time are
broken apart, cause and effect cannot be unraveled. Even today, there is no satisfactory theory for what happens at and beyond the
singularity.

Binary eclipsing stars http://astro.unl.edu/naap/ebs/ebs.html

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http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/041002a.html

The Question
(Submitted October 02, 2004)
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Is it at all possible for a companion star to survive a supernova explosion? Do any of the binary systems that we know of, where one
of the bodies is a neutron star or black hole, have the original companion star present, especially where the compact object is near
enough to draw surface gas off the visible star? Or have all these systems simply come into existence after the explosion and the
nebula have dissapeared?

The Answer
Absolutely. All X-ray binaries have either neutron star or black hole components. By definition these stars must have experiences a
supernova stage. Either their companions survived the supernova event or were captured tidally some time later. Certainly these
companion stars did not form close to the compact object after the supernova. Energy from the compact source would prevent any
cold gas from contracting in the vicinity.