FORMATION EVALUATION

PETE 663

SHALY SAND EVALUATION - A

Summer 2010
 Shaly Formations
• Archie’s Sw equations assume a
clean formation with a non-conductive
matrix

• Shales are conductive

• Shaly sand conductivity varies with:

• Clay type (mineralogy)
• Shale origin (dispersed, structural laminated)
• Fluid composition
 Shaly Sand Obstacles
In Shaly Formations:
• Fresh formation waters can cause
conventional log analysis to overestimate
water saturation
• Relatively salty formation waters lead to low
resistivity, which may cause pay zones to be
bypassed
• Thinly bedded zones may cause
conventional log analysis to underestimate
porosity and overestimate water saturation
 Shaly Formations
• In Formation Evaluation “shale” and
“clay” are used synonymously
• In fact, shale is a rock
– Comprised dominantly of clay minerals
– May be mineralogically complex (many minerals)
– May have variable properties
• And clay
– May refer to a grain size (diameter < 0.004 mm), or
– May refer to a class of minerals (e.g., illite,
smectite, montmorillonite, chlorite, kaolinite)
 SHALY FORMATION ISSUES
LECTURE A
• Shales/clays have several origins and forms
• Shales/clays affect:
– Porosity
– Permeability
– Vshale
• Estimations
• Assumptions
• Log responses
LECTURE B
• Shales conduct electricity
• Problems with Archie-based methods
– Rwa problem
– Sw errors
• Shaly sand analysis of Rwa and Sw
 WHAT IS SHALE
1. Shale is type of clastic sedimentary rock
- Comprised dominantly of clay minerals
and other clay-size fragments
- Contains some silt-sized grains of
- Quartz
- Feldspar
- Other minerals
- May contain organic frags. (source rock)
2. Shale is a fissile rock – it splits along bedding planes
3. Claystone – massive appearance – not fissile
 WHAT IS CLAY?
1. Clay is the name for a family of alumino-
silicate minerals including:
- Kaolinite
- Illite
- Smectite
- Montmorillonite
- Chlorite
- others
2. Clay is a class of clastic sediments with a grain size
(diameter) < 0.004 mm (< 4 microns)
- May contain clay minerals, quartz, feldspar
minerals, etc.
3. Clays form approximately 40% of the sedimentary
rocks
Grain-Size Classification, Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 SPECIFIC SURFACE AREAS OF SOME
MINERALS

Mineral Ft^2/ft^3

Sand 4.3-8.7 thousand

Kaolinite 15.2 million

Illite 85.4 million

Montmorollinite 274 million

• Clays have extremely large surface areas

• Surface area varies greatly among clay minerals
SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES:
Relative Abundances
Sandstone and
Conglomerate
(clastic)
~11%
Limestone and
Dolomite
Mudstone (carbonate)
(Siltstone ~14%
and shale)
(clastic)
~75%
AVERAGE DETRITAL MINERAL COMPOSITION
OF SHALE AND SANDSTONE

Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone

Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SANDSTONE

Framework
- Sand- and silt-size detrital grains (load-bearing)
Matrix
- Silt and clay-size detrital material
Cement
- Minerals precipitated post-depositionally,
during burial and diagenesis
- Cements fill pores and may replace
framework grains
Pores
- Voids Among the Above Components
 FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
Geologist’s Classification

1. Framework Note different use of “matrix”

2. Matrix Engineering
“matrix” by geologists and engineers
3. Cement
4. Pores

PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
 SANDSTONE COMPOSITION,
Framework Grains
KF = Potassium
Feldspar
Q PRF = Plutonic Rock
Fragment
Q = Quartz
PRF KF
P = Pore
Potassium feldspar is
stained yellow with a
chemical dye

Pores are impregnated with

P blue-dyed epoxy

Photo by R. Kugler
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains ~0.25 mm in diameter/length
SHALE / CLAY ORIGINS
IN SANDSTONES
EXPANDED DISCUSSION ON NEXT SLIDES

DETRITAL AUTHIGENIC

From Halliburton EL-1007

 SHALE / CLAY OCCURRENCES
EXPANDED DISCUSSION ON NEXT SLIDES

φe Clay
Minerals
A
3 U
Dispersed Clay T
Detrital Quartz H
Grains

D
φe
E
2 Clay Lamination T
R
I
Structural Clay φe T
(Rock Fragments,
1 Rip-Up Clasts, A
Clay-Replaced Grains)
L

Order of discussion
HOW DO SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 1
Structural Shale
– Replaces matrix (e.g., or feldspar) or occurs
as detrital grains
– May not affect por., perm,
– Example – clast lag in channels deposits
– Clay composition may differ from nearby
shales

Structural Clay φe
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay
Clay-Replaced Grains) Detrital Quartz
Grains Minerals
 HOW DO SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 2

Laminated Shale
– Interlayered with sand
– Reduces poro., perm.
– Common
– Example – shale
laminae
– Assume composition
similar to nearby shale

φe Clay
Minerals
Clay Lamination
Detrital Quartz
Grains
 Whole Core

Laminated Ss-Sh
Reservoir Rock

(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa

Sandstone, Venezuela), W. Ayers
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A. October 1985

Which environments are most likely

to result in:
- Structural shales/clays?
- Laminated shales/clays?
- Clean sands?

Log patterns reflect grain size and

mineral composition, which in turn,
are related to depositional environment
and sediment transport energy.

Ayers, 2004 STS084-721-029 Selenga River Delta, Lake Baykal, Russia May 1997
 HOW SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 3
Dispersed Clay/Shale
– Pore-filling clays
– Very common
– Forms in situ (authigenic clay - diagenesis)
– Mineral composition may differ greatly from
nearby shales
– Por. and perm. reduction depend on clay minerals

φe Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains
 DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis:
Carbonate • Post-depositional chemical and
Cemented mechanical changes that occur in
sedimentary rocks

Diagenetic Effects include:

Oil - Compaction
Stained - Precipitation of cement
-Dissolution of framework
grains and cement

Diagenesis may:
-Enhance or degrade reservoir
quality
Whole core, Misoa Formation, Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Porosity in sandstone
Pore
typically is lower than
that of idealized packed
spheres owing to:

Quartz - Variation in grain size

- Variation in grain shape
Grain
- Cementation
- Mechanical and chemical
compaction

Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Scanning Electron Micrograph
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore Pores provide the

Throat volume to store
hydrocarbons

Pore throats connect

pores; may restrict
flow

Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Scanning Electron Micrograph
Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore throats in
sandstone may
be lined with
a variety of
cement minerals
that affect
petrophysical
properties

Scanning Electron Micrograph Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Tordillo Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

 DISPERSED CLAY TYPES AND FORMS
• Kaolinite – booklets, particles
– Moderate perm effects
– May dislodge, block
throats
• Chlorite – linings, coatings
– Significant perm loss,
sensitive to acid treat.
– Trap water
• Illite – pore-bridging tangles
– Choke pores and throats
– Drastic perm reduction
– Collapse if dried,
giving anomalous lab
values
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Kaolinite

• Significant permeability
reduction

• High irreducible water

saturation

• Migration of fines
problem

• Not recognized by
Secondary electron micrograph
gamma ray
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Chlorite

• Iron-rich
varieties react
with acid
• Occurs in several
deeply buried
sandstones with
high reservoir
quality
• Occurs as thin
coats on detrital
grain surfaces

Electron photomicrograph
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone ~ 10 μ m
Offshore Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Fibrous, Authigenic Illite

•Significant
permeability
reduction

• Negligible
Illite porosity
reduction
• High irreducible
water saturation

• Migration of
fines problem

Electron Photomicrograph (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA
 10000
SHALY FORMATIONS - 2 1000

Permeability (mD)
100
10
• Shales affect por.,
1
perm. - Illite 0.1
• Reduces porosity 0.01 Illite-free
Illite-affected

• Changes permeability 0.001

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
– Reduces perm. Porosity (%)
10000 1
Illite-free

Vertical Permeability (mD)

– Reduces variability 1000 Illite-affected 0.1

– Reduces anisotropy 100 0.01

10 0.001
k v /k h
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.001 0.1 10 1000
Horizontal Permeability (mD)
INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY

Intergranular
• Intergranular pores
Pore
contain hydrocarbon
fluids

Microporosity • Micropores contain

irreducible water

Quartz
Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 SHALY SANDS -
Vshale Estimation
 Vshale Estimation
• Several estimators
– (Vsh)GR
– (Vsh)SP
– (Vsh)DS
• All depend on defining
– Clean point e.g., GRmin
– Shale point e.g., GRmax
• Set Vsh = min{(Vsh)GR,(Vsh)SP,(Vsh)DS}
– Each estimator has flaws e.g., GR and mica, SP and
HC’s
– Assumes smallest estimate is accurate
 Vshale Assumptions

• Response in nearby shale gives 100% shale

• Some interval has 0% shale

• Shale in formation same as nearby shale

• The minimum is best estimate

 Porosity Estimation Using Vsh – 1

φcorr = φapp − Vshφ sh

• Effective porosity = φcorr

• Apparent porosity, matrix adjusted = φapp
• Apparent porosity in shale = φsh
• Example...
 Determine Correct
EXAMPLE - WELL “X”
Density Porosity
• In a 10-ft shale interval,
– RHOB = 2.39
ρ ma − ρb
φ sh =
ρ ma − ρ fl
2.65 − 2.39
= = 15
2.65 − 1.0

• 224ft shaly sand

– RHOB = 2.27
– Vsh = 19%
ρ ma − ρb
φapp = = 23
ρ ma − ρ fl
Using φcorr eq.: (prev. Slide)
φ Dcorr = 23 − 0.19(15) = 20
 Determine Correct EXAMPLE - WELL “X”
Neutron Porosity

• 10ft shale
– PHIN = 36 (LS)
– PHIN = 40 (SS)
• 224ft shaly sand
– PHIN = 23 (LS)
– PHIN = 27 (SS)
– Vsh = 19%

φ Ncorr = 27 − 0.19(40) = 19

• Density & neutron

agree within 1 pu
 Porosity Estimation using Vsh - 2

φcorr = φapp − Vshφ sh

• In water, φcorr for each tool will agree

• In HC’s, φcorr may still differ
• For the density-neutron,

2 2
φ Dcorr +φ Ncorr
φcorr = 2
SHALY SANDS ARE COMPLICATED!
Swt

VSh Vma
Sh Sw Sb

Oil or Free Bound Dry

Gas Water Water Clay
Sandstone Shale Sandstone Matrix (Solids)
Pore- Filling
Fluids

φe

φt

φz
 SHALY FORMATION ISSUES
LECTURE A
• Shales/clays have several origins and forms
• Shales/clays affect:
– Porosity
– Permeability
– Vshale
• Estimation
• Assumptions
• Log responses
LECTURE B
• Shales conduct electricity
• Problems with Archie-based methods
– Rwa problem
– Sw errors
• Shaly sand analysis of Rwa and Sw