Basics of reservoir

engineering for
completion
SUMMARY

I. What is a reservoir?

II. Characterisation of reservoir rocks

III. Fluid studies

IV. Reservoir knowledge
V. Recovery mechanisms

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I - What is a reservoir?

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 What is a reservoir?

One or more RESERVOIR ROCKS:

Porous to allow hydrocarbon storage
Permeable to allow fluid flow

Containing HYDROCARBONS:
Liquid or gaseous
Water resources can be also targeted to be used for:
− Water injection
− CO2 underground storage

Which are TRAPPED:

By a non-permeable barrier on top
In an anticline structure, ...

A RESERVOIR: one or several pay zones

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 Conventional Representation of a reservoir

Gas Oil
Top Gas Contact
(impermeable layer)

Oil

Water Oil
Contact

Bottom Water
(impermeable layer)

Gas
Oil

Water

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 Reservoir Rocks

Shaly SANDSTONES (80% of reservoirs) - Quartz and shale

CARBONATED rocks - Calcites et Dolomites (40% of world production)

Q Shale

F
Quartz and Feldspars Debris of various types (clasts)
with shale cement buried in a calcite cement

Shaly cemented sandstone Skeletal limestone

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 Hydrocarbon Generation

The type of hydrocarbon generated is strongly related to the conversion

temperature of kerogen

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 Generation/Migration of Hydrocarbons
Origin of Hydrocarbons
Burial of source rock to temperature and pressure regime sufficient to
convert organic matter into hydrocarbon
Marine animal biomass : small shellfish (krill) and zooplankton
Marine vegetal biomass : giant & microscopic algae's (phytoplankton)

Maturation from kerogen to hydrocarbon in the source rock

Primary migration toward the reservoir, secondary migration inside the
reservoir
Primary & secondary migration Closure
Closure
Secondary
migration

Source rock

Primary
migration
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 Petroleum system processes

Generation: Burial of source rock to temperature and

pressure
regime sufficient to convert organic matter into hydrocarbon

Migration: Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source rock

toward
and into a trap

Accumulation: A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into a trap

faster
than the trap leaks resulting in an accumulation

Preservation: Hydrocarbon remains in reservoir and is not altered

by biodegradation or “water-washing”

Timing: Trap forms before and during hydrocarbon migrating

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Geologic Time Scale

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Petroleum System Events Chart

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 Classification of traps

STRUCTURAL TRAPS: resulting from the deformation of rocks, simple

anticlines or faults

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS: due to facies variations, the rock becoming laterally

impermeable. Examples are: sandstones lenses in shale/sandstone units,
depositional or erosional pinch outs, and carbonate reefs
COMBINED TRAPS: eroded anticlines, traps associated to salt domes

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 Different types of traps

Anticline Reef Salt dome

Unconformity Pinch out Stratigraphic trap

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II - Characterization of
reservoir rocks

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 Characterization of Reservoir Rocks

To be considered as a reservoir, a rock must have the

following properties:

• Must be a porous media able to store the hydrocarbons. This

capability is called the rock POROSITY (noted Ø)

• Allows the flow of hydrocarbon. This property is called the

rock PERMEABILITY (noted k)

• Contain enough hydrocarbons. This is called the hydrocarbon

rock SATURATION (noted S)

There are several ways to determine these rock properties:

• Analysis of cores samples taken during the drilling of the wells

• Interpretation of well logs and well tests

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 The Porous Media

Porous media
Residual porosity
Useful porosity

Cores

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 Porosity

Definition :
Cubic
Ø = Volume of PORES / TOTAL Volume (single size)
(current values between 0.01 and 0.35) Ø # 0.476

Important Parameters:
– The grain shape and their organisation Rhomboedric
– The repartition of the grain sizes (single size)
Ø # 0.259
– Ø is not related to the grain size for a given
assembly of same size spherical grains
Different types of repartitions

Cubic
(2 sizes)
standard deviation increase

< 0.259
porosity decrease when

0.35 0.50

1.00 2.00
) 18
 Permeability

Definition:
The permeability k characterises the fluid flow trough a given
porous media

Quantification – Darcy's law:

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 Saturation

Definition:
S = Relative amount of fluids inside the pores
Sw = Water volume / Total pore volume = water saturation
So = Oil volume / Total pore volume = oil saturation
Sg = Gas volume / Total pore volume = gas saturation
Sw+So+Sg = 1

Linked to the surface properties of the rock (wetability)

Practical cases: Oil
Water
Water/Oil case - Water of often the wetting fluid
Oil/Gas case - Oil is the wetting fluid
Water/Gas case - Water is always the wetting fluid

Rock

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III - Fluid studies

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 Composition of hydrocarbons

OIL = ɛ (C to C ) + C
1 4 5
+

LIGHT oils (d<=0.86) Gas + Oil (surface conditions)

MEDIUM oils (0,86<d<0,92) Gas/Oil <<(surface conditions)
HEAVY oils (d>0,92) ɛ Gas & Oil(surface conditions)

GAS = C + C to C + C
1 2 4 5
+

DRY gas Gas (surface conditions)

WET gas Gas & ε Condensate (surfaceconditions)
Gas CONDENSATE Gas & Condensate (surface conditions)

Hydrocarbon
components
C1 methane
C2 ethane
C3 propane
C4 butane
C5 pentane
C6 hexane
C7 heptane 29
 Light and Heavy Oils

Type of Oil Light Medium Heavy

Density(g/cm3) 0.80 to 0.82 0.83 to 0.90 0.91 to 1

°API 45 35 25 to 10
Volume Factor (volume reservoir/surface) 3 to 2 1.5 1.1 to 1
Gas/Oil Ratio(m3gaz/m3oil) 300 to 200 100 10 to 0
<1cP Several cP Up to1 Po
Viscosity (cP)
Viscosity of water at 15°and 1 atm. = 1cP

Viscosity of gas 1/100 cP

141,5
⁰ API = - 131,5
Sg

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 Behaviour of a Pure Substance

Gas

Liquid

Bubble Dew
point point Vapor
Liquid and Vapor

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 Pressure – Volume diagram

P
TCC (critical condensation temperature)

TC
TR
G
Critical point

O •
•
Bubble point
O+G •
Dew point
V

Bubble point pressure: pressure at witch the first bubbles of gas evolves from the oil at a given temperature

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 Pressure – Temperature diagram

Critical Point TC TR TCC (critical condensation temperature)

•M
O •A G
•
Retrograde
Condensation
gas • P R & TR
Bubble curve •R
• P'R & TR

• PS & TS
• P'S & T'S
O+G •B Dew point curve
T
Wet gas Dry gas
“Oil” "Gas“
reservoir reservoir

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PT diagram in function of the gas composition

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Illustration of the PVT terms Rs, Bo & Bg

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Definitions of the PVT terms Rs, Bo & Bg (1/2)

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Definitions of the PVT terms Rs, Bo & Bg (2/2)

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Example of calculation of PVT terms Bo & Rs

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Some "Production operations" terminology

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IV - Reservoir knowledge

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 Measurement of Rock Properties

Porosity
Measurements on core plugs
Well logs Interpretation

Permeability
Measurements on core plugs
Well tests Interpretation

Saturation
Measurements on core plugs
Well logs Interpretation

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 Open hole or Cased hole logs

Well Logs are useful for:

• Recognition of reservoirs (lithology, porosity and saturation)

• Knowledge of wells characteristics (diameter, inclination,

cementing, formation-hole communication)
• Comparison between wells to identify well marker correlation

Different types of logs: Cable tension

• Electrical (PS, resistivity…) recorder

Recording
• Radioactivity (GR, Neutron, Density, TDT) system
Depth
recorder
• Sonic (Δt transit time)
• Auxiliaries (Caliper, Deviation, Cementing…)
Winch
Others (RFT, PLT…) Cable

Tools

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 Well logs and interpretation
Documents Schlumberger

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 Inter well correlations
Well 3

Well 1 Well 2

Well 3

Well 1 Well 2

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 Well tests: basics
gas sampling

Well surface Separation

rate Psep-Tsep gas

Psto-Tsto

oil
sampling
Stock Tank
Input System Output

Pwf gauge
Well parameters
Well
Variation of +
Well rate pressure
Reservoir properties

Reservoir fluid
Pres, Tres

The logical system

The physical system

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 Well tests
Goals: determination of:
• Well productivity index: PI
• Reservoir static pressure : BHP
• Well bore skin: Skin
• Drainage radius of the well during the test R
• Type and evolution of produced fluids

Well tests basics:

To create a pressure perturbation around the well

by producing the well at a given flow rate

Utilisation of the basic fluid flow equations to relate

the pressure transient measured in the hole to the characteristics of
the well bore and the formation

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 Radial fluid flow around the well

rw
Pi

Pwf

rw well radius
R drainage radius
h formation thickness

For a homogeneous infinite medium, constant thickness, constant

flow rate:
• The change of the pressure in the well with the time follow an
integral exponential law
• After a very short period of production time, the pressure
drop P is proportional to the logarithm of the time log(t)
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Typical well test layout

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Schematic representation of a well test

Test period used for

interpretation

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 Well test problems to be solved

Skin: Skin zone

rw
The well bore is sometimes damaged by the skin < 0
drilling process (mud invasion,…). In some
cases, the well bore properties can be
enhanced by a mechanical fracturing as well Pressure profile
as by formation acidification.
The skin is: > 0 if flow restriction skin > 0
(well bore damaged,…)

or < 0 if enhanced flow capacity

Well bore storage capacity:

At early times of the test, part of the
Surface rate
hydrocarbon comes from the well volume
itself. During this period the sand face
reservoir production rate is not constant.
Formation rate

Down hole well rate:

Since the well rate is never constant during Well bore storage
the production period, build up period duration
during which the flow rate is nil (excluding
storage effect period) is used instead for well 56
test interpretation
 Definitions

Volumes of in place hydrocarbons:

Oil and gas originally in place (OOIP, OGIP)
Static evaluation

Reserves:
Volume of hydrocarbon produced/to be produced
Initial, remaining or ultimate reserves
Dynamic evaluation
requiring knowledge of the production profile

Recovery factor = Reserves/OOIP

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V - Recovery Mechanisms

63
 Recovery Mechanisms

PRIMARY recovery:
The reservoir energy is the only one used to produce
hydrocarbons

SECONDARY Recovery:
Energy used to produce the reservoir is external, such as
water or gas injection

TERTIARY (Enhanced) Recovery:

Complex methods such as miscible fluid injections, thermal
methods, chemical methods …

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Primary Recovery

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 Main processes of primary recovery

Oil reservoir:
Monophasic Expansion:
− Production due to compressibility of the whole "oil + pore"
Dissolved gas expansion
Aquifer action:
− "Bottom coning"
− "Edge coning"
Gaz cap expansion

+ Possible artificial lift process at the level of the well

(pumping or gas lift)

Gas reservoir:
Gas expansion

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Saturated or Under saturated oils
 Infinite Acting Aquifer Ideal scheme

h' Surface water

OIL
WATER

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 Evolution of the interfaces

Initial state

Initial GAS-OIL Contact

Initial
WATER-OIL Contact

Gas-cap expansion
State after oil production
Gas liberated by
Initial GAS-OIL Contact oil
Aquifer
expansion
Initial Water
WATER-OIL Contact encroachment

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 Primary recovery performances

Type of reservoir Recovery

Single phase - OIL P > Pb < 10%
Two phase - OIL P < Pb 5 to 25%
OIL with GAS CAP 10 to 40%
OIL with aquifer support 10 to 60%

GAS 60 to 95%
CONDENSATE 40 to 65%

Average oil 25%

Average gas 75%

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 Secondary recovery

Takes place when natural reservoir energy is too low to

maintain primary recovery

Requires external energy

Principal methods:
Water injection at the bottom of the oil zone or into the
aquifer
Gas injection at the top of the oil zone or into the gas cap
Injection of gaseous hydrocarbons (dry gas injection into gas
condensate reservoirs)

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 Water or gas Injection

Production wells

Water Injection wells

GAS
INJECTION

Gas Injection wells

Oil zone
Production wells
water

WATER
INJECTION

Oil zone

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 Exploitation scheme

Low permeability
area
North
area
Organization of a production/injection
scheme according to reservoir
characteristics :
Well spacing
Location of water injector wells with
respect to oil producers

High permeability
area
(20 time better
than North area)
Oil producer
South
area Water injector

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 Tertiary recovery: costs

Gas injection

Water injection

CO2 injection

Miscible gas injection

Polymers

Micro-emulsion

Steam, in situ combustion

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 $/bbl

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 Hydrocarbons recovery
Conventional oil
PRIMARY
RECOVERY recovery
ARTIFICIAL LIFT
NATURAL FLOW HORIZONTAL DRILLING

SECONDARY
WATERFLOOD RECOVERY
PRESSURE
GAS INJECTION
MAINTENANCE
GAS CYCLING

TERTIARY
Enhanced oil
RECOVERY recovery

THERMAL GAS CHEMICAL MICROBIAL

• Steam • Hydrocarbon miscible •Polymer

• In situ combustion • CO2 •Surfactant/polymer
• N2 •Alkaline

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 Enhanced drainage schemes

Horizontal wells: Artificial lift

To enhanced drainage:
two equivalent production
systems
well

L
h

In case of some particular situation:

water

the horizontal well the horizontal well

drains more faults prevents water coning

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