Pe8602-Well Logging

GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENINGEERING

PE8602 WELL LOGGING
PE8602 WELL LOGGING LTPC4004
OBJECTIVE:
To enable the students to understand the concept of formation evaluation and well logging
and techniques involved in it.
UNIT I 12
Aims and objectives of well logging. Reservoir formations. Borehole conditions. Fundamental
Concepts in borehole geophysics physical properties of reservoir rocks. Formation parameters
and their relationships: formation factor, porosity, permeability, resistivity, water and
hydrocarbon saturations, and movable oil. Archie’s and Humbles equations.
UNIT II 12
Principles, instrumentation, operational procedures and applications of different geophysical
logs: S.P., electrical, induction, nuclear, sonic, caliper, temperature, dip and direction. Natural
gamma ray spectrometry log, nuclear magnetic log, litho density log, neutron activation
technique, thermal neutron decay time log, chlorine and oxygen logs.
UNIT III 12
Recording, transmission and processing of log data. Formation evaluation for hydrocarbons.
Qualitative and quantitative interpretations of well log data. Overlays and cross-plots.
Determination of reservoir parameters – porosity, resistivity, permeability, water and
hydrocarbon saturation, movable oil. Lithology determination by neutron, density and sonic
cross-plots, dual mineral method, triporosity method, litho porosity cross-plot (M-N plot), clean
sand and shaly sand interpretations.
UNIT IV 12
Sub-surface correlation and mapping from log data. Delineation of fractures from logs.
Production logging. Well logging for metallic and non-metallic minerals: radioactive and non-
radioactive evaporates, coal, sulphur. Borehole geophysics for groundwater exploration.
Effective pay thickness of an aquifer. Saline water-fresh water interface from log data.
Determination of groundwater flow direction by logs.
UNIT V 12
Theoretical computations of normal and lateral log responses. Identification and delineation of
sub-surface formations from well log data. Calculation of reservoir parameters: formation factor,
porosity, permeability, resistivity, water and hydrocarbon saturations, and movable oil.
Subsurface correlation of formations and interpretation of field data.
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOME:
Students able to understand the physical principles of the tools used in logging. They can
characterize the formation based on interpretation of well logs
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Standard Handbook of petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering. 2nd Edition. William C
Lyons, Gary C Plisga. Gulf Professional Publishing.
2. D.P Helander ‘Fundamentals Of Formation Evaluation’
3. Dewan.J.T ‘Essentials of Modern Open-Hole Log Interpretation’ Pen Well Books, 1983,
ISBN 0878142339.
REFERENCE:
1. Serra.O ‘Fundamentals of Well log Interpretation’ Volume1. Elsevier Science Publisher,
New York, 1984, ISBN 04441327.
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UNIT I
Aims and objectives of well logging
Well logging is the bore hole physical data recorded against depth to evaluate the characteristics
of sub-subsurface formations traversed by logging tool in the wellbore.
Well logging, also known as borehole logging is the practice of making a detailed record (a well
log) of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole. The log may be based either on visual
inspection of samples brought to the surface (geological logs) or on physical measurements
made by instruments lowered into the hole (geophysical logs).
WELL LOGGING
• The systematic recording of rock properties and it’s fluid contents in wells being drilled or
produced to obtain various petrophysical parameters and characteristics of down hole sequences
(G.E Archie 1950).
• The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical properties in a well.
• These methods are particularly good when surface outcrops are not available, but a direct
sample of the rock is needed to be sure of the lithology.
A wide range of physical parameters can be measured.
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• In some cases, the measurements are not direct, it require interpretation by analogy or by
correlating values between two or more logs run in the same hole.
• Provide information on lithology, boundaries of formations and stratigraphic correlation.
• Determine Porosity, Permeability, water, oil and gas saturation.
• Reservoir modeling and Structural studies… etc.
A partial list of Applications of borehole measurements/well logs is as follows.
1. Estimating recoverable hydrocarbons (primary application)

2. Estimating hydrocarbons in place (primary application)
3. Rock typing
4. Abnormal pressure detection
5. Evaluating rock stresses
6. Locating reservoir fluid contacts
7. Fracture detection
8. Identifying geologic environments.
Reservoir Formations:
Several conditions need to be satisfied for the existence of a hydrocarbon accumulation,
as indicated in Figure. The first of these is an area in which a suitable sequence of rocks has
accumulated over geologic time, the sedimentary basin. Within that sequence there needs to be a
high content of organic matter, the source rock. Through elevated temperatures and pressures
these rocks must have reached maturation, the condition at which hydrocarbons are expelled
from the source rock. Migration describes the process which has transported the generated
hydrocarbons into a porous type of sediment, the reservoir rock. Only if the reservoir is
deformed in a favourable shape or if it is laterally grading into an impermeable formation does a
trap for the migrating hydrocarbons exist.
Generation, Migration and Trapping of Hydrocarbons
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FACTORS ESSENTIAL FOR PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION ARE:
1. A mature source rock
2. A migration path connecting source rock to reservoir rock.
3. A suitable reservoir rock(Porous and permeable)
4. A Trap
5. An impermeable seal.
The most common reservoir rocks are sands, sandstones, and carbonates including limestone and
dolomite. Sometimes the weathered and fractured igneous and volcanic rocks may serve as the
oil and gas reservoirs. To be commercially productive, the reservoir rocks must have sufficient
thickness, areal extent, and pore space to contain an appreciable volume of hydrocarbons, and
must yield the contained fluids at a satisfactory rate when the reservoir is penetrated by a well.
Clastics
The deposition of a clastic rock is preceded by the weathering and transport of material.
Mechanical weathering will be induced if a rock is exposed to severe
temperature changes or freezing of water in pores and cracks (e.g. in some desert environments).
The action of plant roots forcing their way into bedrock is another example of mechanical
weathering. Substances (e.g. acid waters) contained in surface waters can cause chemical
weathering.
The key characteristics of clastic rocks are: (1) grain-size distribution, (2) grain sorting and
rounding, (3) cement type and distribution, (4) structure and texture of a rock, (5) geometry of
pore space and grain packing system, and (6) porosity and permeability.
Carbonate rocks
Carbonate rocks are not normally transported over long distances, and we find carbonate
reservoir rocks mostly at the location of origin, 'in situ'. They are usually the product of marine
organisms. However, carbonates are often severely affected by diagenetic processes.
Depositional environment
Weathering and transportation is followed by the sedimentation of material. The depositional
environment can be defined as an area with a typical set of physical, chemical and biological
processes which result in a specific type of rock. The physical, chemical, biological and
geomorphic variables show considerable differences between and within particular
environments. As a result, we have to expect very different behaviour of such reservoirs during
hydrocarbon production. Depositional processes control porosity, permeability, net to gross ratio,
extent and lateral variability of reservoir properties. Hence the production profile and ultimate
recovery of individual wells and accumulations are heavily influenced by the
environment of deposition.
Logging Environment
Whenever we record and produce a well log , the down hole sensors responds to two sets of
interacting variables. 1) The geological environment, 2) Borehole environment
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1) The Geologic Environment consisting of the rock and the reservoir properties in the
geological section which are dependent on a) Bedding or layering of the stratigraphic section ie.,
the order and the amount of different types of Rocks. b)
Composition of the individual rock ie., the compositional, chemical and physical properties of
mineral grains in each rock. c) The type of fluid ie., the chemical and physical properties of fluid
distributed in the pore space.
2) The Borehole Environment which is created by the drilling process. The physical distortions
introduced into geological section are a function of at least three set of distinct variables. a)
Mechanical alterations of rock by drilling process. b) Alteration of fluid distribution within the
rock pores. c) Mechanical alteration of the borehole geometry by the circulating mud.
Geological environment
The logging tool, during a logging operation encounters a variety of geological conditions and
responds to the particular rock characteristics. It is therefore necessary to have a good idea of the
geological environment that the logging tools are going to be exposed to and have a fairly good
understanding of the rocks constituting environment. The following are the fundamentals of rock
characteristic to have a clear concept of the geological model.
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS

A petroleum reservoir rock is a porous medium that is sufficiently permeable to permit fluid flow
through it. In the presence of interconnected fluid phases of different density and viscosity, such
as water and hydrocarbons, the movement of the fluids is influenced by gravity and capillary
forces. The fluids separate, therefore, in order of density when flow through a permeable stratum
is arrested by a zone of low permeability, and, in time, a petroleum reservoir is formed in such a
trap. Porosity and permeability are two fundamental petrophysical properties of petroleum
reservoir rocks.
Geologically, a petroleum reservoir is a complex of porous and permeable rock that contains an
accumulation of hydrocarbons under a set of geological conditions that prevent escape by
gravitational and capillary forces. The initial fluid distribution in the reservoir rock, which is
determined by the balance of gravitational and capillary forces, is of significant interest at the
time of discovery. A rock capable of producing oil, gas and water is called a reservoir rock. In
general, to be of commercial value, a reservoir rock must have sufficient thickness, areal extent
and pore space to contain a large volume of hydrocarbons and must yield the contained fluids at
a satisfactory rate when the reservoir is penetrated by a well. Any buried rock, be it sedimentary,
igneous or metamorphic, that meets these conditions may be used as a reservoir rock by
migrating hydrocarbons. However, most reservoir rocks are sedimentary rocks.
BOREHOLE CONDITIONS
Borehole conditions affecting the log measurements are a) hole size, b) drilling,
c) mud mud cake and d) mud filtrate.
When a well is drilled the borehole is filled with the drilling fluid (mud). The rock pieces
which are cut by bit come out with circulating mud and the hole created is filled with mud.
Pressure of the mud column at any depth is kept in such a way that it is more than the formation
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pressure so that fluid filled in rocks should not come out and drilling continues. Due to this
overpressure, mud tries to enter the rock. If rock is permeable it itself works as a filter (Because
it is having small pores which are interconnected) and solid part of mud gets deposited on well
walls, forming mudcake. Filtered water invades the rock and get mixed with formation water,
forming invaded zone. As mudcake is formed invasion slows down and stops. The portion of the
rock which is not affected by drilling is known as uninvaded or virgin zone. If rock is not
permeable , fluid does not enter and invaded zone is not formed. Resistivity of these zones from
centre of well bore to outside are Rm, Rmc, Rxo and Rt.
Any resistivity data measured have the effect of all these parameters. Logging Tools are
designed in such a way that measurement of the required place is taken.
The resistivity data is necessary : To estimate effect of the borehole mud and mud filtrate
invasion and to resolve the true formation resistivity Rt . To determine the Extent of invasion and
to find out Resistivity at different diameters.
In the borehole you have the drilling mud of resistivity (Rm ). The effect of this drilling
mud on permeable formations causes mudcake of resistivity (Rmc ) to build on the borehole wall
and invasion of these formations by mud filtrate. There are two components of the invaded zone,
one fully “flushed” by mud filtrate and the other a “transition” between fully flushed and
uninvaded. The transition zone is neglected, and the diameter of invasion ( di ) is measured to
the edge of the flushed zone. The resistivity of the zone, whose pore space contains only mud
filtrate of resistivity (Rmf ) and residual hydrocarbons if present in the formation, is denoted as
(Rxo ). The associated water saturation is Sxo . Beyond that zone is the undisturbed formation
with resistivity (Rt ),interstitial water resistivity (Rw ), and water saturation (Sw ).
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The flushed zone is important because it affects the readings of certain logging tools and because
it forms a reservoir of mud filtrate to be recovered on testing before formation fluids are
recovered. The lateral extent of the flushed zone and the invaded zone are not generally known.
For this reason, additional resistivity measurements, with different depths of investigation, are
required to help delineate these zones and compensate for their effect on many downhole
measurements.
Depending on the type of mud used (oil-or water-base) and the relative values of the mud
filtrate resistivity Rmf and formation water resistivity Rw, the invasion process may produce a
radial resistivity profile that increases or decreases with distance from the borehole wall.
Hole Diameter (dh)

The borehole size is determined by the outside diameter of the drill bit. But, the diameter of the
borehole may be
• larger than the bit size because of washout and/or collapse of shale and poorly cemented porous
rocks, or
• smaller than the bit size because of a build up of mud cake on porous and permeable formations
Drilling mud Resistivity (Rm)
Most wells are drilled with rotary bits and the use of a special fluid, called drilling mud,
as a circulating fluid. The mud helps remove cuttings from the wellbore, lubricate and cool the
drill bit, and maintain an excess of borehole pressure over formation pressure. The excess of
borehole pressure over forma
Invaded Zone
The zone in which much of the original fluid is replaced by mud filtrate is called the invaded
zone. It consists of a flushed zone (of resistivity Rxo) and a transition or annulus zone (of
resistivity Ri). The flushed zone occurs close to the borehole (Figure) where the mud filtrate has
almost completely flushed out a formation’s hydrocarbons and/or water (Rw).
Flushed zone Resistivity (Rxo)

The flushed zone extends only a few inches from the wellbore and is part of the invaded zone. If
invasion is deep or moderate, most often the flushed zone is completely cleared of its formation
water by mud filtrate (of resistivity Rmf). When oil is present in the flushed zone, the degree of
flushing by mud filtrate can be determined from the difference between water saturations in the
flushed (Sxo) zone and the uninvaded (Sw) zone
Porosity
Porosity can be defined as the ratio of voids to the total volume of rock. It is represented as a
decimal fraction or as a percentage and is usually represented by the Greek letter phi, ɸ
volume of pores
Porosity ɸ = total volume of rock
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The amount of internal space or voids in a given volume of rock is a measure of the amount of
fluid a rock will hold.
Controls on Porosity
The porosity of unconsolidated materials depends on:
 Grain shape
 Grain packing
 Grain sorting
 Grain size distribution
 Compaction
The initial (pre-diagenesis) porosity is affected by three major microstructural parameters. These
are grain size, grain packing, particle shape, and the distribution of grain sizes. However, the
initial porosity is rarely that found in real rocks, as these have subsequently been affected by
secondary controls on porosity such as compaction and geochemical diagenetic processes.
Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a rock to transmit fluids. It is

related to porosity but is not always dependent upon it. Permeability
is controlled by the size of the connecting passages (pore throats or
capillaries) between pores.
It is measured in darcys or millidarcys (md) and is

represented by the symbol K.
The ability of a rock to transmit a single fluid, when it is

completely saturated with that fluid, is called absolute permeability.
Effective permeability refers to the ability of the rock to transmit one fluid in the presence
of another fluid when the two fluids are immiscible.
Relative permeability is the ratio between effective permeability of a fluid at partial

saturation and the permeability at 100% saturation (absolute permeability).
Water Saturation
Water saturation is the amount of pore volume in a rock that is occupied by formation water. It is
represented as a decimal fraction or as a percentage and has the symbol Sw.
formation water occupying pores

water saturation, Sw =
total pore space in the rock
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Resistivity
Resistivity is the rock property on which the entire science of logging first developed.
Resistivity is the inherent property of all materials, regardless of their shape and size, to resist the
flow of an electric current. Different materials have different abilities to resist the flow of
electricity. While the resistance of a material depends on its shape and dimensions, the resistivity
is an invariant property; the reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. In log interpretation, the
hydrocarbons, the rock, and the fresh water of the formation are all assumed to act as insulators
and are, therefore, nonconductive (or at least very highly resistive) to electric current flow. Salt
water, however, is a conductor and has a low resistivity.
The measurement of resistivity is then a measurement, albeit indirect, of the amount (and
salinity) of the formation water. The unit of measure used for the conductor is a cube of the
formation, one meter on each edge. The measured units are ohm-meters2/meter and are called
ohm-meters.
where:
R = resistivity (ohm-m)
r = resistance (ohms)
A = cross-sectional area of substance being measured(m2)
L = length of substance being measured (m)
Resistivity is a basic measurement of a reservoir’s fluid saturation and is a function of

porosity, type of fluid (i.e., hydrocarbons, salt water, or fresh water), amount of fluid, and type of
rock. Because both the rock and hydrocarbons act as insulators but salt water is conductive,
resistivity measurements made by logging tools can be used to detect hydrocarbons and estimate
the porosity of a reservoir. During the drilling of a well, fluids move into porous and permeable
formations surrounding a borehole, so resistivity measurements recorded at different distances
into a formation often have different values. Resistivity is measured by electric logs, commonly
known (in the West) as laterologs and induction logs.
SATURATION
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular
fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is expressed mathematically by the following
relationship:
All saturations are based on pore volume not gross volume of the reservoir. The saturation of
each individual phase ranges between zero to 100 percent. By definition, the sum of the
saturations is 100%, therefore
So + Sw + Sg
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So = volume of oil /pore volume
Sg = volume of gas /pore volume
Sw = volume of water /pore volume
where , So = oil saturation

Sg = gas saturation
Sw = water saturation
Connate (interstitial) water saturation Swc is important primarily because it reduces the amount
of space available between oil and gas. It is generally not uniformly distributed throughout the
reservoir but varies with permeability, lithology, and height above the free water table. Another
particular phase saturation of interest is called the critical saturation and it is associated with
each reservoir fluid. The definition and the significance of the critical saturation for each phase is
described below.
Critical oil saturation, Soc
For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain value which is termed
critical oil saturation. At this particular saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all
practical purposes, will not flow.
Residual oil saturation, Sor

During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas
injection (or encroachment) there will be some remaining oil left that is quantitatively
characterized by a saturation value that is larger than the critical oil saturation. This saturation
value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor. The term residual saturation is usually associated
with the non-wetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase.
Movable oil saturation, Som

Movable oil saturation Som is another saturation of interest and is defined as the fraction of pore
volume occupied by movable oil as expressed by the following equation:
Som = 1 – Swc – Soc
Critical gas saturation, Sgc

As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil
phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The
gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds certain saturation, called critical gas
saturation, above which gas begins to move.
Critical water saturation, Swc

The critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation are
extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water
phase will remain immobile.
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FORMATION FACTOR/POROSITY
Concepts
The matrix of rock is, for all practical purposes, non-conducting, the only conductor being the
saltwater solution contained in the pore space. Therefore, the conductivity of rock depends upon
its interconnected solution filled porosity. As a result, the resistivity of a brine saturated
formation, Ro would be expected to vary not only as the, formation water resistivity Rw, in the
pore space varies but also as the pore .space varies from rock type to rock type. We might state,
therefore, that formation resistivity is a function of formation water resistivity and rock structure.
ie., Ro = F* Rw (Rock Structure)
The resistivity ratio Ro/Rw is defined as the formation resistivity factor, FR.
FR =Ro / Rw = Formation Factor, Two importance things can be observed from this
relationships:
a. The formation resistivity factor, FR, is not only a function of the porosity, but also the
tortuosity, T, of the rock . In other words, FR is dependent upon the, manner in, which the pores
are interconnected in addition to the total voidage.
b. The formation resistivity factor, FR, should not be dependent upon the resistivity of the
saturating fluid as long as it completely fi1ls the void space. We should be able to fill the pore
space with salt water, fresh water or conductive fluid and get the same value of FR.
A more general definition of FR, therefore, would be:
FR = Res. of rock 100% water Sat / Res. of Water .
Therefore:
FR = RO / RW = RXO /RMF = R (MATRIX + FLUID) / R FLUID
The range of FR in rocks encountered when logging, is from a minimum of about five to
a maximum of several hundred in sandstone and from a minimum of about ten to values of many
thousand in limestones and dolomites.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORMATION FACTOR AND POROSITY
Rock characteristic and the pore system are so variable and complex in nature
that it is virtually impossible to establish any definite mathematical relationship
between ɸ and FR, which may be applicable in general to all types of rocks;
Therefore the only approach towards building up of any kind of relationship between
and FR, has been empirical analysis of experimental data. Gustave E. Archie, an
early pioneer in the development of formation evaluation techniques made a number
of contributions to quantitative log analysis. He observed that the formation factor,
FR, was related to porosity ɸ in the following form:
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Log FR = Log a – m Log ɸ
Or,
FR = a / ɸm
Where “m” represents the slope of the linear trend of FR Vs ɸ.as observed for specific
rock types when plotted on logarithmic graph paper and the intercept a = 1 , see Fig.
Archie stated that the slope, m, appeared to vary for different rock types as a function of the
degree of cementing of the rock. Hence, this slopes, m, is generally referred to as the
cementation factor which is a misnomer since it varies as a function of many factors.
The cementation factor, m, varies over a wide range of values, from 1.3 to approximately 2.8
(where a=1), The table shows the generalized range of cementation factor m for various rock
types, and the figure graphically illustrates the Formation resistivity factor, FR and porosityɸ, the
relationship for a wide range of rock types (wide range of m since the cementation factor is a
rock typing parameter).
a = a constant that is determined empirically.
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A value other than a = 1 is sometimes appropriate for "a" to compensate for variations in
compaction, pore structure and grain size distribution. The numerical value of "alt generally falls
between 0.6 and 1.0.
F and ɸ relationship:
For carbonates & very cemented sands:

F = 1 / ɸ2 (ARCHIES EQUATION)
For Sands
F = 0.62 / ɸ2.15 (HUMBLE EQUATION)
These are the basic equations used for estimation of water saturation in Loginterpretation.
Still another popular relationship for interpreting sand: (within the range of porosity 8% to about
35%) is: F = 0.81 /ɸ2 The practical application of the FR = f (ɸ) relationship for a particular rock
type is best accomplished by evaluating the cementation factor using laboratory - measured
values of the formation resistivity factor and porosity.
This data is plotted on a log-log graph paper, and the best fitting 1inear trend defines the slope
and intercept, a as shown in Fig. Using this chart for a particular value of F andɸ The value of a
and m may be determined and an appropriate relation for F Vs ɸie., F= a /ɸm may be
established.
Once the relationship F vs ɸ is established by core analysis or through production results (Fig), it
may prove to be very useful for a certain field or area. Otherwise either, the basic Archie or
Humble relationship should, be used. as per lithology for log analysis. The reason for the
observed variation in cementation factor has been attributed to a number of different factors:
1) Degree of cementation.
2) Shape, sorting, and packing of the particulate system.
3) Type of pore system - intergranular, intercrystalline, vuggy etc.
4) Tortuosity of the pore system.
5) Constrictions existing in porous system.
6) Compaction due to overburden pressure.
7) Presence of conductive solids.
8) Thermal expansion.
The complexity of natural rocks is aptly indicated by this general listing. As implied by
these factors, no single concept or factor adequately describes the relative behavior of the
formation resistivity factor with porosity.
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Archie’s and Humbles equations
Archie developed his famous equation to calculate, from well log parameters, the water
saturation (Sw) of the uninvaded zone in a formation next to a borehole. The Archie equation can
be expressed as follows:
where:
 Sw = water saturation of the uninvaded zone
 n = saturation exponent, which varies from 1.8 to 4.0 but normally is 2.0
 Rw = formation water resistivity at formation temperature
 Φ = porosity
 m = cementation exponent, which varies from 1.7 to 3.0 but normally is 2.0
 Rt = true resistivity of the formation, corrected for invasion, borehole, thin bed, and other
effects.
Empirical relationships between the formation factor F (sometimes FR), porosity φ,
water saturation Sw, and resistivities R. In clean granular rocks,
where
 a = proportionality constant varying from 0.6 to 1.5,

 m = cementation factor that varies between 1.3 and 3,
 n = saturation exponent, often assumed to be 2,
 Ro = resistivity of the formation when 100%
saturated with formation water,
 Rw = resistivity of the formation water,
 Rt = true resistivity of the formation.
Archie’s law assumes that m=2 and a=1.
The Humble formula assumes that m=2.15
and a=0.65.
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• Archie Equation is the most famous equation used by petrophysicists to determine the
water saturation in the reservoir in hand.
• Considered to be effective in clean reservoirs.
• Used by petrophysicists and log analysts in manual interpretation to have a quick look
evaluation.
• Presence of any shale content within the reservoir decreases the reliability of the water
saturation calculated by Archie Equation.
• Using Archie in shaly reservoirs of high resistivity generates high water saturation
values should be corrected further on the CPI log.
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UNIT-II
GAMMA RAY LOG

• Gamma Rays are high-energy
electromagnetic waves which are emitted by
atomic nuclei as a form of radiation
• Gamma ray log is measurement of natural
radioactivity in formation verses depth.
• It measures the radiation emitting from
naturally occurring U, Th, and K.
• It is also known as shale log.
• GR log reflects shale or clay content.
• Clean formations have low radioactivity level.
• Correlation between wells,
• Determination of bed boundaries,
• Evaluation of shale content within a
formation,
• Mineral analysis,
• Depth control for log tie-ins, side-wall coring, or perforating.
• Particularly useful for defining shale beds when the sp is featureless
• GR log can be run in both open and cased hole
•
RESISTIVITY LOG
• Basics about the Resistivity:

• Resistivity measures the electric properties of the formation,
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• Resistivity is measured as, R in W per m,
• Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity,
• The ability to conduct electric current depends upon:
• The Volume of water,
• The Temperature of the formation,
• The Salinity of the formation
• The Resistivity Log:
Resistivity logs measure the ability of rocks to conduct electrical current and are scaled in
units of ohm-meters.
The Usage:
• Resistivity logs are electric logs which are used to:
• Determine Hydrocarbon versus Water-bearing zones,
• Indicate Permeable zones,
• Determine Resisitivity Porosity.
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG (SP)
The spontaneous potential log (SP) measures the natural or spontaneous potential
difference (sometimes called self-potential) that exists between the borehole and the surface in
the absence of any artificially applied current. It is a very simple log that requires only an
electrode in the borehole and a reference electrode at the surface. These spontaneous potentials
arise from the different access that different formations provide for charge carriers in the
borehole and formation fluids, which lead to a spontaneous current flow, and hence to a
spontaneous potential difference. The spontaneous potential log is given the generic acronym SP.
The SP log has four main uses:
· The detection of permeable beds.
· The determination of Rw.
· The indication of the shaliness of a formation.
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· Correlation.
Principles
There are three requirements for the existence of an SP current:
· A conductive borehole fluid (i.e., a water based mud).
· A sandwich of a porous and permeable bed between low porosity and impermeable formations.
· A difference in salinity between the borehole fluid and the formation fluid, which are the mud
filtrate and the formation fluid in most cases. Note, however, that in some special cases an SP
current can be set-up when there is no difference in salinity, but where a difference in fluid
pressures occurs.
• The spontaneous potential (SP) curve records

the naturally occurring electrical potential
(voltage) produced by the interaction of
formation connate water, conductive drilling
fluid, and shale
• The SP curve reflects a difference in the
electrical potential between a movable
electrode in the borehole and a fixed reference
electrode at the surface
• Though the SP is used primarily as a lithology
indicator and as a correlation tool, it has other
uses as well:
• permeability indicator,
• shale volume indicator
• porosity indicator, and
• measurement of Rw (hence formation water salinity)
INDUCTION LOGGING
Induction logging was originally developed to measure formation resistivities in boreholes

containing oil-based muds and in air-drilled boreholes because electrode devices could not work
in these nonconductive boreholes. However, because the tools were easy to run and required
much less in the way of chart corrections than laterals or normals, induction tools were used in a
wide range of borehole salinity soon after their introduction
The illustration shows a simple two coil induction log and a single "ground loop" of current
circulating in the rock around the tool. An infinite number of ground loops exist, but only those
near the tool will generate a magnetic field strong enough to produce a voltage in the receiver
coil.
Early induction logging tool consists of several transmitter-receiver coil pairs within a logging
tool housing. A 20,000 Hz regulated alternating current is produced in the transmitter coils,
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which induces eddy currents by electromagnetic induction into the rocks surrounding the coil
system. The eddy currents generate a magnetic field, which in turn induces voltages in the
receiver coils. By keeping the transmitter current constant, the magnitude of the eddy currents
are proportional to the conductivity of the formation and 90 degrees out of phase with the
transmitter current. Voltages at the receiver coil induced by these eddy currents are also
proportional to the formation conductivity and approximately in phase with the transmitter
current. The electronic circuitry of the receiver is designed to detect the in-phase component of
the receiver coil voltage and this serves as a measure of the conductivity of the formation.
The eddy currents induced in a conductive formation experience phase shift and attenuation. The
loss due to attenuation is known as skin effect (or propagation loss) and is corrected by
proprietary service company algorithms. Corrections fir the effect of drilling fluid invasion may
be required. Charts and computer code are available for this purpose.
Principles
Commercial induction tools consist of multiple coil arrays designed to optimize vertical
resolution and depth of investigation. However, to illustrate induction-tool fundamentals, it is
instructive to first examine the basic building block of multiple-coil arrays, the two-coil sonde.
Fig. shows that a two-coil sonde consists of a transmitter and receiver mounted coaxially on a
mandrel. Typical coil separations range from 1 to 10 ft apart. In practice, each coil can consist of
from several to 100 or more turns, with the exact number of turns determined by engineering
considerations. The operating frequency of commercial induction tools is in the tens to hundreds
of kilohertz range, with 20 kHz .
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The induction transmitter coil is driven by an alternating current that creates a primary magnetic
field around the transmitter coil. The primary magnetic field causes eddy currents to flow in a
continuous circular distribution (often mistakenly called "ground loops") centered around the
borehole axis. The color contours in Fig. show the current distribution. These eddy currents are
proportional to the formation conductivity, and they in turn generate a secondary magnetic field,
which induces an alternating voltage in the receiver coil. This receiver voltage is first-order
proportional to the conductivity of the formation.
INDUCTION LOG THEORY

Induction logs are designed to measure the conductivity of rock formations by using the
electromagnetic principles outlined by Faraday, Ampere, Gauss, Coulomb and unified in a single
theory by James Maxwell in 1864. The process involves the interaction of magnetic and electric
fields:
1. Alternating current applied to transmitter coils

2. Creates alternating magnetic field in rocks
3. Which generates alternating current in rocks (current loops, eddy currents)
4. Current loops generate out of phase magnetic field in rocks
5. Which generates in-phase voltage in receiver coils
6. Calculate resistivity Rt = RES = K * V / I
The basic equations for a single transmitter – receiver coil pair, in EXTREMELY simplified
form, are shown below.
1: Bt = uo * dI/dt magnetic field due to current “I” in transmitter coil

2 : I = C * dBt/dt current in formation induced by magnetic field “Bt”
3: Br = uo * dI/dt magnetic field due to current “I” circulating in the rock
4: V = N * A * (dBr/dt) voltage induced in receiver coil by magnetic field Br
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Where;
Bt = the magnetic field strength in the formation created by an induction log transmitter
uo = the magnetic permittivity
dI/dt = rate of change of the current in the transmitter coil
I = current circulating in the rock
C = conductivity of rock
dBt/dt = rate of change of transmitted magnetic field
Br = out-of-phase magnetic field strength in the formation created by the currents in the rock
dI/dt = rate of change of the current in the rock
V = voltage induced in an induction log receiver coil
N = number of turns on the coil
A = area of the coil
dBr/dt = rate of change of the magnetic field created by the currents circulating in the rock
TEMPERATURE/PRESSURE LOGS
Temperature/pressure logs are used to identify certain characteristics of a geothermal reservoir.

The primary goal of utilizing a temperature/pressure tool is to locate the most suitable zones of a
reservoir to produce from. Temperatures change with depth, sometimes there are structural or
hydrological controls that can push the temperature up or down at a specific depth, the
temperature depth logging tool is able to locate these perturbations at depth. Similarly, pressures
within a well can fluctuate depending on the depth, formation, or fluid circulation. A high grade
geothermal resource has high temperatures and high pressures, and a temperature/pressure log is
a tool to locate the best production zone within a well.
The geothermal industry relies on pressure/temperature tools to locate where the best zone for
production is at depth. Most of this technology was originally used for petroleum exploration,
but quickly became an obvious application for geothermal exploration. Initially the tools would
be damaged due to the high temperatures encountered in a high grade geothermal system, so
various tool companies designed temperature pressure tools that could survive the extreme
environments encountered within a geothermal system.
Uses in geothermal exploration include locating the capacity of steam entries and document the
pressure and temperature profile of a well. These two parameters are very useful when
estimating the capacity of a given well, and ultimately the resource.
Field procedure:
After a well has been drilled and fluids have stopped circulating the temperature of the well is
expected to equilibrate with the surrounding rocks in a matter of hours to days. Once
equilibration is reached a temperature-pressure tool is lowered into the hole to take
measurements as it descends into the hole. This is done at the well head.
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NEUTRON LOGGING
• The Neutron Log is primarily used to evaluate formation porosity, but the fact that it is really
just a hydrogen detector should always be kept in mind
• It is used to detect gas in certain situations, exploiting the lower hydrogen density, or
hydrogen index
The Neutron Log can be summarized as the continuous

measurement of the induced radiation produced by the
bombardment of that formation with a neutron source
contained in the logging tool which sources emit fast
neutrons that are eventually slowed by collisions with
hydrogen atoms until they are captured (think of a
billiard ball metaphor where the similar size of the
particles is a factor). The capture results in the
emission of a secondary gamma ray; some tools,
especially older ones, detect the capture gamma ray
(neutron-gamma log). Other tools detect intermediate
(epithermal) neutrons or slow (thermal) neutrons (both
referred to as neutron-neutron logs).
THE DENSITY LOG
• The formation density log is a porosity log that measures electron density of a formation
• Dense formations absorb many gamma rays, while low-density formations absorb fewer.
Thus, high-count rates at the detectors indicate low-density formations, whereas low count
rates at the detectors indicate high-density formations.
• Therefore, scattered gamma rays reaching the detector is an indication of formation Density.
Scale and units:
The most frequently used scales are a range of 2.0 to 3.0 gm/cc or 1.95 to 2.95 gm/cc across two
tracks.
A density derived porosity curve is sometimes present in tracks #2 and #3 along with the bulk
density (rb) and correction (Dr) curves. Track #1 contains a gamma ray log and caliper.
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SONIC OR ACOUSTIC LOG
The sonic or acoustic log measures the travel time of an elastic wave through the formation. This
information can also be used to derive the velocity of elastic waves through the formation. Its
main use is to provide information to support and calibrate seismic data and to derive the
porosity of a formation. The main uses are:
· Provision of a record of “seismic” velocity and travel time throughout a borehole. This
information can be used to calibrate a seismic data set (i.e., tie it in to measured values of seismic
velocity).
· Provision of “seismic” data for the use in creating synthetic seismograms. · Determination of
porosity (together with the FDC and CNL tools).
· Stratigraphic correlation.
· Identification of lithologies.
· Facies recognition.
· Fracture identification.
· Identification of compaction.
· Identification of over-pressures.
· Identification of source rocks
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Sonic logging is a well logging tool that provides a formation’s interval transit time, designated
as T, which is a measure of a formation’s capacity to transmit seismic waves. Geologically, this
capacity varies with lithology and rock textures, most notably decreasing with an
increasing effective porosity. This means that a sonic log can be used to calculate the porosity of
a formation if the seismic velocity of the rock matrix, Vmat, and pore fluid, Vl , are known, which
is very useful for hydrocarbon exploration.
• Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound waves in subsurface formations. While the
acoustic log can be used to determine porosity in consolidated formations, it is also
valuable in other applications, such as:
• Indicating lithology (using the ratio of compressional velocity over shear velocity),
• Determining integrated travel time (an important tool for seismic/wellbore correlation),
• Correlation with other wells
• Detecting fractures and evaluating secondary porosity,
• Evaluating cement bonds between casing, and formation,
• Detecting over-pressure,
• Determining mechanical properties (in combination with the density log), and
• Determining acoustic impedance (in combination with the density log).
The velocity is calculated by measuring the travel time from the piezoelectric transmitter to the
receiver, normally with the units microsecond per foot (a measure of slowness). To compensate
for the variations in the drilling mud thickness, there are actually two receivers, one near and one
far. This is because the travel time within the drilling mud will be common for both, so the travel
time within the formation is given by:
t=tfar -tnear
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Theory
The tool measures the time it takes for a pulse of “sound” (i.e., and elastic wave) to travel from a
transmitter to a receiver, which are both mounted on the tool. The transmitted pulse is very short
and of high amplitude. This travels through the rock in various different forms while undergoing
dispersion (spreading of the wave energy in time and space) and attenuation (loss of energy
through absorption of energy by the formations). When the sound energy arrives at the receiver,
having passed through the rock, it does so at different times in the form of different types of
wave. This is because the different types of wave travel with different velocities in the rock or
take different pathways to the receiver.
CALIPER LOG
A caliper log is a well logging tool that provides a continuous measurement of the size and shape
of a borehole along its depth[1] and is commonly used in hydrocarbon exploration when drilling
wells. The measurements that are recorded can be an important indicator of cave ins
or shale swelling in the borehole, which can affect the results of other well logs.
Process
The caliper tool measures the variation in
borehole diameter as it is withdrawn from
the bottom of the hole, using two or more
articulated arms that push against the
borehole wall. Each arm is typically
connected to a potentiometer which causes
the resistance to change as the diameter of
the borehole changes, creating a varying
electrical signal that represents the changing
shape of the borehole. This variation in
output is translated into changes of diameter
after a simple calibration and the caliper log
is printed as a continuous series of values of
hole diameter with depth.
Presentation of 4 arm caliper log data
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Factors influencing caliper responses.
Hole Diameter Cause Possible Lithologies

On Gauge Well consolidated formations Massive sandstones
Non-permeable formations. Calcareous shales
Igneous rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Larger than Bit 1. Formation soluble in drilling 1. Salt formations drilled with fresh
Size mud. water.
2. Formations weak and cave in. 2. Unconsolidated sands, gravels,
brittle shales.
Smaller than Bit 1. Formations swell and flow into 1. Swelling shales.
Size borehole.
2. Development of mudcake for 2. Porous, permeable sandstones.
porous and permeable
formations.
Uses of the Caliper Log
The commoner uses of the caliper log are
as follows:
 Contributory information for

lithological assessment (see Table 9.1
and Fig. 9.4).
 Indicator of good permeability and

porosity zones (reservoir rock) due to
development of mudcake in
association with gamma ray log.
 Calculation of mudcake thickness, hmc

= (dbit – dh)/2, where h stands for the
hole, in inches.
 Measurement of borehole volume, Vh
= (dh2/2)+1.2%, in litres per metre.
 Measurement of required cement
volume
Typical caliper responses to various

lithologies.
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NMR LOGGING (NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE LOGS)
logging, a subcategory of electromagnetic logging, measures the induced magnet moment of
hydrogen nuclei (protons) contained within the fluid-filled pore space of porous media (reservoir
rocks). Unlike conventional logging measurements (e.g., acoustic, density, neutron, and
resistivity), which respond to both the rock matrix and fluid properties and are strongly
dependent on mineralogy, NMR-logging measurements respond to the presence of hydrogen
protons. Because these protons primarily occur in pore fluids, NMR effectively responds to the
volume, composition, viscosity, and distribution of these fluids, for example:
 Oil
 Gas
 Water
NMR logs provide information about the quantities of fluids present, the properties of these
fluids, and the sizes of the pores containing these fluids.
• The volume (porosity) and distribution (permeability) of the rock pore space
 Rock composition
 Type and quantity of fluid hydrocarbons
 Hydrocarbon producibility
NMR logging exploits the large magnetic moment of hydrogen, which is abundant in rocks in the
form of water. The NMR signal amplitude is proportional to the quantity of hydrogen nuclei
present in a formation and can be calibrated to give a value for porosity that is free from
lithology effects. Uniquely, a petrophysicist can also analyse the rate of decay of the NMR signal
amplitude to obtain information on the permeability of the formation - a crucial quantity
in hydrocarbon exploration
The chief application of the NMR tool is to determine moveable fluid volume (BVM) of a rock.
This is the pore space excluding clay bound water (CBW) and irreducible water (BVI). Neither
of these are moveable in the NMR sense, so these volumes are not easily observed on older logs.
On modern tools, both CBW and BVI can often be seen in the signal response after transforming
the relaxation curve to the porosity domain. Note that some of the moveable fluids (BVM) in the
NMR sense are not actually moveable in the oilfield sense of the word. Residual oil and gas,
heavy oil, and bitumen may appear moveable to the NMR precession measurement, but these
will not necessarily flow into a well bore.
Micritic interparticle porosity and pin point vugs in carbonates may be included in the CBW
fraction. This may cause a minor difference between effective porosity seen by conventional logs
and from NMR, especially in clean rocks in which some of the porosity has very small pore size.
The NMR log has been around since the early 1960's but it did not live up to it's hype until
recently. As a result the log is rare and previous bad experiences still get in the way of its use
today. Older logs attempted to measure the free fluid index (FFI), equivalent to the modern tool's
bulk volume moveable (BVM).
With stronger magnets and better processing, modern tools can usually give the irreducible water
volume (BVI) and clay bound water (CBW). Effective porosity (PHIe) is the sum of BVI and
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BVM. In hydrocarbon zones at initial conditions, water saturation is BVI divided by PHIe. No
shale corrections or resistivity log are needed.
The rock volume measured is very small compared to density and neutron logs, so there is some
possibility for inconsistent results when comparing NMR porosity to these sources.
THERMAL DECAY LOG
Thermal Decay Time Log, also known as Thermal Decay Time, is a log record that
captures the rate of thermal neutrons in a formation after it is bombarded with a burst of 14 Mev
neutrons. In a tool, an electronically operated neutron generator is present that produces the
neutron pulses which spread in the borehole and the formation. Thermal decay time logs are used
to measure the decay or dying time of the short lived neutron pulse that is produced from a
pulsed neutron decay logging tool.
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The neutron generator produces high speed thermal neutron pulses in the borehole as well as
formation regions. The electronic circuit on the pulsed neutron decay logging tool then records
the detection times relative to a time reference related to the neutron production bursts. The
downhole and uphole circuit controls the operation of the tool and with the surface system,
processes the spectrum of die-away or decay detection times. From these data the system
estimates earth formation properties which are then used in the evaluation of the reservoirs. The
logging tool can be logged through open or cased hole. The detector is designed to detect gamma
rays resulting from capture of thermal neutrons which is produced as a result of slowing down
and the high-energy source neutrons getting thermalized or the thermal neutrons.
The Thermal Neutron Decay Time (TDT) log provides a determination of the time constant for
provides a determination of the time constant for the decay of thermal neutrons in the formation.
Hence, it reflects primarily the neutron absorptive properties of the formation. These properties
are properties of the formation. These properties are useful in formation evaluation. The most
important area of application is in logging cased hole. Because chlorine is by far the strongest
thermal neutron absorber of the common earth elements, the TDT log responds largely to the
amount of NaCl present in the formation water. As a result, this present in the formation water.
As a result, this log resembles the usual open-hole resistivity logs and is easily correlatable with
them.
When information on lithology and porosity is known or is provided by open-hole logs, a log of
neutron provided by open-hole logs, a log of neutron absorption properties permits the solution
of a wide variety of problems: saturation determination, oil-water contact location, detection of
gas behind casing, etc. Measurements of the thermal neutron decay time constant are made by
first irradiating the formation with a pulse of high-energy neutrons from a neutron generator in
the sonde, and then, a short time after the neutron source is turned off, determining the rate at
which the thermal neutron population decreases. After each neutron burst, the high-energy
neutrons are quickly slowed down to thermal
velocities by successive collisions with the nuclei
of elements in the formation and borehole. The
relative number of thermal neutrons remaining in
the formation is measured during detection
intervals which follow each burst. Between each
burst and the beginning of the first detection
interval is a delay time which permits the originally
fast neutrons to reach thermal permits the originally
fast neutrons to reach thermal energy and allows
"early" borehole effects to subside.
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CHLORINE LOG
The first incarnation of an elemental capture spectroscopy log was the chlorine log. The recorded
curve was a measure of the concentration of chlorine in the formation. High chlorine meant salt
water in high to moderate porosity. Low chlorine meant hydrocarbon or fresh water or low
porosity. By using the porosity log, we could sort out low porosity but sorting hydrocarbon from
fresh water required local knowledge. This tool was rare, usually run through casing but open
hole examples exist.
The logging tool is composed of four parts, sensor assembly (source and detectors), electronic
control section, telemetry cartridge, and surface computer software control and interpretation
system. In the sensor assembly, there is a neutron source cell and two detectors.
Principle of Measurement
Fast neutrons with average energy of 4.5 MeV emitted from a neutron source interact with the
elements in the formation. These neutrons are slowdown by the elements contained in the
formation matrix and fluids in the pores, and are slowly become to thermal neutrons . The
thermal neutrons are finally captured by atomic nucleus of elements in the formation. During the
capture process, specific energy gamma rays are emitted. When the fast neutron are slowdown ,
some thermal neutrons are scattered to the formation areas near the sensors and detected by
thermal neutron detector.
However, part of captured gamma rays are also scattered to the sensors and detected by
scintillation detector. If there are two formations of same lithology and porosity, but different in
the content of chlorine element in pore fluids, i.e. the salinity of formation water in the two
formations are different. When two formation are logged, two significant different results are
obtained. First, the thermal neutron counts in chlorine formation will less than that of formation
with no chlorine element, this is because the chlorine element has a bigger thermal neutron
capture cross-section. some of the thermal neutrons in the formation are captured , so the flux of
thermal neutron decreases. Second, gamma rays counts detected in the chlorine energy window
in the gamma ray spectrum are also different. Gamma rays counts in chlorine formation is
greater than that of the formation with no chlorine element
CARBON OXYGEN LOG

It presented a log curve of carbon/oxygen capture ratio, a fraction (C/O) and silicon/calcium
capture ratio (Si/Ca). High C/O indicate hydrocarbons as opposed to water and high Si meant
sandstone as opposed to carbonate rocks. Shale and mudstone should have low C/O and low
Si/Ca, except silty shale could have Moderate Si/Ca ratios. Count rates were measured in counts
per minute instead of counts per second, so the tool had to be run very slowly as a through casing
tool. It worked best in high porosity.
Carbon/oxygen (C/O) logging is primarily utilized to determine oil water saturations and
reservoir performance in areas with low or unknown formation water salinities. The C/O
measurement is based on carbon and oxygen reactions with high energy neutrons producing
characteristic gamma rays. From this measurement, one can distinguish between hydrocarbons
(C+H) and water (H+O), or different C/O ratio in the oil or water formation.
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TEMPERATURE LOGS
Knowledge of the temperature at each depth of a borehole is necessary for two main reasons:
a. the corrections of the tool measurements that are sensitive to the temperature (i.e.
resistivity),
b. The determination of the hydrocarbon potential of a basin in terms of oil or gas producer
as a function of the source rock maturity. The latter depends on the organic-matter type,
the temperature and pressure, consequently the depth, and the time.
Generally temperature increases with depth and in undisturbed conditions it has a rate of
increase with depth known as the geothermal gradient. In homogeneous formations this
gradient varies linearly with depth.
Principle:
Generally each logging tool run in the hole has attached one, or several, maximum-
reading pressure-resistant thermometer at the top of the logging string. This thermometer
gives a reading of the temperature at the bottom of the hole. If for each tool run the
temperature is measured, an increase in temperature is observed with time as a function of
the mud thermal conductivity. A minimum of three measurement is required to observe the
differences between runs. The time span between the end of the mud circulation and the
moment the thermometer reaches the total depth differs between successive logging runs.
This is the tendency to restore equilibrium and for the ground to return to its original
temperature. These time spans must be recorded. From these measurements it is possible to
extrapolate the initial temperature of the ground at the bottom of the hole, using a Homer plot
of temperature.
The temperatures are Ti, measured at times ti for each successive tool run.
The formula was: T = K log[( Δt + ti) / Δt] + T(×)
Applications of temperature logs :

 Temperature measurements allow the definition of changes in the geothermal balance
(geothermal energy, thermal flux, maturing organic matter, etc.).
 Variations in temperature can then give some indication of lithology. This is one way of
detecting low compacted shales (the temperature goes up more quickly, the geothermal
gradient rises).
 One can locate lost circulation zones or, on the other hand, fluid flow into the well, and in
particular, gas, which is detected by the cooling effect brought about by gas expansion.
 Another application is the mapping of the geothermal gradients.
 Detection of the cement height behind casing and channelling zones (fluid circulation
behind pipe);
 Detection of producing zones;
 Determination of the depth of the bubble point; Detection of zones of fluid injection
entry.
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DIP AND DEVIATION:
The aim of this log is to determine the angle to the horizontal and the azimuth referenced
to magnetic north and geographcal north of the dip of the planes cut by the well. These planes
can be
-bed boundarjes;
-an open or closed fracture;
-an erosional surface;
-a stylolitic joint
The planes can be planar, or can correspond to a convex or concave surface intersecting the well.
The dipmeter tool measures conductivity or resistivity changes, hole size, and sonde orientation-
nothing more, nothing less. It does not directly measure the dip of bed boundaries or the dip of
lithology changes. The conductivity changes are input into a computer program that correlates
the recorded wiggle traces and computes apparent dip from the correlations. Computed dips are
then corrected for sonde tilt and converted into true dips. The true dips are plotted and used to
make inferences of structural dips, bed geometries, and depositional environments.
Principle:
The dipmeter tool measures conductivity or resistivity changes of the formation, hole
size, and sonde orientation. It does not directly measure the dip of bed boundaries or the dip of
lithology changes. The conductivity changes are input into a computer program that correlates
the recorded wiggle traces and computes apparent dip from the correlations. Computed dips are
then corrected for sonde tilt and converted into true dips. The true dips are plotted and used to
make inferences of structural dips, bed geometries, and depositional environments. The dipmeter
tool operates on the following principle. A bedding surface cutting across a borehole at some
angle causes microresistivity changes to be recorded at different depths on the individual
dipmeter curves, which are recorded from electrodes on pads located at various circumferential
positions around the borehole. as the four pads ascend the hole, each measure electrode contacts
the thin bed at a different elevation, giving rise to displacements, or shifts, between curves.
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UNIT-III
Well logs furnish the data necessary for quantitative evaluation of hydrocarbons in situ. Modern
curves provide a wealth of information on both the rock and fluid properties of the formations
penetrated. From the point of view of decision-making, logging is the most important part of the
drilling and completion process.
Log measurements are made using a measuring sonde (with electronic cartridge) lowered on a
cable from a winch, which is mounted on a logging truck or offshore unit. The truck and unit are
laboratories containing the recording equipment (optical and tape), control panels, and a
computer.
The following are the main equipments contained in a logging truck:
 The main winch, which may hold as much as 26,000 ft (8000 m) of multi- conductor,
steelarmoured cable, with a pulling capacity of several tons.
 Auxillary winch containing thinner monoconductor cable, generally for use when there is
wellhead pressure (production or work-over operations, mainly).
 The winchman’s control panel.
 The surface logging panels) which power and control the downhole tool, process the
incoming information and transmit the information to ~ the recording equipment: printer,
memory devices.
 Depth-measuring system.
 Captive power supply/power generator.
 A computer or a work station.
 Output device (printer, cd writer etc.)
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All the logging surface system will have the following four groups of equipments.
 Surface signal routing
 Battery back and system power

 Surface Acquisition Hardware
The acquired data from the down hole tool is sent uphole by telemetry system which are
decoded, calibrated and recorded by the surface system.
The downhole wireline logging (WL) tool
It is generally composed of :
a sonde that consist at least of a detector, receiver or sensor, and for measurement of induced
phenomena, there will also be one or several sources or emitters. These components are mounted
in the logging tool which may also contain a hydraulic or mechanical system for opening and
closing the arms of a pad-type tool, and some electronics : preamplifier, power-transformer;
a) the down hole electronic cartridge has multiple roles and has:
- Power supply to the sonde emitter system;
- Power supply to the detector system;
- Filtering and amplification of the incoming signal, scaling...;
- Transmission of the signal up the cable, control of telemetry system;
- Power supply and control of any sonde mechanical operation.
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b) - The telemetry system. The digital transmission is the rule for modern logging
operations. The information arrives as a function of time at a well-defined frequency which can
be either 15 or 60 Hz. The information is stored in a buffer. It is averaged, then released as a
function of depth, the depth signal is provided by the system of depth measurement.
c) - The recording equipment. Data are stored on tapes or CDs or disks and
reproduced as logs at different depth scales.
Tool combination and depth memorization
At present it is possible to combine practically any type of tools, subject only to operational
considerations such as length and weight. The well-known “triple combo” is an example of such
combination.
Where several tools are combined, it is necessary to store in a memory the readings of each tool as
it passes a given depth, and to discharge this memory only when the last sensor reaches that depth.
In this way all data are recorded on depth. This is performed by the surface system/computer.
Modern tools are now combined with an accelerometer in order to better correct for slowing down
or sticking of the tool string followed by a sudden acceleration.
LOG DATA RECORDING AND STORAGE
 Present days the logs are stored on Optical drives, Hard disks and cd/DVD disks.
 The data is normally store in two formats called 1) LAS and 2) LIS/DLIS
formats. LAS (Log ASCII Standard) format consists of files, written in ASCII,
containing minimal header information. Each file consists of up to six
sections. The LAS-format
 purpose is to supply basic digital log data to users of personal computers in a format
 that is quick and easy to use.
 The first section is usually the “VERSION” section, which contains the version number of the
LAS format. The second is the “WELL INFORMATION” section, which contains
informations on the well name, location, and start and stop depths of the data present in the
file. The “CURVE INFORMATION” section contains the curve mnemonics, units used, and
definitions of mnemonics. “PARAMETER” section, optional as the OTHER” section,
contains information on parameters, or comments.
DLIS format
With the introduction of more complex logging tools with a wide variety of data types
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(waveforms, arrays...) and record length (from few bits to several thousand bits), the existing
formats had difficulty handling variable sampling rates, which could be recorded during the same
logging run. To address these limitations, API imposed, as an industry standard, a general format
known as the DLIS format (DLIS for Digital Log Interchange Standard). DLIS has the following
features:
Better identification of data.
Ability to contain both standard and auxiliary logging data, units of measure and
calibration information.
Allowance for complex forms of data, including arrays and textual strings.
Presentation of channels data according to their dynamic requirements, including variable-
length frames and multiple frame types. These can differ by index, sampling rate or
channels. and be intermixed in the same file.
Possibility to merge, splice and flip log data.
Record of infinite length.
Encryption capabilities.
Data transmission
Data can be transmitted by fax, radio, telephone, or even intranet or internet to a log
computing center or company office if quick decisions, or rapid interpretation, are to be made
away from the well site in any one of the two/three formats.
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QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATIONS OF WELL LOG DATA
The continuous recording of a geophysical parameter along a borehole produces a

geophysical well log. The value of the measurement is plotted continuously against
depth in the well. Well logging plays a central role in the successful development of a
hydrocarbon reservoir.
Its measurements occupy a position of central importance in the life of a well, between
two milestones: the surface seismic survey, which has influenced the decision for the
well location, and the production testing. The traditional role of wire line logging has
been limited to participation primarily in two general domains: formation evaluation and
completion evaluation.
The goals of formation evaluation can be summarized by a statement of four questions

of primary interest in the production of hydrocarbons:
Are there any hydrocarbons, and if so are they oil or gas?

First, it is necessary to identify or infer the presence of hydrocarbons in formations
traversed by the wellbore.
Where are the hydrocarbons?

The depth of formations, which contain accumulations of hydrocarbons, must be
identified.
How much hydrocarbon is contained in the formation?

An initial approach is to quantify the fractional volume available for hydrocarbon n the
formation. This quantity, porosity, is of utmost importance.
A second aspect is to quantify the hydrocarbon fraction of the fluids within the rock
matrix. The third concerns the areal extent of the bed, or geological body, which
contains the hydrocarbon. This last item falls largely beyond the range of traditional well
logging.
How producible are the hydrocarbons?

In fact, all the questions really come down to just this one practical concern.
Unfortunately, it is the most difficult to answer from inferred formation properties. The
most important input is a determination of permeability. Many empirical methods are
used to extract this parameter from log measurements with varying degrees of success.
Another key factor is oil viscosity, often loosely referred to by its weight, as in heavy or
light oil. Formation evaluation is essentially performed on a well-by-well basis. A number
of measurement devices and interpretation techniques have been developed.
They provide, principally, values of porosity, shaliness and hydrocarbon saturation, as a

function of depth, using the knowledge of local geology and fluid properties that is
accumulated as a reservoir is developed. Because of the wide variety of subsurface
geological formations, many different logging tools are needed to give the best possible
combination of measurements for the rock type anticipated. Despite the availability of
this rather large number of devices, each providing complementary information, the final
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answers derived are mainly three: the location of oil-bearing and gas-bearing
formations, an estimate of their producibility, and an assessment of the quantity of
hydrocarbon in place in the reservoir.
Well Log Interpretation:
Finding the HydrocarbonThe three most important questions to be answered by wellsite

interpretation are:1. Does the formation contain hydrocarbons, and if so at what depth and
are they Oil or gas?2. If so, what is the quantity present?3. Are the hydrocarbons
recoverable?
INTERPRETATION PROCEDURE
The basic logs, which are required for the adequate formation evaluation, are: 1. Permeable
zone logs (SP, GR, Caliper)
2. Resistivity logs (MFSL, Shallow and Deep resistivity logs)
3. Porosity logs (Density, Neutron and Sonic).
Generally, the permeable zone logs are presented in track one, the resistivity logs are run in
track two and porosity logs on track three Using such a set of logs, a log interpreter has to
solve the following problems,(I). Where are the potential producing hydrocarbons
zones?(II). How much hydrocarbons (oil or gas) do they contain?
First step:
The first step in the log interpretation is to locate the permeable zones. Scanning the log in
track one and it has a base line on the right, which is called the shale base line. This
baseline indicates shale i.e., impermeable zones and swings to the left indicate clean
zones- e.g., sand, limestone etc. The interpreter focuses his attention immediately on these
permeable zones.
Next step:
To scan the resistivity logs in track 2 to see which of the zones of interest gives high
resistivity readings. High resistivities reflect either hydrocarbons in the pores or low porosity.
Next step:
Scan the porosity logs on the track 3 to see which of the zones have good porosity against
the high resistivity zones. Discard the tight formations. Select the interesting zones for the
formation evaluation.
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OVERLAYS AND CROSS-PLOTS
The crossplot is another method for visualizing petrophysical data. A clever crossplot can reveal
even more about a formation than a standard log-depth display. In a crossplot, the analyst plots
one log value on the x-axis against a different log value, at the same depth, on the y-axis. This
is repeated for all depths of interest, creating a scatterplot such as that shown in Fig
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The location of points on such a plot can discriminate underlying mineralogy and reveal trends
such as shaliness or porosity. Each pure mineral will plot as a single point. The power to
discriminate depends on the independence and uniqueness of log responses to the lithologies of
interest. Crossplots frequently include calculated overlay points and lines. The points locate
various lithologic endpoints of interest, while the lines track the simultaneous solution of the
response equations for the two logs over a range variable such as porosity, or percentage of one
mineral vs. another. These response equations are simply the linear mixing-law response
equations discussed in the sections above on the individual logs. With only two variables—the
two logs—only two unknowns can be extracted. For example, one could determine matrix type
(and its associated endpoint-log readings) and the amount of water-filled porosity.
In crossplots, nuclear logs have a clear advantage over sonic or resistivity laws. As we have seen,
nuclear logs generally obey simple, linear, bulk mixing laws that have a firm basis in physics.
The mixing laws for sonic and resistivity measurements are not only nonlinear but also largely
empirical, with only weak connections to theory. Nonlinear terms in a mixing law show up on
crossplots as curved lines (the simultaneous solution for a given set of conditions corresponds to
a line). In this section, the discussion will be confined to crossplots involving only nuclear logs,
although many other useful combinations are possible.
A third variable is sometimes displayed as a z-axis in the form of a color scale. In the example,
the color of each point represents its gamma ray log reading according to the key along the right
side. This highlights the location of shales and facilitates the selection of shale properties.
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Reading Lithology from a Neutron-Density Porosity Log Overlay
If the overlay is used to compensate for lithology effects on these logs, then it follows logically
that a geologist should be able to "read" these same effects in a geological interpretation of
logged sections. Let us see how this works from looking at what we would expect to see in a
hypothetical overlay of neutron and density logs for a simple sequence of sandstone, limestone,
and dolomite, interbedded with shales.
The Gamma-Ray, Neutron-Density Overlay Template
Limestones generally have a low gamma-ray value, and a coincident density and neutron
response, because of common calibration to an assumed limestone porosity scale.
Dolomites have a low gamma-ray value, a relatively low density porosity (because the grain
density of dolomite is higher than calcite) and a relatively high neutron reading ( because the
neutron moderating character of dolomite is higher than calcite).
Sandstones have a low gamma -ray value, a relatively high density porosity ( because the grain
density of quartz is less than calcite), and a relatively low neutron reading.
Shales show a high gamma-ray reading, a high neutron reading, and a moderate density reading.
(However, the neutron and density readings of shales will vary with the degree of their
compaction.) Although shales, limestones, dolomites and sandstones constitute the bulk of
sedimentary successions, this neutron/density overlay convention is highly serviceable in the
recognition of many other minerals and lithologies, as we shall see in the next lesson.
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The overlay method has been described in terms of theoretical expectations, but how well does it
work in practice? As an example of the practical use of this overlay, gamma-ray, neutron and
density logs are shown on the following pages for a Paleozoic sequence of mixed lithologies
from a wildcat drilled in northern Kansas.
Dual-Mineral Crossplots
There are three lithology lines displayed on the crossplot: sandstone (quartz), limestone (calcite),
and dolomite. The lithology lines are marked with porosity values, usually in percent. There may
also be additional mineral points on the crossplots; anhydrite and salt are commonly displayed.
The log values for a particular interval or depth are plotted on the crossplot to create a point, and
the location of the point with respect to the lithology lines is an indication of the lithology and
porosity of the point.
If the point falls directly on a lithology line, the lithology of the point corresponds to the
lithology of the line, and the porosity of the point corresponds to the porosity of the line at that
location.
If the point falls between two lines, it can be assumed to be a mixture of the lithologies of those
two lines. It contains a greater percentage of the mineral of the line to which it is closest. The
porosity of the point is determined by connecting the porosity points on the lines, and estimating
the porosity of the point by its relationship to those connecting lines. Note that depending on the
location of the plotted point, there may be more than one solution for the lithology, and that the
porosity will vary according to the lithology solution that is chosen
Three Porosity Measurement Crossplots(M-N)

The three crossplots in this section are interpreted in a similar manner. Given three porosity
measurements, a three-mineral matrix can be determined. Because the techniques are restricted
to a two-dimensional plot, intermediate quantities which collapse the three measurements to two
axes are calculated and plotted. In more complex mineral mixtures lithology interpretation is
facilitated by use of the M-N plot. These plots combine the data of all three porosity logs to
provide the lithology-dependent quantities M and N. M and N are simply the slopes of the
individual lithology lines on the sonic-density and density-neutron crossplots, respectively. Thus,
M and N are essentially independent of porosity, and a crossplot provides lithology
identification.
The older M-N plot used sonic, density, and neutron values to
calculate M (a function of sonic and density) and N (a function of
neutron and density). The value M is calculated using the relationship
The value of N is calculated using the relation ship
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Newer techniques, and the addition of an additional measurement, photoelectric effect
(Pe or PEF), derive “apparent matrix” values. Apparent matrix density, Rhomaa (a function of
density and neutron) is plotted against apparent
matrix sonic traveltime, DTmaa (a function of sonic
and neutron). Apparent matrix density is also plotted
against apparent matrix photoelectric cross section,
Umaa (a function of density, neutron, and
photoelectric effect).
In these techniques, any three mineral points are

plotted as the vertices of a triangle. The relationship
of a plotted apparent matrix point to the triangle
determines the components of the formation
represented by the point. Points for a mixture of of
three minerals will plot within The triangle formed
by connecting the three respective single-mineral
points. For example, suppose a rock mixture
exhibits N = 039 and M = 0.81; in Fig this point
falls within a triangle defined by the limestone-
dolomite-quartz points. It would therefore be
interpreted in most cases as representing a mixture
of limestone, dolomite, and quartz. However, it
could also be a limestone-quartz-anhydrite mixture.
ANALYSIS IN SHALY FORMATIONS

Shales are one of the more important common constituents of rocks in log analysis. Aside from
their effects on porosity and permeability, this importance stems from their electrical properties,
which have a great influence on the determination of fluid saturations.
Shales are loose, plastic, fine-grained mixtures of clay-sized particles or colloidal-sized particles
and often contain a high proportion of clay minerals. Most clay minerals are structured in sheets
of alumina-octahedron and silica-tetrahedron lattices.
The way shaliness affects a log reading depends on the amount of shale and its physical
properties. It may also depend on the way the shale is distributed in the formation. Shaly material
can be distributed in the formation in three ways:
 Shale can exist in the form of laminae between which are layers of sand. The laminar shale
does not affect the porosity or permeability of the sand streaks themselves. However, when
the amount of laminar shale is increased and the amount of porous medium is
correspondingly decreased, overall average effective porosity is reduced in proportion.
 Shale can exist as grains or nodules in the formation matrix. This matrix shale is termed
structural shale; it is usually considered to have properties similar to those of laminar shale
and nearby massive shales.
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 The shaly material can be dispersed throughout the sand, partially filling the intergranular
interstices. The dispersed shale may be in accumulations adhering to or coating the sand
grains, or it may partially fill the smaller pore channels. Dispersed shale in the pores
markedly reduces the permeability of the formation.
Most shaly sand evaluation methods require the knowledge of the amount of shales or clays and
how they affect the magnitude of various measurements. Over the years the term “clays” and
“shales” have been used interchangeably not because of lack of understanding but due to
different ways in which properties are measured. Therefore, it is essential to define these terms
clearly based on their physical and chemical properties.
Clays are defined in terms of both particle size and mineralogy. In terms of size, clays refer to
particle diameter size less than 0.0625 mm. Clay minerals consist of mainly hydrated alumino
silicates with small amounts of magnesium, iron, potassium, and other elements. Clays are often
found in sandstones, siltstones, and conglomerates.
Effect of Clays on Log Response
The presence of clay minerals in a formation can generally cause a higher reading of apparent
porosity indicated by density, neutron and sonic tools and a suppressed reading by resistivity
tools. Clay minerals can cause the log-derived porosity values to be too high because of: 1) In
density tools, the limitation of tool calibration whenever clay minerals are present; 2) In neutron
tools, the high concentration of hydrogen ion in clays translate to a higher calculated porosity; 3)
In sonic tools, the interval transit time of clays is high. The effect of clays on the electrical
properties of rocks is most significant to log interpretation. Because of the large surface area of
clay minerals, they have the ability to absorb a large quantity of reservoir’s pore water to their
surface. This bound water contributes to additional electrical conductivity or lower resistivity of
shaly sand formation. Moreover, the charge imbalance along the clay surfaces that allow the
exchange of cations (CEC) between the clays bound water and free water also cause increase in
surface electrical conductivity. Therefore, the greater the
CEC of clays in shaly sand, the more the resistivity will
be lowered. Clean Sand
*
The electrical effect of clays in shaly sand is not * * *
uniform. Different type of clays display different surface
area hence they display a different value of CEC Figure F
1.3 shows the relationship between the formation
resistivity factor (F or Cw/Co) to the conductivity of
formation water, Cw and the conductivity of rock fully
saturated by water, Co. This figure indicates the effect of
C
clay is not uniform especially at lower salinity where the
w
relationship has deviated significantly from clean sand line7. This also means at lower salinity
the formation resistivity is more reduced. Without reliable evaluation methods, the chance of
over-looking hydrocarbon zones is greatly increased.
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UNIT-IV
SUB-SURFACE CORRELATION AND MAPPING FROM LOG DATA
Correlation of Logs
Correct correlation of stratigraphic units is necessary to make reliable cross sections and maps,
and to conduct regional facies analysis. Complex numerical procedures for matching and
correlation of logs may be the primary tools in the future. At present, most geologists match log
patterns by eye (or by tracing and overlaying logs), allowing for variations in lithologies,
thickness, and completeness of section. Three major correlation methods will be discussed: 1)
markers beds, 2) pattern matching, and 3) slice techniques.
Markers beds: The log response (‘kick’) of a distinctive bed or series of beds can be used as
marker even if the lithology origin of the bed is not known
Pattern Matching: This technique involves recognition and matching of distinctive log patterns of
various origins. The correlated patterns may represent vertical facies successions superimposing
the facies.
Slice techniques: As a method of last resort, when no other method yields results, an interval can
be subdivided by arbitrary slice either into units of constant thickness or into units with thick
proportional to the entire interval. Slicing an interval does not give true correlations; it is only a
way splitting a section, which cannot be subdivided any other way.
The purpose of subsurface mapping in the geology of petroleum Is to find traps that contain oil
and gas pools and the information obtained from wells forms the heart of the data upon which
subsurface geology depends, other information are obtained from :
 Geophysical surveys.
 Pressure and temperature surveys.
 The production history of producing oil and gas pools.
TYPES OF SUBSURFACE MAPS:-
Structural Maps and Sections: - Subsurface structures may mapped on any formation boundary,
unconformity, or producing formation that can be identified and correlated by well data.
Structure may be shown by contour elevation maps or by cross-sections.
Isopach Maps:- Isopach maps show by means of contours the varying thickness of the rock
intervening between two reference planes commonly bedding planes or surfaces of
unconformity. Isopach maps offer a simple method of showing the distribution of a geological
unit in three-dimensions (3D) thickness of individual formations of reservoir rocks of groups of
formations of intervals between unconformities and a normal stratigraphic contact or formation
boundary, may be mapped in this manner.
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Facies Maps: - There are several kinds of facies maps, but the most common type used in
petroleum geology is "Lithofacies Maps" which distinguish the various lithologic types rather
than formation.
Paleogeologic and Subcorp Maps: - Paleogeology may be defined as the science that treats the
geology as it was during various geologic periods. A map in the past that shows the
paleogeology of an ancient surface is called a paleogeologic map.
Mapping in the subsurface differs little from surface work except for the huge volume of data,
which can be collected from large number of wells. Subsurface geological maps are either
compilation of data, which helps for geological interpretation. For geological interpretation many
different quantities have been made, but for stratigraphic and sedimentological purposes, there
are three main types: 1) structure maps that show elevation of a surface, 2) isopach maps that
show the thickness, and 3) lithological maps that show the composition of a unit in one of several
ways. Interpretive maps and block diagrams of such aspects as facies distributions,
paleogeographies, and sediment supply directions are also commonly prepared.
A log is continuous record physical parameters of different formation penetrated by a well. Any
change in the facies reflects on their physical properties and on their log patterns. Thus these logs
serve as a suitable means of correlation of equivalent strata from one well to the next.
Correlations can be done by preparing vertical cross sections on a chosen datum. In order to have
better correlation, select some marker beds (thick shale or limestone etc) which do not show
much variation in their log characteristics and have wide areal distribution. The log signatures
between these marker beds are compared and a full cross section is established.
The correlational studies will reveal the following facts:
1. The elevations for formations present in the well relative to other wells, outcrops or
geophysical projections.
2. Whether or not the well is within a given major geological structure.
3. The presence or absence of folds, faults and unconformities.
4. The thickening and thinning of lithological sections or lateral changes of sedimentation or

lithology.
5. The geometry of the reservoir can be determined, which is one of the factors needed to
compute reserves by the volumetric method.
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DELINEATION OF FRACTURES FROM LOGS
In hydrocarbon exploration fractures play an important role as possible pathways for the
hydrocarbon flow and by this enhancing the overall formation’s permeability. Advanced logging
methods for fracture analysis, like the borehole acoustic televiewer and Formation Microscanner
(FMS) are available, but these are additional and expensive tools. However, open and with water
or hydrocarbon filled fractures are also sensitive to electrical and other conventional logging
methods.
Fractures are of tectonic origin and can be described as more or less planar openings where one
dimension (height) is smaller than the other two dimensions (length and width). They are
mechanical breaks in rocks involving discontinuities in displacement across surfaces or narrow
zones (Bates and Jackson, 1980). Fracture networks in a hydrocarbon reservoir are of importance
as they can provide additional flow pathways for fluid and hydrocarbon transport (hydraulic
fractures) or they can act as fluid flow barriers and therefore acting as seals.
Hydraulic fractures are of great importance for hydrocarbon reservoirs, which have low to very
low matrix permeability, so called tide reservoir rocks, as the open fractures provide additional
secondary permeability. Therefore, fracture characterization is essential for assessing the success
of exploration wells as well as for further production.
Due to the restricted accessibility of subsurface formations two main types of methods for
fracture characterization are currently applied, surface and borehole geophysical methods. Shear
wave splitting in seismic reflection is one main surface method for fracture characterization,
which works under the principle that a shear wave propagating through a cracked rock splits into
two, a fast shear wave polarized parallel to the strike of the predominant fracture orientation, and
a slow one polarized perpendicular to it, which is time delayed by an amount proportional to the
number of cracks per unit volume along the path between source and receiver.
In borehole methods, fractures are usually identified and evaluated by several techniques, mainly
core analysis, conventional and advanced logging methods, like FMS (Formation Microscanner),
BHTV (Borehole Televiewer), and DSI (Dipole Shear Imaging).
1) The gamma ray tool is measuring the natural gamma ray emission from the decay of
Potassium, 40K, Thorium, 232Th, and Uranium, 238U, usually found in clay minerals.
Most of the Uranium compounds are soluble in both water and hydrocarbon and by this
they can penetrate into fractures zones where an enhanced permeability is. The
subsequent precipitation of U–containing minerals results in a higher gamma ray reading
of the fractures.
2) The sonic tool is measuring the travel times or transit times of the compressional and the
fastest shear waves of the formation parallel to the borehole wall by utilizing the seismic
refraction technique.
3) The caliper tool measures the size of the borehole diameter usually applying four or six
arms. Any increase in the borehole diameter from the diameter drilled might indicate
larger fractures or fracture zone.
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4) The temperature log is providing a continuous temperature profile of a borehole, with the
temperature in general increasing with depth. Open fractures might exhibit fluid inflow
into the borehole, which results in a decrease in the temperature of this borehole section.
5) The photoelectric log or density tool is measuring the photoelectric absorption of gamma
rays by electrons. Barite, as a compound in mud used for density increase, has a very
large photoelectric cross section and therefore a high photoelectric absorption index (Pe).
Barite loaded mud penetrates into open fractures and resulting in sharp peaks of the Pe–
curve in front of a fracture filled with barite containing mud
6) The FMS or FMI tool comprises several pads, which will be attached to the borehole wall
during operation. Each pad contains several micro–resistivity tools providing altogether a
resistivity “image” of the shallow borehole wall, showing different resistivity values in
different gray shades or colors Fluid filled fractures will show lower resistivity; whereas
hydrocarbon filled fractures will exhibit higher resistivity values.
7) The borehole televiewer tool employs a rotating acoustic transducer emitting highly
focused ultrasonic waves radial outwards in the direction to the borehole wall. The same
transducer then measures the wave reflected from the borehole wall, its amplitude and
travel time. This information, combined with orientation data provides an extremely
detailed acoustic image of the borehole wall. Open fracture do not reflect the acoustic
waves back and appear usually black in the colored images
8) Dipmeter Logs
High resolution dipmeters with 4, 6, or 8 micro-conductivity log curves, 2 or 3 opposed
calipers, plus directional and orientation data can indicate fractures by visual observation
of log curve characteristics and from individual dip magnitude and direction
calculations.
Dipmeter
curves show
horizontal
fractures or
bedding planes
PRODUCTION LOGGING
After casing is set in place, wireline surveys are often run to evaluate the integrity of the
completion. Such surveys include production logs and mechanical integrity
instruments. Production logs are used to evaluate fluid production and movement both inside and
outside of the casing downhole. The production logging tools are small in diameter and are run
through tubing for evaluation of the well as it is producing. Mechanical integrity instruments,
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which assess the condition of the casing or cement around it, are generally larger in diameter.
These surveys are run before the tubing is in place, or else it must be removed and the well shut-
in.
Production Logging is one of a number of cased hole services that includes cement monitoring,
corrosion monitoring, monitoring of formation fluid contacts (and saturations), perforating and
plug and packer setting.
Production logs
The main applications of the production logs include
 Locating sources downhole of undesired fluid phase production such as water entries
 Isolating mechanical problems such as leaking pipes, leaking packers, and fluid movement in
cement channels behind pipe
 Evaluating the effectiveness of well treatment or workover operations by comparing the
before and after job surveys
 Accumulating baseline well performance information for comparison with later monitor
surveys
 In EOR projects, maintaining injection efficiency by evaluating the injection profiles of
individual wells in a field
Production logs include (1) those designed to detect flow in and around pipes (temperature,
noise, radioactive tracer, flowmeter, and fluid identification logs) and (2) those designed to
evaluate flow quantitatively. Often combinations of these logs are required to be effective.
A typical horizontal well production logging sensor package consists of a (Figure 5):
► Gamma Ray – for depth correlation
► Collar Correlation Log – for depth correlation
► Pressure – determine downhole flowing pressure
► Temperature – measure fluid or gas inflow or channeling behind pipe
► Flowmeter – measures the rate of flow from each interval
► Fluid identification sensors are used in 2 or 3 phase flow flowing conditions
• Fluid capacitance – measures the difference between water & hydrocarbons
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• Fluid density – measures the difference between water, hydrocarbon liquid and hydrocarbon
gas
• Holdup (YG) – is a direct measurement occupying the cross-section of the wellbore
Flow detection in and around pipe

Temperature surveys are the most common surveys to locate fluid movement downhole. Small
entries and even flow in channels behind pipe can be detected. Generally, if a well is not flowing,
the temperature of the fluid in the borehole will eventually approach the formation temperature,
called the geothermal gradient. When a well is produced, formation fluids enter the borehole and
move uphole. Gasses typically cool when entering the borehole while liquids do not. In either
case, their movement uphole is easily detected by deviations of the borehole temperature from
the geothermal gradient. Figure 1 illustrates a typical temperature survey response to two gas
entries into a well.
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Quantitative flow evaluation
In producing wells, where multiphase flow may be encountered, are evaluated using flowmeters
with fluid identification devices. In producing wells, spinner flow meters are used to measure the
bulk flow rate, even in multiphase flow conditions. Two such flow meters are shown in Figure .
The full bore flowmeter in Figure (a) is run continously across the interval of interest, while the
basket type flowmeter in Figure (b) uses stationary measurements. Although these devices can
determine the bulk flow rate, fluid identification tools are required to evaluate the kinds of fluids
present in the flow. These fluid identification instruments measure the pressure gradient, bulk
density, or capacitance of the flowing mixture.
Two types of flowmeters, (a) Full bore flowmeter, (b) Diverting basket type flowmeter.
Mechanical integrity logs
The well mechanical integrity survey logs include two groups. The first group, cement
evaluation surveys, assesses the degree of cement fill around the casing and can be effective at
locating potential channels for fluid movement. The second group is the casing inspection
surveys, in which acoustic, mechanical, and electromagnetic measurements are used to evaluate
internal and external casing conditions.
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The cement bond log (CBL) measures the degree to which cement contacting the pipe on the
outside attenuates an acoustic signal traveling along the pipe. Figure illustrates how the acoustic
signal is affected by the presence of cement.
Casing inspection
The pulse-echo tool is also an effective acoustic casing inspection device, providing such
information as internal diameter and wall thickness. Mechanical calipers, having 40 to 80 feelers,
are excellent at inspecting the inside of the casing for small- or large-scale damage.
Electromagnetic devices are useful in inspecting for pipe damage on either the inside or outside
of the casing and can be useful in examining the outer concentric strings of pipe.
Application of production logs

Production logs are used to allocate production on a zone by zone basis and also to diagnose
production problems such as leaks or cross flow. These various tasks can be split between those
where the target production is into or out of the well and those where the flow never enters the
well, typically flow behind pipe. The former is usually easier and more quantitative while the
latter is more qualitative.
Categories of applications
1. Diagnose production problems and allocate production

2. Monitor cement placement
3. Monitor corrosion
4. Monitor reservoir fluid contacts
5. Select zones for recompletion
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RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE TRACES
A record of the presence of tracer material placed in or around the borehole to measure fluid
movement in injection wells. There are two traditional techniques for recording radioactive-
tracer logs: the tracer-loss measurement, in which a tracer material is added to
the completion fluid and its progress monitored with a gamma ray tool; and the velocity-shot
measurement, in which the tracer is ejected from one part of a production logging tool and its
progress monitored by one or more gamma ray detectors farther down the tool. Radioactive-
tracer logs are used to determine injection-flow profiles and detect channels or leaks. They may
also be used in production wells, but care must be taken to isolate the fluids on surface until the
tracer has decayed to safe levels. The tracer is a radioactive isotope that is soluble in water, oil or
gas, or else insoluble, as in the bead tracer. Different radioactive elements with distinct energies
and lifetimes may be used.
Tracer-loss measurement
A method of determining injection-flow profiles by monitoring the reduction in tracer material as
it moves down the well. A slug of radioactive tracer is added to the injection fluid. As the slug
moves down the well, several gamma ray logs are recorded at well-defined time intervals. The
position of the slug is seen as a large gamma ray peak whose size is proportional to the flow rate.
A reduction in the size of the peak indicates a loss of fluid into the formation. Fluid velocity can
be calculated from the time interval and the distance the peak has moved using timed-slug
analysis. Tracer-loss measurements produce a type of radioactive-tracer log, used mainly to give
a general idea of fluid flow in low flow-rate wells. In very low flow-rate wells, an alternative
technique has been used in which the gamma ray detector is held stationary at some depth until
the slug has passed. The detector is then moved down to another depth to observe the slug again.
With these data, it is possible to make quantitative estimates of fluid flow.
Velocity-shot measurement
A method of producing a radioactive-tracer log, in which a slug of radioactive material is
injected into the flow stream of a production or injection well from one section of a logging tool
and observed as it passes one or more gamma ray detectors in another section. The slug, or shot,
causes a peak in the gamma ray reading as it passes a detector. The flow velocity is determined
from the difference in the time of arrival of the slug at the two detectors, or between ejector and
detector. This technique has been applied for many years using radioactive tracers such as iodine.
Water-soluble tracers are the most common, but oil- and gas-soluble tracers are also used.
Velocity-shot measurements are recorded with the tool stationary. They are more accurate than
flowmeters at low flow rates, below approximately 100 B/D [16m3/d]. They are not
usually run in production wells because of problems of tracer disposal. In multiphase flow, the
tracer most often travels with the continuous phase, thereby giving a type of phase-velocity log.
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WELL LOGGING FOR COAL
The geophysical well logging techniques provide detailed records of lithological units
encountered in the boreholes, thus identifying the coal seams and thickness of each horizon
correlation is useful; in coal exploration or related formation, which continues to be present in
section separated by large horizontal distance . Geophysical well logs can be used to identify
coal beds unique physical properties including low density low natural radioactivity, high
resistance and resistivity . These physical properties contrast with those of most rocks in the coal
bearing sequence. Thus, geophysical well logging can provide information on the existence,
continuity, thickness, and correlation of shallow to deep buried coal seams and unknown coal
seams areas that have not yet been fully explored.
Geophysical Well Logging Data Acquisition
Drilling for coal exploration programs may involve either core or non- core drilling. Core
drilling is the only satisfactory means of obtaining reprehensive sample, either of coal seams for
thickness and quality assessment or non-coal rocks for geotechnical tests. Non-core drilling,
however, supported by geophysical well logging, can give useful information on thickness and
depth of coal and beds for use in structural and Stratigraphy studies.
GEOPHYSICAL LOGS AS A SOURCE OF COAL BED DATA
Geophysical logs can be used to identify coal beds and to quantify their resources because coal
has several unique physical properties including low natural radioactivity, low density, and high
resistance to electrical currents; these properties contrast with those of most other rocks in the
coal-bearing sequence. Thus, geophysical logs can provide information on the existence,
continuity, thickness, and correlation of shallow to deeply buried coal beds in known coal-
bearing areas that have not yet been fully explored and in the future may provide information in
areas not previously thought to contain coal.
Caution should be used in evaluating and interpreting the existence, thickness, and correlation of
coal beds from the geophysical logs of oil and gas exploratory and production wells for two
reasons. First, if only one type of log is available, other rock types may be misidentified as coal,
for example, highly resistive limestone on a resistivity log or pure quartz sandstone on a natural
radioactivity log. However, this problem can be mitigated by a thorough knowledge of the coal-
bearing strata in the area under investigation and by an understanding of how these strata are
recorded on a log. For example, if limestone beds are not present in the coal-bearing sequence
and if all sandstone beds are more radioactive than the coal beds, problems of lithologic
identification are nonexistent. If several log types are available, the coal generally can be
identified with confidence despite other strata with similar log characteristics in the sequence.
Second, some oil and gas logs are not suitable for identifying coal beds for reasons that are not
always clear because they give readings that either mask coal beds, indicate coal beds where
none are present, or are ambiguous. Here again, a knowledge of the stratigraphic positions of
coal beds in coal-bearing sequences will aid identification of unsuitable logs. Because coal
thicknesses interpreted from geophysical logs are considered as points of measurement for
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calculating coal resources, it is advisable to use only those coal thicknesses that are determined
with confidence.
The geophysical log types generally used in coal bed recognition and stratigraphic identification
and rank, quality, and thickness evaluations are the electrical, gamma ray, density, neutron, and
acoustic velocity. The following discussion of log types is concerned principally with
geophysical logs of oil and gas exploratory wells. It should be noted that coal exploration
programs increasingly have become reliant on coal-oriented geophysical logs, which provide
important data on thickness, depth, and correlation of coal beds, and locally on the composition
of coal. A carefully chosen suite of coal-oriented logs can provide positive recognition of coal,
identification of specific coal beds, and precise coal thickness measurements (Vaninetti and
Thompson, 1982). Such suites are used currently to supplement information obtained from core
holes, driller's logs, and examination of drill cuttings. They are useful especially where core or
sample recovery of coal was incomplete. The ease and accuracy of recognizing, identifying, and
evaluating coal beds with coal-oriented logs strongly contrasts with the difficulty of performing
the same interpretations using the higher speed and less accurate geophysical logs of oil and gas
wells, which generally are run at different instrument settings and with different equipment.
ELECTRIC LOGS
By far the most common geophysical logs run in oil and gas exploratory wells are electric logs.
Prior to the 1950's, conventional electrical logging surveys consisted of one measurement of the
spontaneous potential (SP) and three measurements of apparent electrical resistivity of the rocks
adjacent to the bore hole . These rock properties were measured only in the uncased part of a
well that was filled with water or a water-based mud. The diameter of the well and the effect of
adjacent rocks combined to give confusing curves on older electric logs. In solving this problem,
a new family of resistivity curves, the focusing-electrode and the induction logs, came into use in
the late 1950's. These logs provide better resolution of the coal beds than the older conventional
logs and permit more accurate coal thickness measurements.
SP LOG
The spontaneous potential (SP) log measures the difference in electrical potential between rock
types, and the resulting curve is recorded on the left-hand side of the log as a single trace. This
curve generally reflects the invasion of drilling fluid into the rocks, so a permeable sandstone bed
tends to record as a large deflection to the left of the log response for shale . There are many
exceptions to this generalization as shown by the deflections caused by high-porosity coal beds .
There are also many wells where the SP curve is nearly featureless in a coal-bearing section and
the porosity is recorded the same as shale
NORMAL AND LATERAL LOGS
Three types of resistivity curves are recorded on the right side of a geophysical log. These are the
16-inch normal (short normal); the 64-inch normal (long normal); and the 18-foot, 8-inch or 24-
foot lateral (lateral); the names referring respectively to the spacing and to the configuration of
the electrodes in the probe. These curves record the resistance of rock types to the flow of an
electric current. Because most coal beds are highly resistant to the flow of an electric current
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compared with most adjacent rocks, resistivity curves generally show a large deflection opposite
a coal bed. In the short and long (16-inch and 64-inch, respectively) normal curves, however,
coal beds thinner than the electrode spacing show a "reverse" (low resistivity) curve bounded by
two small peaks .The lateral curve shows a large deflection opposite thin coal beds and a low
deflection below the bed. The lateral curve is of little value in the measurement of the thickness
of coal beds because it is asymmetric and generally offset from the coal bed. Nevertheless, this
curve can be useful in correlating coal beds
FOCUSING-ELECTRODE AND INDUCTION LOGS
Focusing-electrode logs (for example, lateral logs) use special electrodes to send a narrow
focused electric current horizontally into adjacent rocks. This results in a resistivity curve that
has good resolution of thin resistive beds such as coal .
These focusing and lateral logs measure the conductivity (inverse of resistivity) and the
resistivity of rocks by means of induced alternating currents. Commonly, an induction log is run
in conjunction with a SP and 16-inch normal log .The induction log is recorded simultaneously
as two curves, conductivity and resistivity. The conductivity curve is hyperbolic, which
compresses the parts of the curve characterized by low conductivity. The resistivity curve,
however, is not compressed, so it can be compared directly to the short normal curve and can be
used for measurement of the thickness of a coal bed. Combinations of induction and focusing-
electrode logs are also common.
GAMMA RAY LOG
The gamma ray log records the natural gamma radiation from rocks adjacent to a drill hole. Coal
generally has low natural radioactivity as compared with other rocks, particularly shale, in a
coal-bearing sequence .In some coal-bearing regions, limestone and sandstone may have similar
low natural radioactivity (for example, Midcontinent or Appalachian regions) so that in those
regions supplemental logs such as density or acoustic velocity are needed to identify coal. In
other regions, gamma ray logs alone are sufficient to identify coal beds as, for example, in the
Fruitland Formation (Fassett and Hinds, 1971) and in the Northern Great Plains where no other
rock types in the Tertiary coal-bearing sequence, including limestone, are known to have as low
a natural radioactivity as coal. Even in areas where a gamma ray log is diagnostic of coal, a few
oil and gas well gamma ray logs are useless because their time constant is so long and their
sensitivity is so low that a coal bed either cannot be detected or its boundaries are obscured.
Locally some coal beds are uraniferous; consequently, a high radioactivity is recorded on gamma
ray logs. These uranium-bearing coal beds usually can be identified by using other logging
methods.
A gamma ray log is the most versatile of the geophysical logs for the following reasons: (1) it
does not require fluid in the hole; (2) it is not sensitive to small variations in hole diameter; and
(3) it can be used to detect coal beds through well casing. In fact, near-surface gamma ray logs of
cased oil and gas wells are a prime source of data for identifying and measuring the thickness of
shallow coal beds in the Northern Great Plains region.
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The gamma ray logs can detect shale partings in a coal bed, but generally the thickness of thin
partings is exaggerated. In the Powder River basin of Montana, there is an example where the
gamma ray log records a 0.3-foot shale parting at the same thickness as a 2-foot parting.
DENSITY LOG
A gamma-gamma density log records the bulk density of rocks adjacent to a drill hole by
measuring the induced gamma rays emitted by the rocks after bombardment by a gamma ray
source encased in a probe and lowered into the drill hole. The denser the adjacent rocks, the
more gamma rays are absorbed and not returned to a detector in the probe where they are
measured in grams/cm3. Most ranks of coal are low in density (about 0.7 to 1.8 grams/cm 3)
compared to adjacent rocks; therefore, a density log is an excellent tool for coal-bed evaluation.
The density log is capable of identifying detailed variations in the density of rocks. Density logs
from oil and gas wells are commonly run at 30 feet per minute, are recorded at 1 inch equals 20
feet, and then are reduced to 1 inch equals 100 feet. At this scale and speed, thin coal beds and
partings can be detected and their thicknesses accurately measured . Unfortunately, density logs
must be run in uncased holes and are strongly affected by differences in hole diameter; thus, the
curve recorded for a caved or enlarged part of a well may simulate the curve of a coal bed. A
caliper log, which measures the diameter of a well, is generally run in conjunction with these
logs so that the proper interpretation and correction can be made. Density logs should be used in
conjunction with other logs to avoid mistaking spurious low-density readings for coal. These
logs are generally recorded simultaneously with a gamma ray log, which resolves most
uncertainties of rock identification.
NEUTRON LOG
The neutron log, which is similar to the density log, records the varying intensity of gamma rays
resulting from inducing neutrons into rocks adjacent to a drill hole by a probe containing a
radioactive source. In general, the number of gamma rays and neutrons detected as they return to
a detector in the probe are inversely proportional to the hydrogen ion content of a particular rock
type. The curve recorded by the detector of returning gamma rays and neutrons can be
interpreted to indicate the relative fluid content of the rocks and therefore their porosity and
permeability. This log is commonly called the porosity index. The curve of the neutron log
records high readings adjacent to permeable fluid-filled rocks because of their high hydrogen
contents, but it also records high adjacent to a coal bed because of its high carbon content . A
clay with high-moisture content will also record high reading on this curve. Therefore, a high-
moisture day adjacent to a coal bed can obscure the contact between the day and coal and record
a spurious thickness of coal. Other types of logs such as the density or gamma ray will allow a
more accurate measurement of the thickness of coal. Neutron logs are also strongly affected by
caved or over- sized diameter holes; therefore, neutron logs should be used in conjunction with
caliper logs.
ACOUSTIC VELOCITY LOG
Acoustic velocity logs record the velocity of pulsed sonic waves generated in a probe,
transmitted into rocks surrounding the probe in a drill hole, and reflected to receivers in the
probe. The results are recorded as the inverse of velocity--that is, the time in microseconds for
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the waves to travel 1 foot (interval transit time). The velocity of the sonic wave depends both
upon the lithology and the porosity of the rock type being penetrated. If the rock type is known,
therefore, the acoustic velocity log can be used as a measure of porosity. A decrease in velocity
(increase in interval transit time) can be interpreted to be the result of an increase in porosity.
Coal generally has a longer interval transit time (lower velocity) than adjacent rocks. Because an
acoustic velocity log can record velocity changes in great detail, it is commonly recorded on an
expanded scale (1 inch = 20 feet) along with a gamma ray and caliper log. However, its value as
a tool for identifying coal beds is dependent on the nature of the coal-bearing sequence. An
acoustic velocity log is an excellent tool in deeply buried rocks such as the Tertiary rocks of
southwest Wyoming. Acoustic velocity logs can be used to delineate coal beds with precision .
They are of lesser value where the same rocks are near the surface, are poorly consolidated, or
are fractured because the many spurious low-velocity deflections are recorded. Such logs are
everywhere useful in distinguishing coal from limestone, which has a much shorter interval
transit time.
MEASUREMENT OF THE COAL BED THICKNESS
The measurement of thickness of coal beds on geophysical logs requires the identification of the
top and base of the coal beds by either of the following methods:
(1) point of inflection method (the points where curves change direction), or
(2) midpoints of inflection method (arbitrary points located midway between the points of
inflection).
The points of inflection method is used for measuring the thickness of coal on gamma ray logs,
on resistivity logs, and for thin beds on density, neutron, and acoustic velocity logs. It is
important to understand that the thickness of coal measured on the short normal and long normal
resistivity curves is less than the true thickness of the coal bed by the amount of the electrode
spacing; that is, 16 inches less for the short normal curve, and 64 inches less for the long normal
curve. The midpoints of inflection method is used to identify the top and base of thick coal beds
on the density, neutron, and acoustic velocity logs. In general, the SP, long normal resistivity,
lateral resistivity, and induction curves are not suitable for accurate measurement of the thickness
of coal beds.
The precision and accuracy of coal bed thickness measurements on geophysical logs are
dependent on several factors, such as the speed of logging, the scale at which the log is recorded,
the type of log, the type of equipment, and the instrument settings as well as the ability of the
user to pick the correct top and base of a coal bed.
Density, neutron, gamma ray, and acoustic velocity logs in oil and gas wells are recorded at
speeds of 30 to 60 feet per minute and at a scale of 1 inch equals 20 feet. Such logs generally
permit the measurement of the thickness of coal beds within an error of +/-1 foot and allow
identification of coal beds as thin as about 2 feet. A suite of logs run in a coal exploratory drill
hole at slow speeds of 15 feet or less per minute and recorded at 1 inch equals 10 feet or less,
with a standard mineral probe and recording instruments set for coal identification, can measure
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coal beds as thin as +/-0.5 foot. The use of special equipment and slower logging speeds can
improve the precision of thickness measurements.
Resistivity logs of oil and gas wells generally are run at higher speeds of about 100 feet per
minute and are recorded at 1 inch equals 50 feet, with the result that coal beds thinner than about
2 feet cannot be identified or measured as to thickness. Some of the focusing electrode logs
recorded at 1 inch equals 20 feet may permit greater precision. In contrast with oil and gas logs,
logs of the "single point" resistivity type in coal exploration drill holes can provide precision
similar to those of radiation-type logs.
COMPOSITION AND RANK OF COAL
Geophysical logs can also provide information on the composition and rank of coal. High-ash or
shaly zones (partings) in coal generally are recorded on logs by curves indicating that they are
more radioactive, more dense, and less resistive than purer coal. High-rank coal is more dense
and has a shorter interval travel time in sonic logs than low-rank coal. Efforts have been made to
quantify compositional factors of coal, such as moisture and ash content, using geophysical logs.
Bond and others (1971) report that in the Illinois basin an experimental program using computer
processed data from logs of coal exploratory drill holes produced excellent determinations of
moisture and ash in coal. However, attempts to quantify coal composition using geophysical logs
from wells in the Northern Great Plains have had erratic results.
STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE
Geophysical logs that have been properly related to a known stratigraphic section can be used to
correlate coal beds and determine their structure. In many areas a coal bed and adjacent rocks are
recorded on geophysical logs as a unique curve, or sets of curves, that can be recognized on logs
of drill holes throughout a large area .Recognition of "signature" curves permits correlation of
stratigraphic units across any area where the lithology remains reasonably constant and in some
places allows correlation throughout a coal basin. Properly correlated logs can provide the
necessary data to construct coal bed maps that show structure, thickness of coal, and thickness of
overburden.
WELL LOGGING FOR SULFUR IDENTIFICATION (PROSPECTING FOR SULFUR)
Well logs can be used to locate and evaluate deposits of various commercially important
minerals. It is only necessary that the mineral of interest represent a significant fraction of the
formation bulk volume, and that it exhibit characterizing properties measurable by logs. Because
modern logging methods measure electrical, density, acoustic, radioactivity, and certain nuclear
characteristics of formations, they may be used to identify many minerals. For evaluation of
sulfur deposits, either density or sonic logs provide good resolution when compared with
porosity computed from neutron or resistivity logs.
To locate and evaluate mineral deposits with logs several requirements must be met, first, the
mineral of interest must have characterizing properties measurable by logs. Second, the mineral
must represent a significant fraction of the formation bulk volume.
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Sulfur, like oil, has long been commercially valuable. Also like oil, the demand for sulfur
continues to grow, There are other similarities. Most domestic sulfur is produced from wells.
Further, native sulfur usually occurs in the interstices of other rock minerals, rarely representing
as much as half the bulk volume of the formation. To adapt the principles of mineral definition
by logs to sulfur prospecting, it is necessary to consider the properties of both sulfur and the
minerals which commonly occur with it. These properties, as measured by sonic and density
logs, are presented in Table 1. The table indicates these two properties of sulfur are particularly
useful: the sonic interval transit time is exceptionally large; the density is low. Thus, either sonic
or density measurements offer a means of evaluating sulfur deposits.
EVALUATION OF SULFUR-BEARING LIMESTONE
The usual occurrence of native sulfur is as infilling within the pore structure of limestone. If only
limestone and sulfur are present, the values recorded by either a sonic or density log are simple
functions of the relative quantities of each. Thus,
ρb = Sρ sulfur + (l - S) ρ limestone
tb = St sulfur + (l - S) t limestone
where S is the fraction of bulk volume occupied by sulfur, Because the log characteristics of
sulfur and limestone are known either of the above equations would provide an easy
determination of sulfur content-if only sulfur and limestone were present.
Density - neutron: Fig. illustrates a simple qualitative detection of sulfur in

caprock as given by a comparison of density and neutron logs. The density log was
recorded on an apparent-limestone- porosity scale. The neutron values were converted
to the equivalent scale and were traced onto the density log. Thus, where only
limestone is present, the curves coin- cide. Sulfur is indicated by a divergence of the
curves, with the density curve indicating the higher apparent porosity. These sulfur
bearing zones are indicated by diagonal hatch lines in the depth column,
Figure - Sulfur in caprock identified by density and

neutron log comparisons. Sulfur is present in beds
identified by diagonal hatching in the depth column.
This simple definition of sulfur content is based on the assumption that the formation is
comprised only of limestone, Fig. 1 - sulfur, and water. Appreciable fractions of other minerals
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destroy the validity of the interpretation. For example, the illustrated section contains anhydrite,
indicated by x’s in the depth column. Anhydrite causes a divergence of the curves in an opposite
direction from that of sulfur. While bedded anhydrite is easily recognized and causes little
trouble in interpretation, either gas saturation or interbedded salt (halite) could give the same log
appearance as rich sulfur deposits.
In sulfur bearing sections of limestone the divergence between the density and neutron curves (of
apparent limestone porosity) is proportional to the sulfur fraction. This provides a basis for
quantitative evaluation of sulfur content.
Sonic- Neutron: Comparisons of sonic and neutron logs give a good

qualitative evaluation of sulfur content. However, because sonic response In
carbonates (with secondary porosity) is less predictable than that of
density logs, sulfur fractions computed from the sonic-neutron method are
more subject to error than from density-neutron studies.
When the SNP neutron log is used with sonic data for sulfur computation
Equation applies directly:
S = ɸS-ɸSNP / 0.53
The sonic-neutron data generally indicate lower fractions of sulfur than obtained
from either core assay or density-neutron computations.
Resistivity-Sonic (or Density): A resistivity log sometimes provides the
porosity control necessary for sulfur evaluation with either sonic or density logs. It is
necessary, however, that the formation be 100% water saturated; it must not contain
hydrocarbons. Furthermore, the resistivity, Rw, of the saturating water must be known.
If these conditions are met, porosity can be computed from the true resistivity of the
water-saturated formation, Ro.
STUDY OF EVAPORITES
Logging techniques are well suited to locating and identifying commercial evaporate deposits.
Bedded evaporite minerals are essentially nonporous and electrically nonconductive, Thus, they
are characterized by extremely high readings on resistivity logs. Unless affected by borehole
enlargement, resistivities recorded opposite evaporite beds are higher than obtained in adjacent
sedimentary formations. Because some evaporites are quite soluble in water-base drilling fluids
and lead to enlarged holes, the caliper is an important adjunct in the logging program.
While resistivity and caliper measurements locate evaporite deposits, they do not identify the
evaporite mineral. But, since evaporite beds have little or no porosity, a single porosity log-sonic,
density, or neutron-will usually provide identification. Characteristic log responses for some of
the more common evaporite minerals are given in Table 2. Also listed are characteristic
responses for sedimentary minerals and formations.
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+ y-RAY
LO 0 AYE RAGE @N DE FL ECTION A PPA REN T
ktIN E RAL CO/¥I POSI TION SP. G R. D ENSITY DI (GN T) (AP I, d = 8") ’ 20 %
HON-RA DIOACTIYE
H of ite HaCI 2.16S 2.032 67 0 0
Andy dr ite CaS04 2.960 2.977 50 0 0 0
Gypsum CaS0 4 •* Ht 0 2.320 2.351 52.5 49 0 0
Trona N ^2 C0 3.* • HC0 3 . 2H 20 2.120 2.100 65 40 0
EYA PORIT E S
Sylvite KCI 1.984 1.863 74 0 -500 63.0

RADIOAC TIVE
Carnollite KCI . Mg¢ 2 . 6H 20 1.610 1.570 78 65 200 17.0

L ongbein ite K 2/ 0 #. 2k\gS0d 2.830 2.820 52 0 275 22.6
Polyh of ile K 2S0 4. MgS0 4 . 2CoS0 4 . 2H 20 2.780 2.790 57.5 15 180 15.J
Koinife MgS0y. ICT . 3Ht0 2.130 2.120 45 225 18.9
SE DIMEN TARY
Col cite CoC0 3 2.710 2.710 47.5 0 0 0

MINE RALS
Dol omite Cak\g (C0 3)2 2.870 2.876 43.5 4 0 0

Quof'tz Si02 2.654 2.648 51.S —4 0 0
2.540 2.540 62 10 5—10 0

SE DU EN TARY
Limestone (e.g., when = 0â)

FORk ATIONS
Dolomi te (e.g., when @ - 10a) 2.680 2.683 58 13.5 10—20 0

Sandlstone (e.g., wh en @ = 105) 2.489 2.485 65.3 3 10—30 0
Shale 2.2—2.7? 70—150 25—60 80—140 2—10
When evaporite beds contain mixtures of minerals, or are intercalated in sedimentary rocks,
several logs are required for mineral identification. Graphical comparisons of data from two
porosity logs, such as in Fig. , simplify mineral identification. In this chart, the sonic-neutron
crossplot p o s i t i o n s of non-radioactive minerals are shown. Similar crossplots of s on i c - de
n s i t y and density-neutron characteristics are available. The zero indications represent the
readings for pure minerals. Extensions to the upper right show the direction of shift caused by
porosity if present in the respective minerals
NON-RADIOACTIVE EVAPORITES An example of the discrimination between halite and

anhydrite is shown in Fig. 8. Gamma ray, caliper, and density curves are recorded through a
section of interbedded shale, halite, and anhydrite. This well was drilled with a brackish water
drilling mud. Thus, the caliper shows hole enlargement in the salt beds. It also shows the hole is
enlarged in the shale zones. However, pure halite has a log density of 2.03 gm/cc and many
zones approach this value. Anhydrite, with a log density of 2.98 gm/cc, is readily identified
where the density curve approaches that value. Shale intercalations are signalled by departures
from these characterizing densities, and are confirmed by the gamma ray curve.
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RADIOACTIVE EVAPORITES Potash minerals are among the radioactive evaporites most
extensively sought and mined. The radioactivity stems from an isotope (K40) which comprises a
constant fraction of the total amount of naturally occurring potassium. Thus the gamma ray log is
an important part of the logging program used in potash prospecting. However, it is necessary to
relate the gamma ray log response to variations in potassium content.
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Cross-plotting gamma ray data versus formation density is one means of identifying potash
deposits. Fig. 11 presents the appropriate intercepts for evaporite minerals encountered in such
efforts. The densities are those appropriate for density log response in nonporous zones. The
abscissa values are apparent Kz 0 content as obtained from Fig.. An alternate abscissa shown at
the top of the figure, is appropriate for an eccentered SGD-F gamma ray recorded in a 6-l/8” hole
which is filled with 9-lb/gal, oil base mud. When only a single evaporite mineral is present it is
readily identified by such a plot; only polyhalite and langbeinite lead to similar plots. Further, a
mixture of two of these evaporites is often described by cross plotting because the points fall on
a line between the two points. For more complex mixtures additional information is usually
required.
BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS FOR GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION
Hydro-geophysical methods measure the spatial and temporal variations in the physical
properties of underground rocks. The physical properties studied are influenced by the nature of
the reservoir, the volume of empty space it encloses (its porosity) and the volume, the degree of
saturation and quality of the water it contains. – With all the traditional geophysical methods, the
groundwater affects certain measured parameters, but it is never the only influencing factor. The
physical quantities recorded by the geophysicist do not enable a direct determination of the
presence of groundwater or its quality, but in favourable cases they help to consider the nature
and the structure of any aquifers present. – In comparison with traditional methods, Magnetic
Resonance Sounding (MRS) can be classed as a direct geophysical method, because it measures
a signal emitted by atomic nuclei present in each water molecule. The contribution of MRS to
hydrogeology is thus the ability to measure directly a signal indicating the existence of
groundwater. Finally, it should be noted that whatever the geophysical method used, the validity
of the study depends on the quality of the measurements performed in the field, and on the
number and variety of other observations and complementary analyses performed.
General prospecting procedure.
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Principal geophysical methods used in hydrogeology
The Electrical Resistivity method
The principle is to feed a direct current flow into the ground, and use it to measure the apparent
resistivity of the formation. The nature and structure of the aquifers are then assumed on the
basis of the variations (contrasts) in the calculated resistivity. The electrical resistivity of a
medium is the physical property that determines its capacity to oppose the passage of electric
current. In rocks, the flow of current by electron movement is rare (‘electronic’ or ‘metallic’
conductivity in certain mineral seams) and the charge transport is essentially due to ions moving
in solution (electrolytic conductivity). Thus, the resistivity of the rocks depends essentially on:
– the nature and the weathering of the rock (electrolyte distribution in the ground);
– the water concentration (saturation of the rock with electrolyte);
– the water quality (mineralisation of the electrolyte);
– the temperature (electrolyte viscosity and ion mobility).
Electromagnetic methods
Electromagnetic (EM) methods use those physical properties of the ground that affect the
magnitudes of time-varying currents, to study the distribution of conductivity values in the
ground (conductivity is the inverse of resistivity). EM phenomena are classically described by
Maxwell’s equations, which state that any time varying electric current produces an
electromagnetic wave, which consists of an electric field and a magnetic field propagating in
space and oscillating at the same frequency, perpendicular to each other. In contrast to the
method of electrical resistivity measurements, which uses DC current and requires the use of
electrodes, EM methods use the induction properties of electromagnetic waves, and do not
require direct contact with the ground. They can thus be implemented very quickly. These
methods generally have a higher resolution than DC methods in conducting formation types (the
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phenomenon of induction is much stronger in conducting formations), but resistive formation
types are less well defined.
Magnetic Resonance Sounding
The main advantage of the Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS) method, compared to other
geophysical methods for groundwater prospecting, is that the measured signal is from
groundwater molecules: this reduces the degree of uncertainty in interpreting the data, since any
measured signal proves the presence of groundwater.
1-PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD It is known from nuclear physics that the hydrogen nucleus
(proton) possesses an angular momentum and a magnetic moment μ. In a homogeneous magnetic
field B0 (such as the earth’s geomagnetic field) the proton acts as a magnetic dipole and
experiences a torsional moment that attempts to align it with the direction of the field. Therefore
the angular momentum of the proton causes a precessional motion of μ around B0 with an
angular velocity ω0 known as the Larmor frequency (Figure MRS principle).
EFFECTIVE PAY THICKNESS OF AN AQUIFER
The detailed figure below shows the rock and pores spaces in a volume of the aquifer. It gives an
exaggerated illustration of saturated and unsaturated zones in an aquifer, and how those relate to
the upper and lower boundaries and to saturated thickness. See the appendix section
on groundwater storage and flow for how this relates to porosity, specific yield, and water
volume. In the unsaturated, or vadose, zone, addition of water by recharge from the surface
causes the water content to rise until it reaches the field capacity of the soil to the concentration
of water at which gravity-driven drainage flow occurs.
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Figure 1: Saturated and unsaturated zones in an aquifer composed of coarse,
unconsolidated material. In the saturated zone, all of the pore spaces are filled with water.
In the unsaturated (also known as the vadose zone), some water is usually present, but the
amount is variable and it is always less than the field capacity.
Under natural conditions, the elevation of the boundary between the unsaturated and saturated
zones -- the water table -- fluctuates as a function of recharge, discharge, and evapotranspiration.
These variation can be surprisingly large, in part because of the effect of porosity in amplifying
the elevation change due to recharge. If the effective porosity of the aquifer is 17%, for example
(a common value in the High Plains), recharge of 2 inches of free-standing water will cause the
water table to rise by approximately one foot.
The figure below illustrates the idea of saturated thickness -- that volume of the aquifer in which
the pore spaces are completely filled (saturated) with water. At a particular point, the local
saturated thickness is the difference in elevation (or depth) between the water table and the
bedrock surface (the base of the aquifer). However, bedrock and water table elevations are often
measured at different points, and because both vary over space, the saturated thickness at any
given point must usually be estimated from what we know about the two surfaces rather than on
observed values. This is often a more useful measure of the actual amount of underground water
than observations at a few specific points, because it provides good estimates for a whole region
instead of precise measurements at very limited locations.
Figure 2: Saturated thickness in cross section -- the light blue area represents the average
volume of permanent saturation, and the dark blue area is the range of variation of its upper
limit, which is affected by topography, recharge, discharge, and the effects of vegetation.
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DETERMINATION OF GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTION BY LOGS
Water occurring beneath the surface of the ground in saturated geologic materials (e.g., soil,
sediment, and rock) is called groundwater, and when saturated geologic material can produce or
transmit useable quantities of water, it is called an aquifer.
Groundwater does not usually remain stationary, but moves or flows underground according to
forces acting on the groundwater.
Gravity is related to the natural slope of the sediments making up the shallow aquifer beneath the
area, and external pressure is related to changes in pressure caused by pumping wells which alter
natural groundwater flow directions.
Groundwater Flow and Hydraulic Conductivity: Groundwater flow is very slow compared to
surface water movement. A rough average number often used for natural flow in the High Plains
aquifer is a foot per day. This is thousands of times slower than river flow (typically measured in
feet per second), and means that a 'parcel' of groundwater takes over a decade to move a mile,
and about a century to cross a township. This natural time scale underscores the importance of
long-term planning and management, and helps explain why resource depletion or contamination
cannot be quickly or easily rectified.
Groundwater, like surface water, flows 'downhill' in the direction determined by the slope of the
water table. Its rate of flow is determined by the steepness of the slope and an aquifer
characteristic called hydraulic conductivity. In a porous medium, flow is described by Darcy's
Law, an equation that relates the rate of flow to the slope (or gradient) of the water table and the
characteristics of the aquifer. This law is illustrated in figure 2, and is written as:
Q = A x K x G,
where Q is the volume flow of water (for example, in cubic feet per day -- also called flux), A is
the vertical area of the aquifer through which the horizontal flow is occurring, G is the gradient
or slope of the water table in the direction of flow (difference in elevation divided by horizontal
distance), and K is the hydraulic conductivity -- a constant of proportionality that describes how
easily water flows through the medium. The term permeability is closely related to hydraulic
conductivity; in strict scientific usage they have slightly different definitions, but for water in
unconfined aquifers they are essentially the same.
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Figure 2: Illustration of the factors governing flow in groundwater systems -- the head gradient,
or slope of the water table, the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, and the area through which
flow can occur.
Downhole geophysical borehole logging is an in situ nondestructive process of measuring the

physical, chemical, and structural properties of penetrated geological formations and surrounding
borehole annulus. The technique involves lowering of sonde (probe) into a borehole using
suspended armored cable or wire device called wireline or logging cable. The logging cable is
connected to the winch and transmits recorded signals to the digital computers for data
visualization, monitoring, and recording.
The measured subsurface properties are dependent on the type of the lowered probe. Geophysical
logs have been widely used, especially in petroleum industry, as tools in unraveling information
on aquifer and fluid characteristics, paleo-hydrogeology, and correlation and distribution of
subsurface sedimentary strata. Because geophysical logging is a repeatable and comparable
process, it can be used to provide continuous in situ information on the subsurface rock type, bed
thickness, permeability, porosity, bulk density, resistivity, and the nature of saturating fluids
In addition, geophysical logs can confirm the completion details, identify the individual water
inflows, characterize salinity and freshness, determine freshwater–saline water interface, and
identify problems in cased boreholes . It can therefore act as a guide in borehole designs and
rehabilitating process of damaged boreholes.
Interpretations of the geophysical logs are based on the empirical field data, variation of log
signatures in response to geologic and hydrogeological character of subsurface strata and fluid
contents, and the knowledge of the local geology of the study area.
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Despite its numerous applications in subsurface characterization, geophysical logs are not a
substitute for drilling and drill cuttings, which are not sufficient to evaluate the water quality and
hydraulic properties of the aquifer in hydrogeological studies and borehole design but rather
supply in situ complimentary information on aquifer rock types and fluid contents. Therefore,
understanding the hydrogeology and aquifer characteristics of subsurface strata (especially in
coastal aquifers that are commonly affected by saline intrusion) typically requires accurate
information of the aquifer water quality and hydraulic properties .This information is commonly
obtained from combination of drill cuttings or cores, geophysical borehole logging, and aquifer
testing.
In groundwater hydrogeological studies, the commonly used geophysical logs include natural
gamma (NGAM), spontaneous potential (SP), electrical resistivity (ER), caliper, and
temperature. The gamma and SP logs provide information on the rock type; ER log measures the
resistance of the rock and salinity of water contents, while the caliper and temperature logs
record the borehole diameter and the water temperature, respectively.
SALINE WATER-FRESH WATER INTERFACE FROM LOG DATA.
The fresh/saline water interface boundary is complex, sensitive and dynamic. This makes the
strategies for well field development rather difficult and demands very accurate information in
relation to:
(a) the thickness of fresh/saline aquifers and their interface;
(b) the nature of the interface or diffusion boundary;
(c) estimates of saline/freshwater wedging and its geometrical variations;
(d) depth levels for concrete plugging in the gravel packs to avoid vertical saline water inflows
and mixing;
(e) designing appropriate monitoring networks; and
(f) assessment of possible vertical leakages through aquitards.
Borehole geophysical techniques provide a reasonably powerful tool for estimation of

interface/diffusion boundaries and water quality characteristics in multi-aquifer
Estimation of interface boundary and structure The saline/freshwater interface or diffusion

boundary can be demarcated broadly using surface geo-electrical methods and in detail from
borehole geophysical logs of electrical resistivity. Estimation of true resistivity of a formation is
most crucial and can be derived from an electrical resistivity log as follows:
Rt = F × Rw
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where Rt = true formation resistivity (Ω m –1); Rw = saturated water resistivity (Ω m –1); F =
formation factor, which is inversely proportional to the porosity raised to an exponential power
that represents void distribution.
Borehole geophysical techniques can provide more information (Tom a well than can be
obtained from drilling and sampling. The geophysical-logging systems used in this study
provided continuous digital records that reflect the physical properties of the sediment, the rock
matrix, and the interstitial fluids. Borehole geophysical logging was selected because drilling
cores and filter-press samples were insufficient for delineation of the contacts between lithologic
units and the saltwater-freshwater interface. Geophysical logging was completed at seven wells.
At three of the sites, spontaneous potential (SP), single-point resistance (SPR), short-normal
resistivity (R), and natural-gamma radiation (gamma) logs were collected in mud-filled open
boreholes prior to casing. At each of the sites, focused electromagnetic-induction (EM) logs were
collected in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cased wells; gamma and EM logs were obtained at wells
that were already cased. The SP, SPR, and R probes were calibrated to provide consistently
reliable measurements.
Spontaneous-potential (SP) logs - These logs provide a record of the potentials, or voltages, that
develop at the contacts between clay beds and sand aquifers within a borehole. This potential
differs from one formation to the next and is measured in millivolts .The SP is a function of the
chemical activity of the borehole fluid, the water in the adjacent sediments, the water
temperature, and the type and quantity of clay. SP logs are used to determine lithology, bed
thickness, and salinity of formation water
Single-point-resistance log (SPR) - These logs provide a measure of the resistance, in ohms,
between an electrode in the borehole and an electrode at land surface. The volume of
surrounding material to which the SPR probe is sensitive is spherical and only 5 to 10 times the
electrode diameter, and is affected by the borehole fluid. SPR logs are used to obtain high-
resolution lithologic information.
Normal-resistivity (R) logs - This technique uses two electrodes typically spaced 16 or 64 inches
apart in the borehole, called short- and long-normal logs, respectively. Normal-resistivity logs
measure apparent resistivity in ohm-meters and are used to determine lithology and water quality
(salinity). The volume of surrounding material to which normal resistivity probes are sensitive is
spherical with a diameter about twice the electrode spacing .In this study, only short-normal
resistivity logs were used.
Natural-gamma (gamma) logs - Gamma logs are a record of the total gamma radiation detected
in a borehole. Clays and fine-grained sediments tend to be more radioactive than the quartz sand
that forms the bulk of the deposits on Long Island. Gamma logs are most commonly used for
lithologic and stratigraphic correlation
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Focused electromagnetic induction (EM) logs - This technique uses an electromagnetic emitter
coil that induces current loops within the surrounding formation to generate a secondary
electromagnetic field. The intensity of the secondary field received by the receiver coil is
proportional to the formation conductivity.EM logs are measured in units of millisiemens per
meter (mS/m) and are inversely related to the ohm-meter of normal-resistivity logs.
The evaluation of seawater intrusion has been dealt with through a variety of geophysical
techniques for which it would be useful to know the subsurface resistivity to estimate the saline
water intrusion, and geoelectric and geoelectromagnetic techniques are the leading ones. These
techniques are particularly efficient in the exploration of saline groundwater due to the close
relation between salinity and electrical resistivity/conductivity measurements. It helps in
understanding spatial relations between fresh, brackish and saline water, which commonly
coexist in coastal aquifers. The large differences between the resistivity of saltwater-saturated
zones and the freshwater-saturated zones have been used by several investigations to determine
the saltwater intrusion in many coastal areas.
In most cases, the application of the geophysical methods has focused on studying the
geometrical features of the target (e.g. the depth to freshwater–saline groundwater interface).
This problem was successfully treated by all relevant methods. Direct current (DC) electrical
imaging is one of the most efficient and powerful technique to map freshwater–saltwater
interfaces. Many geoelectrical surveys based on the one-dimensional (1D) vertical electrical
sounding (VES) were performed in different coastal areas around the world.
The time domain electromagnetic method (TDEM) has been used successfully in
hydrogeological surveys, geological mapping applications, aquifer structure delineation and
contamination.
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UNIT-V
COMPUTATIONS OF NORMAL AND LATERAL LOG RESPONSES
The laterolog is a direct current (DC) tool based on Ohm's Law. The tools have been designed
to produce reliable resistivity measurements in boreholes containing highly saline drilling fluids
and/or when surrounded by highly resistive rocks. The logging current is prevented from flowing
up and down within the drilling fluid by placing focusing electrodes (A1 and A2) on both sides
of a central measure electrode A0, as illustrated below. The focusing electrodes force measure
current to flow only in the lateral direction, perpendicular to the axis of the logging device.
Schematic diagrams of laterolog 7 (left), laterolog 3 or Guard log (middle) and spherically
focused log (right). Grey shading represents desired current path. The Laterolog 7 electrode
arrangements can be likened to two ES logs spliced together, with one tool upside down. The
center current electrode A0 is in the middle of the current path. Guard electrodes A1 and A2
keep the current focused. On the LL7, measure electrode pairs M1 and M2 straddle the top
and bottom current path boundary. The secret is to keep the current flow constant to get an
accurate resistivity.
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Fig. A The standard normal configuration. Fig. B The standard lateral configuration.
The theory is developed for 3 electrodes, and this is how the first measurements were made, a
four electrode arrangement soon became standard. This allows the current flow circuit (the
generator circuit in Fig. A) to be separated from the potential sensing circuit (the meter circuit in
Fig. A), which provides better quality results. In this arrangement a constant known current is
flowed from A to B (or B to A), and the potential is measured between M and N. Electrode B
and N are kept at a long distance from electrodes A and M to provide quasi-infinite reference
points for the current and potential measurements.
Another arrangement is possible, where electrodes A and B are placed close together with
respect to the distance between A and M. This is shown in Fig. 19.4, and was called the lateral
configuration.
The Basic Laterologs
Figure shows two of the earlier laterologs. Each have a number of electrodes. The LL3 has 3
current emitting electrodes. The middle one, which is 1 foot long emits the main current, while
the 5 foot long electrodes either side of it emit a current that is designed to help keep the central
current more focussed. This is called a bucking current and the electrodes are called guard
electrodes. In this simple tool the bucking current is the same as that from the central electrode,
and the potential of the central electrode is measured relative to the potential at infinity to give a
potential difference. This potential difference and the known current from the central electrode
are used to calculate the formation resistivity, using a known geometrical factor for the
arrangement. The vertical resolution of the LL3 is 1 ft.
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The LL7 has 7 electrodes. A constant current is emitted from the centre electrode. A bucking
current is emitted from the two far electrodes (80 inches apart), and is automatically adjusted
such that the two pairs of monitoring electrodes are brought to the same potential difference.
Then the current from the central electrode is focussed in a thin disk far out into the formation.
The potential between one of the monitoring electrodes and the potential at infinity is then
measured, and knowing the current from the central electrode allows the formation resistivity to
be calculated providing the geometrical factor of the arrangement is known (calculated
theoretically and tested in the calibration of the device). This electrode arrangement produces a
thin disk of current that is confined between the two sets of measuring electrodes (32 inches
apart). The strongly focussed beam is little affected by hole size, penetrates the invaded zone,
and measures the resistivity of the virgin formation, Rt . The vertical resolution of the LL7 is 3
ft. and the sensitivity is 0.2 to 20,000 Wm.
Normal Resistivity Log
Basic Concept
Among the various multi-electrode resistivity-logging techniques, normal resistivity is probably

the most widely used in groundwater hydrology, even though the long normal log has become
rather obsolete in the oil industry. Normal-resistivity logs can be interpreted quantitatively when
they are properly calibrated in terms of Ώm. Log measurements are converted to apparent
resistivity, which may need to be corrected for mud resistivity, bed thickness, borehole diameter,
mudcake, and invasion, to arrive at true resistivity. ts for making these corrections are available
in old logging manuals. Figure 5 is an example of one of these ts that is used to correct 40-cm
(16-cm) in normal curves for borehole diameter and mud resistivity. The arrows on this t show
examples of corrections for borehole size and mud resistivity (R m). If the resistivity from a 40-
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cm (16-in) normal curve divided by the mud resistivity is 50 in a 25-cm (10-in) borehole, the
ratio will be 60 in an 20cm (8-in) borehole.
Borehole correction t for 16-in normal resistivity log.
The SP electrode is located between the short normal electrodes. The relative difference
between the volumes of material investigated by the two normal systems also is illustrated in
figure 8. The volume of investigation of the normal resistivity devices is considered to be a
sphere, with a radius approximately twice the AM spacing. This volume changes as a function
of the resistivity, so that its size and shape are changing as the well is being logged.
System used to make 40- and

162 cm (16- and 64-in)
normal resistivity logs.
Shaded areas indicate relative
size volumes of investigation.
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IDENTIFICATION AND DELINEATION OF SUB-SURFACE FORMATIONS FROM

WELL LOG DATA.
Subsurface geophysical methods
• It is a detailed & comprehensive study of groundwater and conditions under which it occurs.
• It provides information about location, thickness, composition, permeability and yield of the
aquifer.
• It also provides information about the location, movement & quality of groundwater.
Advantages • Data from geophysical log can be digitized and stored in storage devices. • Graphic
display permit rapid visual interpretation.
Disadvantages • It is costly, so a few %age of new wells drilled each year are logged by
geophysical equipment
Subsurface geophysical methods
Delineation of aquifer simply means to draw or trace an outline of aquifers, which can infer by
the determination of lithology and stratigraphic correlation of aquifers and associated rocks.
• It can be done by several methods such that resistivity, sonic, caliper log which operated in
open holes and also radiation log which operated either in open or cased holes.
Estimation of water quality includes chemical and physical characteristics of water, including
salinity, temperature, density and viscosity.
• It can be done by calibrated fluid conductivity or resistivity, temperature logs and resistivity
logs.
Resistivity Logging
• It is also called Electric logging.

• Within an uncased well, current & potential electrodes can be lowered in borehole to measure
electric resistivity of the surrounding media and to obtain a trace of their variation with depth.
• Resistivity log affected by several components – Fluid within a well – Well diameter –
Character of surrounding strata – Groundwater
• Uses of multielectrode can minimize the effect of drilling fluid and well diameter.
• Recorded curves are termed as normal or lateral depending on the electrode arrangement.
• In normal arrangement, effective spacing is considered to be distance AM and recorded curves
is designated as AM.
• Boundaries of formation having different resistivities are located most readily with a short
electrode spacings. Normal Arrangement
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• Resistivity of unconsolidated aquifer controlled by – Porosity – Packing –

Water resistivity – Degree of saturation – Temperature
• Resistivity range of different formations – Shale, Clay & Saltwater –> Low value – Freshwater
sand –> Moderate to high value – Cemented sandstone & Nonporous limestone –> High value
• Resistivity of groundwater depends on – Ionic conc. of salt solution – Mobility of salt solution
Applications
 Physical and chemical characteristics of fluids,
 Formation resistivity
 Porosity
 Mud resistivity
Spontaneous Potential [SP]
• It measures natural electrical potential found within the earth. • S.P. in a hole is due to
electrochemical and elctrokinetic or streaming potentials.
• Electrochemical potentials are due to differences in conc. of activities of the formation water
and mud filtrate called liquid junction potential. • Membrane potential is due to presence of shale
layers.
• The streaming potential is due to electro-filtration of the mud through the mud cake.
• Chemical activity is proportional/related to the salt content and hence to the resistivity.
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• If the permeable formation is not shaly,
SP is 𝑆𝑃 = −𝐾𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑅 𝑚𝑓 / 𝑅 𝑤
where, K = coeff. proportional to absolute temp. of formation 𝑅 𝑚𝑓 = resistivity of mud fluid 𝑅

𝑤 = resistivity of formation water
• SP log is obtained by recording potential differences against depth, b/w a fixed surface
electrode and a moveable electrode in the borehole.
• Potentials associated with shales and clays are normally the least negative, the SP curve is a
straight line called the shale baseline.
• Opposite the permeable formations, the SP curve shifts either to the left (-ve) or to the right
(+ve) depending on the relative salinities of the formation water and the mud filtrate.
Spontaneous Potential [SP] Applications
• To calculate formation water resistivity • To locate bed boundaries.
• To distinguish b/w shales and sandstone or limestone in comination with other logs.
• For stratigraphic correlation Factors affected SP log • Hole diameter • Bed thickness
• Water or mud resistivity • Density • Chemical compostion • Cake thickness • Mud filtrate
invasion well temperature
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Radioactivity Logging
• Also known as nuclear or radiation logging. • It involves the measurement of fundamental

particles emitted from unstable radioactive isotope.
• Radioactive logs can be used in cased as well as in open holes. [Advantage]
• Radioactive logs are of two general types – those which measure the natural radioactivity of
formations (gamma ray log) and – those which detect radiation reflected from or induced in the
formation from an artificial from an artificial source (neutron logs)
• Since, Gamma ray log are recorded in two ways – Natural Gamma log – Gamma – Gamma log
Gamma – Gamma logging
• Gamma rays originates from a source in the probe and diffuse through the formation. Part of
the scattered gamma rays re – enter the hole and are measured by an detector.
• The higher the bulk density of the formation, the smaller the number of gamma – gamma rays
that reach the detector.
• The count rate plotted on a gamma – gamma log is an exponential function of bulk density.
Hence, porosity of the formation can be determined. 𝜂 = 𝜌 𝑔 − 𝜌 𝑏 / 𝜌 𝑔 − 𝜌 𝑓
where, 𝜌 𝑔 = grain density 𝜌 𝑏 = bulk density 𝜌 𝑓 = fluid density
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Gamma – Gamma Logging Applications • Identification of lithology • Measurement of bulk
density and porosity.
Neutron Logging
• It produces a record related to the H+ content of the borehole environment. • A fast neutron
source is used to bombard the rock. When any individual neutron collides with a H+ ion, some of
the neutron’s energy is lost and it slow down. • A large number of slow neutrons recorded
indicates a large amount of fluid i.e., high porosity.
Neutron Logging Application • It can measure moisture content above water table and porosity
below water table. • By measuring moisture contents above and below the water table, specific
yield of unconfined aquifer can be determined. Neutron log results are influenced by hole size.
*The gamma ray does not indicate casing or presence of fluid while the neutron log is sensitive
to both casing and fluid in the hole as well as in the formation.
Temperature Logging
• A vertical traverse measurement of groundwater T in a well can be obtained with a recording

resistance thermometer.
• The rate of increase of T with depth (geothermal gradient) depends on the locality and heat
conductivity of the formations.
• T encountered in drill holes are dependent not only on the natural geothermal gradient but also
on the circulation of the mud.
• Higher T are usually recorded in caved sections where greater volume of cement are deposited.
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• Lower T may indicate the presence of gas or in deep wells may suggest recharge from ground
surfaces.
Induction Logging
• It measures the conductivity (reciprocal of resistivity) of formation by means of induced

alternation currents.
• Insulated coils rather than electrolytes are used to energise the formation.
• Borehole may contain any fluid or be empty but the hole must be uncaved.
• It is specially used to investigate thin beds because of its focusing abilities and its greater radius
of investigation.
• It is a superior method for surveying empty holes and holes drilled with oilbased mud.
CALCULATION OF RESERVOIR PARAMETERS:
FORMATION FACTOR
Formation Volume Factor
The gas formation volume factor is the gas volume at reservoir conditions divided by gas volume
at standard conditions. It is used to convert surface measured volumes to reservoir conditions,
assuming the fluid is in a single gas phase despite temperature and pressure changes. Defined
below, it is a function of the fluid composition and the pressure/temperature ratio between
reservoir (in-situ) and standard conditions (14.65 psia and 519.67 °R or 60 °F):
It is a very strong function of pressure, and a weak function of temperature and gas composition.
The dry gas formation volume factor is the gas volume at reservoir conditions divided by the gas
volume at standard conditions. It is used to describe the gas volume change from the reservoir to
the surface, taking into account the phase change between gas and liquid.
Oil Formation Volume Factor
Oil formation volume factor (FVF) is defined as the ratio of the volume of oil and dissolved gas
at reservoir (in-situ) conditions to the volume of oil at stock tank (surface) conditions. Since most
measurements of oil and gas production are made at the surface, and the fluid flow takes place in
the formation, volume factors are needed to convert measured surface volumes to reservoir
conditions. It is defined as:
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Oil formation volume factor is influenced by two main factors. The dominant factor is solution
gas. As pressure increases, the amount of solution gas that the oil can dissolve increases such that
the oil swells, and so the formation volume factor exceeds 1.0. Once there is no remaining free
gas available to dissolve in the oil, further increases in pressure result in decline in formation
volume factor due to the second influencing factor – the compressibility of oil. As shown in the
diagram below, oil formation volume factor is dominated by swelling below the bubble point
pressure (due to dissolved gas), and by compressibility above the bubble point pressure (since all
available gas is now dissolved).
POROSITY
Porosity is a measure of the storage capacity of a reservoir. It is defined as the ratio of
pore volume to bulk volume, and it may be expressed as either a percent or a fraction. In
equation form
volume of pores Bulk volume−Grain volume
Porosity ɸ = Bulk volume = Bulk volume
Two types of porosity may be measured: total or absolute porosity and effective porosity.
Total porosity is the ratio of all the pore spaces in a rock to the bulk volume of the rock.
Effective porosity e is the ratio of interconnected void spaces to the bulk volume. Thus,
only the effective porosity contains fluids that can be produced from wells.
Porosity Measurements
From the definition of porosity, it is evident that the porosity of a sample of porous
material can be determined by measuring any two of the three quantities: bulk
volume, pore volume or grain volume. The porosity of a reservoir rock may be
determined by
- Core analysis
- Well logging technique
- Well testing.
Bulk Volume Measurement
Although the bulk volume may be computed from measurements of the dimensions
of a uniformly shaped sample, the usual procedure utilizes the observation of the
volume of fluid displaced by the sample. The fluid displaced by a sample can be
observed either volumetrically or gravimetrically. In either procedure it is necessary
to prevent fluid penetration into the pore space to the rock. This can be
accomplished (1) by coating the sample with paraffin or a similar substance, (2) by
saturating the core with the fluid into which it is to be immersed, or (3) by using
mercury.
Gravimetric determinations of bulk volume can be accomplished by observing the

loss in weight of the sample when immersed in a fluid or by observing the change in
weight of a pycnometer with and without the core sample.
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Pore Volume Measurement
All the methods of measuring pore volume yield effective porosity. The methods are
based on either the extraction of a fluid from the rock or the introduction of a fluid into
the pore spaces of the rock.
One of the most used methods is the helium technique, which employs Boyle’s law. The helium
gas in the reference cell is isothermally expanded into a sample cell. After expansion, the
resultant equilibrium pressure is measured. The helium porosimeter apparatus is shown
schematically in Figure
A schematic diagram of the helium porosimeter is shown by Figure 3.2b. The helium in reference
volume V1 (cell A), at pressure P1, expands into the matrix cup with unknown volume V2 (cell B),
and initial pressure P2. The reference cell and the matrix cup are connected by tubing; the system
can be brought to equilibrium when the core holder valve is opened, allowing determination of the
unknown volume V2 by measuring the resultant equilibrium pressure P. (Pressures P 1 and P2 are
controlled by the operator; usually P1 = 100 and P2 = 0 psig). When the core holder valve is
opened, the volume of the system will be the equilibrium volume V, which is the sum of the
volumes V1 and V2. Boyle’s law is applicable if the expansion takes place isothermally. Thus the
pressure-volume products are equal before and after opening the core holder valve:
P1V1  P2V2  P(V1 V2 )
𝑉1+ (1000−𝑃)
V2 = p
Helium Porisimetry
This method relies on the expansion of helium gas, and also measures the effective porosity of
the rock. However, since helium is a slippery little molecule, it can penetrate pores which are
much smaller than those that the fluid used in the two previous methods can. Hence, this
method provides slightly higher porosity measurements on any given rock sample.
This method uses the apparatus shown in Fig. together with the following procedure.
 Clean and dry the core sample.
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 Obtain the bulk volume of the sample as in the previous methods.
presure gauge
To
Atmosphere
Gas supply Chmber 1 Chmber 2
Mercury injection method:

Both the bulk and pore volume are determined in this method. The tested sample is placed in a
chamber filled to a certain level with mercury, with a known volume of air at a known pressure
(e.g. atmospheric pressure) above it. The volume of mercury displaced by the sample gives the
bulk volume. When the pressure of mercury is increased by a volumetric pump, the mercury
penetrates the pore space of the sample. Total effective pore volume could be determined by
gradually increasing the pressure. In general the method is not suitable for low permeability
samples as very high pressure are required.
PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a measure of capacity of the medium to
transmit fluids. Permeability is a tensor that in general is a function of pressure.
𝐾
u = μ (v+ρg)
U is superficial velocity,K is permeability tensor, g is gravitational vector, is fluid viscosity, P

is pressure gradient, and  is fluid density.
Kozeny-Carman Model
Formation permeability may be determined or estimated on the basis of core analysis, well tests,
production data, well log interpretations, or correlations based on rock permeabilities. One of
these often used pore models is Kozeny-Carman model
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The volumetric flow rate q in a horizontal capillary of radius R and length L, is given by
Hagen-Poiseuille’s equation
𝑅2P
q= 8μL
Klinkenberg Effect
Klinkenberg has reported variations in permeability determined by using gases as the
flowing fluid compared to those obtained when using non reactive liquids. These
variations were considered to be due to slippage, a phenomenon well known with respect
to gas flow in capillary tubes. The phenomena of gas slippage occurs when the diameter of
the capillary openings approach the mean free path of the gas. The mean free path of a gas
is a function of molecular size and the kinetic energy of the gas. Therefore, permeability
of gas depends on factors which influence the mean free path, such as temperature,
pressure and the molecular size of the gas.
Measurement of Permeability
The permeability of a porous medium can be determined from the samples extracted from the
formation or by in place testing such as well logging and well testing. Measurement of
permeability in the case of isotropic media is usually performed on linear, mostly cylindrical
shaped, “core” samples. Cores are cylinders with approximately 3.81cm (1.5 inch) diameter and
5 cm (2 inch) length. Sometimes the permeability tests run on a whole core samples about 30-50
cm long. The experiment can be arranged so as to have horizontal or vertical flow through the
sample. Permeability is reduced by overburden pressure, and this factor should be considered in
estimating permeability of the reservoir rock in deep wells because permeability is an anisotropic
property of the porous rock, that is, it is directional. Routine core analysis is generally concerned
with plug samples drilled parallel to bedding planes and, hence, parallel to the direction of flow
in the reservoir. These yield horizontal permeabilities (Kh). The measured permeabilities on
plugs that are drilled perpendicular to the bedding planes are referred to as vertical permeability
(Kv). Both liquids and gases have been used to measure permeability. However liquids
sometimes change the pore structure and therefore the permeability. For example injection of
water to a sample with some amount of clay leads to decreasing permeability due to swelling of
the clays. There are several factors that could lead to some of error in determining reservoir
permeability. Some of these factors are:
 Core sample may not be representative of the reservoir rock because of reservoir
heterogeneity.
 Core recovery may be incomplete.
 Permeability of the core may be altered when it is cut, or when it is cleaned and dried in
preparation for analysis. This problem is likely to occur when the rock contains reactive
clays.
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Plot of Experimental Results for Calculation of Permeability
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
• When the rock is partially saturated with hydrocarbon, the resistivity of the rock is
increased due to non-conductive properties of hydrocarbons. Wettability is an important
factor for brine distribution, which contributes to the change of resistivity.
• Water-wet: brine is continuous, so the decrease of the cross-sectional area that can
conduct flow will lead to the increase of resistivity.
• Oil-wet: brine is discontinuous, so the electrical resistivity will increase at a faster rate
than in water-wet.
Electrical properties of reservoirs vary strongly with porosity and characteristics of the fluids in
the pore space; usually, basic properties are determined assuming:
• “clean” reservoir rock (non-shaly)
• Sw = 1.00 (water saturated rock)
The Electrical resistivity (reciprocal of conductivity) of a fluid-saturated rock is its ability to

impede the flow of electric current through that rock. It is an intensive rock/fluid property.
•Resistance is extensive and for linear, 1-D electrical flow,
r=(R ·L)/A
•r electrical resistance, 
•R electrical resistivity, ·m
•L length of electrical flow path, m
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•A cross-sectional area perpendicular to electrical flow path, m2
Electical properties of a rock depend on the pore geometry and fluid distribution
Electric current by “Ionic conduction.
Consider the tank completely filled with 100% brine saturated, porous sand
Resistance with respect to the water phase
rw = Rw La / Ap
Resistance with respect to fluid-filled, porous rock
Ro = Ro L/A
Si nce ro ≈ rw Ro/Rw = A/Ap La/L
Factores affecting Electrical Resistivity
 Resistivity of water
 Porosity of the formation
 Pore geometry – tortuosity
 Lithology of the formation
 Degree of cementation
 Type nd amount of day in the rock
SATURATION
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular
fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is expressed mathematically by the following
relationship:
All saturations are based on pore volume not gross volume of the reservoir. The saturation of
each individual phase ranges between zero to 100 percent. By definition, the sum of the
saturations is 100%, therefore
So + Sw + Sg
So = volume of oil /pore volume
Sg = volume of gas /pore volume
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Sw = volume of water /pore volume
where , So = oil saturation Sg = gas saturation Sw = water saturation
Connate (interstitial) water saturation Swc is important primarily because it reduces the amount
of space available between oil and gas. It is generally not uniformly distributed throughout the
reservoir but varies with permeability, lithology, and height above the free water table. Another
particular phase saturation of interest is called the critical saturation and it is associated with
each reservoir fluid. The definition and the significance of the critical saturation for each phase is
described below.
Critical oil saturation, Soc

For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain value which is termed
critical oil saturation. At this particular saturation, the oil remains in the pores and, for all
practical purposes, will not flow.
Residual oil saturation, Sor

During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas
injection (or encroachment) there will be some remaining oil left that is quantitatively
characterized by a saturation value that is larger than the critical oil saturation. This saturation
value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor. The term residual saturation is usually associated
with the non-wetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting phase.
Movable oil saturation, Som

Movable oil saturation Som is another saturation of interest and is defined as the fraction of pore
volume occupied by movable oil as expressed by the following equation:
Som = 1 – Swc – Soc
Critical gas saturation, Sgc

As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil
phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines. The
gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds certain saturation, called critical gas
saturation, above which gas begins to move.
Critical water saturation, Swc

The critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation are
extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water
phase will remain immobile.
Determination of Fluid Saturation from Rock Sample

The methods that are used to measure values of original rock saturation can be classified to two
classes: Evaporation of the fluids in the rock and Leaching out the fluids in the rock by
extraction with a solvent.
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Retort method:
This method takes a sample and heats as to vaporize water and oil, which is condensed and
collected in a small receiving vessel. This method has some disadvantage. First to vaporize all
the in situ oil the core sample should reached to a high temperature around 1100 oF. At this high
temperature the water of crystallization within the rock is driven off, causing the water recovery
values to be greater than just interstitial water. The second error is that the oil at this high
temperature range tends to cock and crack. This change in the molecule type causes decreasing
in the liquid volume and coats the internal walls of the core sample. Before using of the retort
test calibration curves should be used to correct the errors resulted from the cocking and cracking
at different temperature.
ASTM method:
This method is based on the extracting with a solvent during
a distillation process. The core is placed and a vapor of
toluene, gasoline, or naphtha rises through the core and is
condensed to reflux back over the core. This process leaches
out oil and water in the core. The water and extracting fluid
are condensed and collect in a graduated receiving tube
(Figure 2-28). The water settles to the bottom of graduated
tube because of its higher density. The process continues
until no more water is collected in the graduated vessel.
After the process the water saturation can be determined
directly. The oil saturation is an indirect determination. By
knowing the weight of core sample before the test, the
weight of the dried sample after the test, and the weight of
extracted water we can determine the oil saturation:
Centrifugal method:
The water and oil are extracted from the sample core with solvent as the ASTM method. The
difference is that the extraction force is applied by a centrifugal force. The solvent removes all
the water and oil in the sample under the centrifugal force and the extracted fluid collected in a
container to determine the oil and water saturation in the same way of ASTM method. The use of
centrifuge provides a very rapid method.
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SUBSURFACE CORRELATION OF FORMATIONS AND INTERPRETATION OF
FIELD DATA.
Generally, well logs are generated from geophysical instruments lowered down in well
bores to record changes in subsurface physical properties of rocks with depth. The data obtained
have several applications in the different fields of geology but they are particularly useful in the
oil and gas industry for evaluation of hydrocarbon fluids as well as in stratigraphy and structural
geology. Subsurface stratigraphic correlation generally relies on the analysis of well log data to
build cross sections, subsurface maps and geological models using common correlation methods
including use of marker beds, pattern matching and slice techniques.
Log pattern matching can be carried out manually or using mathematical, logical, or other
advanced computing techniques to recognise patterns in well logs for classification into
electrofacies.
The physical relationship between most geophysical methods including well logging and seismic
survey are commonly compared for precise interpretation of subsurface stratigraphy and
structures and to improve understanding of subsurface heterogeneities. Stratigraphic units in this
study were identified from qualitative pattern analysis of the different logs and validated using
seismic data. The methodology involved correlating the time-processed seismic data to the
depth-processed sonic log velocity data to determine their time-depth relationship.
Stratigraphic horizons were mapped from reflection surfaces in the 2D seismic data to represent
subsurface lithological interface or sequence stratigraphic boundaries. As well velocity or
check-shot survey data is not available for direct time-depth tying of the seismic to well data the
correlation method described by Herron (2014) was tested herein using time depth components
available in the sonic log data. Routine smoothing and coarsening of the plotted well logs’
scales to fit the data range were applied. Vertical axes or the measured depth (MD) axes of the
well logs were adjusted to conform with data-start to data-stop ranges for whole log
visualisations.
Consistency in log signatures with depth across different log types in each well were observed by
visually recognising and mapping patterns of the logs. Each visual log pattern is associated with
a corresponding qualitative indication of the physical property measured by the log. Fine
correlations within likely formations as well as at formation boundaries across well sections
rather than absolute conformity of the log patterns were considered.
Mapping of stratigraphic intervals were achieved by analysing overall log patterns and their
corresponding change in log values that is consistent with the expected log behaviour associated
with individual lithologies. Pattern analysis and recognition of log behaviours in different rocks
were derived from the synthetic log response chart developed by Railsback.
Log profiles were plotted and correlated across the wells along two section lines N-S and E-W
(Figure 1) to map the lateral continuous subsurface stratigraphy and structure (Figure 2,3).
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Resistivity log:
Resistivity logs measure electrical properties of rock formations and are usually
correlated with gamma ray logs for lithological investigation due to their distinguishing
behaviours in sand and shale formations. resistivity of formations often depends on conductivity
due to the presence of water (and its salinity) and hydrocarbons contained within pores spaces of
rocks. Resistivity depends on the lithology due to the nature of rock fabric, texture and clay
content .In this study, the resistivity log type is the deep induction log (ILD) which measures
resistivity around the wellbore in the undisturbed deeper zones of the formation uninvaded by
the drilling mud fluid.
The log tracks have logarithmic grid line scales to accommodate the changes associated with
electrical measurements in rocks. The ILD logs are essentially used herein to distinguish
between zones of shale and non shaly (or sand) across the formations. Thus, inverse pattern
behaviour was expected between the GR logs and the ILD logs where minimum resistivity
readings would indicate high clay and shale content and maximum resistivity readings would
indicate the sandy content.
Bulk density:
Bulk density is an important property of rock formations as it directly relates to in-situ porosity,
lithology and pore fluids. Unlike the natural GR log which measures the in-situ radioactive
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materials in rocks, bulk density measurements in wireline logging use active gamma ray source
with gamma ray detector device to record Compton scattering interactions.
Sonic Log:
Sonic logs measures the acoustic velocity of the compressional (P) or shear (S) waves 386
travelled in rocks which primarily depends on the density, porosity, and lithology of the rock 387
medium However, the P waves depends more on the bulk density of the propagating medium.
388 Sonic logs measure the transit time or slowness of the waves in the formations around the
well bore such that the wave travel time is lower in high porosity rocks including sandstone and
higher in low porosity rocks including shale. The inverse relationship between bulk density and
P-wave velocity is qualitatively reflected in their log pattern.
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GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENINGEERING

Aims and objectives of well logging

A wide range of physical parameters can be measured.

• Provide information on lithology, boundaries of formations and stratigraphic correlation.

• Determine Porosity, Permeability, water, oil and gas saturation.

• Reservoir modeling and Structural studies… etc.

A partial list of Applications of borehole measurements/well logs is as follows.

1. Estimating recoverable hydrocarbons (primary application)

Generation, Migration and Trapping of Hydrocarbons

PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS

Hole Diameter (dh)

Flushed zone Resistivity (Rxo)

Permeability is the ability of a rock to transmit fluids. It is

It is measured in darcys or millidarcys (md) and is

The ability of a rock to transmit a single fluid, when it is

Relative permeability is the ratio between effective permeability of a fluid at partial

formation water occupying pores

Resistivity is a basic measurement of a reservoir’s fluid saturation and is a function of

where , So = oil saturation

Residual oil saturation, Sor

Movable oil saturation, Som

Som = 1 – Swc – Soc

Critical gas saturation, Sgc

Critical water saturation, Swc

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORMATION FACTOR AND POROSITY

For carbonates & very cemented sands:

 a = proportionality constant varying from 0.6 to 1.5,

GAMMA RAY LOG

• Basics about the Resistivity:

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG (SP)

• The spontaneous potential (SP) curve records

Induction logging was originally developed to measure formation resistivities in boreholes

INDUCTION LOG THEORY

1. Alternating current applied to transmitter coils

1: Bt = uo * dI/dt magnetic field due to current “I” in transmitter coil

Temperature/pressure logs are used to identify certain characteristics of a geothermal reservoir.

The Neutron Log can be summarized as the continuous

THE DENSITY LOG

Scale and units:

SONIC OR ACOUSTIC LOG

Presentation of 4 arm caliper log data

Hole Diameter Cause Possible Lithologies

 Contributory information for

 Indicator of good permeability and

 Calculation of mudcake thickness, hmc

Typical caliper responses to various

THERMAL DECAY LOG

CARBON OXYGEN LOG

Applications of temperature logs :

 Surface signal routing

 Battery back and system power

The downhole wireline logging (WL) tool

The continuous recording of a geophysical parameter along a borehole produces a

The goals of formation evaluation can be summarized by a statement of four questions

Are there any hydrocarbons, and if so are they oil or gas?

Where are the hydrocarbons?

How much hydrocarbon is contained in the formation?

How producible are the hydrocarbons?

They provide, principally, values of porosity, shaliness and hydrocarbon saturation, as a

Well Log Interpretation:

Finding the HydrocarbonThe three most important questions to be answered by wellsite

2. Resistivity logs (MFSL, Shallow and Deep resistivity logs)