Soil

science
www.agricoaching.in
Problematic
soil
Expected question
in AFO-2019
While the reclamation of Salt affected soil, tillage
operation should be?

• Same as before
• Increased
• Decreased
• Increase with increase in pH
• None of these
Excessive amount of adsorbed sodium can be
found in?

• Acidic soil
• Alkaline soil
• Saline Soil
• Saline alkaline soil
• None of these
Alkaline soil can be found in the area?

• Arid region
• Semi arid region
• High groundwater table
• Both A and B
• All of these
Which Crop is suitable while the reclamation of
salt affected soil?

• Cotton
• Sugarbeet
• Wheat
• Rice
• None of these
 Answers will be
discussed after this
class
• Recognising the importance of soil health in all dimensions,
2015 has been declared as the International Year of Soils by the
68th UN General Assembly.
• It is estimated that out of the 3,287,263 m ha of the total
geographical area in India, 6744968 ha are degraded, producing
less than 20% of its potential yield.
• Soil consists of a solid phase (minerals and organic matter) as
well as a porous phase that holds gases and water. Accordingly,
soils are often treated as a three-state system
soils are often treated as a three-state system
 Establishment of CSSRI, Karnal

• Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) is a premier research

institute dedicated to research on salinity/ alkalinity management and use
of poor quality irrigation waters.
• it was decided to establish the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
under Fourth Plan period.
• The Institute started functioning at Hisar (Haryana) on 1st March, 1969.
Later on, it was decided to shift this Institute to Karnal during October,
1969.
• In February 1970, the Central Rice Research Station, Canning
Town, West Bengal was transferred to CSSRI, Karnal to conduct
research on problems of coastal salinity.
Types of problem soils

• Physical problem soils

• Chemical Problem soils
• Biological Problem soils
• Nutritional problem soils as a result of above
constraints
Soils with Physical
problems
Slow permeable soils/Impermeable soils and their
management:

• Slow permeable soil is mainly due to very high clay

content, infiltration rate < 6cm/day, so more runoff
which eventually leads to soil erosion and nutrient
removal.
• Since the capillary porosity is high it leads to impeded
drainage, poor aeration and reduced conditions.
 Remedial measures

• Incorporation of organics
• Formation of ridges and furrows
• Formation of broad beds
• providing open/ subsurface drainage
• Huge quantity of sand /red soil application to change the
texture
• Contour /compartmental bunding to increase the infiltration
 Soil surface crusting

• Surface crusting is due to the presence of colloidal

oxides of iron and aluminium in soils which binds the
soil particles under wet regimes.
• On drying it forms a hard mass on the surface. It is
predominant in Alfisols but also occur in other soils
too.
 Remedial measures

• When the soil is at optimum moisture regime, ploughing is to be

done.
• Lime or gypsum @ 2 t ha-1 may be uniformly spread and another
ploughing given for blending of amendment with the surface soil.
• Use of Farm yard manure or compost
• More number of seeds/hill may be adopted for small seeded crops.
• Sprinkling water at periodical intervals may be done wherever
possible.
 Highly permeable soils

• Sandy soils containing more than 70 per cent

sand fractions occur in coastal areas, river delta
and in the desert belts.
• The soils should be ploughed uniformly.
• Twenty four hours after a good rainfall or irrigation, the soil
should be rolled 10 times with 400 kg stone roller of 1 m long
or an empty tar drum filled with 400 kg sand at optimum
moisture (13 %).
• Application of clay soil up to a level 100 t ha-1 based on the
severity of the problem and availability of clay materials.
• Crop rotation with green manure crops like Sunhemp, sesbania,
daincha, kolinchi etc
 Chemical
Problematic
soils
Salt - affected soils
• The salt-affected soils occur in the arid and semiarid regions where
evapo-transpiration greatly exceeds precipitation.
• The accumulated ions causing salinity or alkalinity include sodium,
potassium, magnesium, calcium, chlorides, carbonates and
bicarbonates.
• The salt affected soils can be primarily classified as saline soil and
sodic soil.
 Why do some plants prefer alkaline soil

From This data question was asked in AFO-2016

 Extent and
distribution of salt
affected soils in India
Sr. No. State Saline soils Alkali soils Coastal saline soil Total
(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
1 Andhra Pradesh 0 196609 77598 274207
2 A & N islands 0 0 77000 77000
3 Bihar 47301 105852 0 153153
4 Gujarat 1218255 541430 462315 2222000
5 Haryana 49157 183399 0 232556
6 J & K* 0 17500 0 17500
7 Karnataka 1307 148136 586 150029
8 Kerala 0 0 20000 20000
9 Maharashtra 177093 422670 6996 606759
10 Madhya Pradesh 0 139720 0 139720
11 Orissa 0 0 147138 147138
12 Punjab 0 151717 0 151717
13 Rajasthan 195571 179371 0 374942
14 Tamil Nadu 0 354784 13231 368015
15 Uttar Pradesh 21989 1346971 0 1368960
16 West Bengal 0 0 441272 441272
Total 1710673 3788159 1246136 6744968
Data given by CSSRI, Karnal

From This data question was asked in AFO-2018

 Distribution of salt
affected soils in Agro-
climatic Zones
Zone Name of the zone Salt affected area
No.
Ha %

3 Lower Gangetic Plains Region 628400 9.3

4 Middle Gangetic Plains Region 476018 7.0

5 Upper Gangetic Plains Region 848340 12.6

6 Trans-Gangetic Plains Region 765470 11.3

7 Eastern Plateau & Hills Region 17280 0.5

8 Central Plateau and Hills Region 719370 10.7

Zone Name of the zone Salt affected area
No.
Ha %
9 Western Plateau & Hills Region 441550 6.5

10 Southern Plateau & Hills Region 535090 7.9

11 East Coast Plains and Hills Region 925310 13.7

12 West Coast Plains and Hills Region 58080 0.9

13 Gujarat Plain and Hills Region 953910 14.2

14 Western Dry Region 282010 4.2

15 Island Region 77000 1.2

Total 6727468 100.0

 Saline soil/White alkali-

• Formation : Common in arid and semi – arid regions having

annual rainfall less than 55cm.
• Lots of salts are deposited on soil surface in saline soils and
saline soil layer shines white in dry season.
• Formerly these soils were called white alkali soils because of
surface crust of white salts.
 Formation

• The process by which the saline soil formed is called

Salinization.
• Saline soils occur mostly in arid or semi arid regions.
 Characteristics

• Toxic concentration of soluble salts in the root zone.

• Soluble salts are Cl- and SO42- of ions of sodium and calcium in
root zone
• For these soils with electrical conductivity of more than 4 ds/ m at
250c.
• The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is less than 15 % and
pH less than 8.5
 Reclamation of saline soil

• Flooding or leaching of soluble salts by good irrigation

water.
• Removal of excess salts to a desired level in the root zone.
• Use of FYM for saline soil.
 Crop choice / Crop management:

• Crops are to be chosen based on the soil salinity level.

• The relative salt tolerance of different crops is given in
the table:
 Plant species Threshold salinity
(dS m-1 )

Field crops
Cotton 7.7
Sugarbeet 7.0
Sorghum 6.8
Wheat 6.0
Soybean 5.0
Groundnut 3.2
Rice 3.0
Maize 1.7
Sugarcane 1.7

From this data question was asked in AFO-2018, AICL-2018, NABARD-

Plant species Threshold salinity (dS m-1 )

Vegetables
Tomato 2.5
Cabbage 1.8
Potato 1.7
Onion 1.2
Carrot 1.0
Fruits
Citrus 1.7
 Alkaline soil /Sodic soil

• Formation : Salt accumulation is the first stage in the

sequence of processes and it is common to the family of salt
affected soil.
• Dominant in mean annual rainfall 55-90 cm and relatively low
lying areas with insufficient drainage.
• Alkali or sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of
the saturation extract less than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable
sodium percentage greater than 15.
• The pH is usually between 8.5 – 10.0.
• Most alkali soils, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions,
contain CaCO3 in the profile in some form and constant
hydrolysis of CaCO3 sustains the release of OHions in soil
solution.
• The OHions so released result in the maintenance of higher pH
in calcareous alkali soils than that in non – calcareous alkali
soils.
 Characteristics:

• Developed due to excess NaCO3 and NaHCO3 ions in soil.

• Black colouerd, found in semi arid and sub humid area.
• For these soils with electrical conductivity of less than 4 dS/ m
at 250c.
• The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is more than 15 %
and pH more than 8.5
Formation of saline and alkali soils ?

• 1. Weathering of rocks and minerals:-The soluble salts released

during weathering leach down with rain water , but again move
upward due to high temperature and accumulate as white crust
forming a saline soil.
• 2. Hydrolysis of sodium saturated exchange complex in the
formation of an alkali soil:- Sodium carbonate undergoes hydrolysis
to form sodium hydroxide,which dissociates to increase
concentrationof hydroxyl ions in soil solution.
• Formation of OH results in an increase in pH
• 3.Salty underground water :-If the ground water is salty move
upward with water and get deposited when water evaporates
4.Arid and semi arid climate :-The low rainfall is not sufficient
to leach down the soluble weathered products and hence the
salts accumulate in the soil.
• 5. Use of basic fertilizer:-Basic fertilizers like NaNO3 and basic
slag may develop soil alkalinity.
 Reclamation of Alkaline soil

• Gypsum used for reclamation of sodic or alkali soil.

• Iron pyrite can be used for amendments of alkali soil.
• Green manuring should be adopted.
• Cultivation of salt tolerant crop.
• In case of saline soils Gypsum should’t be recommended
because sulphate also increases salt concentration .
 Relative tolerance of crops to sodicity

ESP (range*) Crop

2-10 Deciduous fruits, nuts, citrus, avocado
10-15 Safflower, black gram, peas, lentil, pigeon pea
16-20 Chickpea, soybean
20-25 Clover, groundnut, cowpea, pearl millet
25-30 Linseed, garlic, cluster bean
30-50 Oats, mustard, cotton, wheat, tomatoes
50-60 Beets, barley, sesbania
60-70 Rice
 Relative tolerance of fruit trees to sodicity

Tolerance to sodicity ESP Trees

High 40-50 Ber, tamarind, sapota, wood apple, date palm

Medium 30-40 Pomegranate

Low 20-30 Guava, lemon, grape

Sensitive 20 Mango, jack fruit, banana

 Saline-alkali/ sodic soils

• Saline-alkali / sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of

the saturation extract greater than 4 dS m-1 and an exchangeable
sodium percentage greater than 15.
• The pH is variable and usually above 8.5 depending on the relative
amounts of exchangeable sodium and soluble salts.
• When soils dominated by exchangeable sodium, the pH will be more
than 8.5 and when soils dominated by soluble salts, the pH will be
less than 8.5.
 Formation

• These soils form as a result of the combined processes of

salinisation and alkalization.
• If the excess soluble salts of these soils are leached downward,
the properties of these soils may change markedly and become
similar to those of sodic soil.
 Parameters of different problematic soil

Soil pH EC (dS /m) ESP

Saline < 8.5 >4 < 15

Alkaline
> 8.5 <4 > 15
Saline-
Alkaline > 8.5 >4 > 15
From This data 3 question was asked in AFO-2018
Keys to the degree of salinity / sodicity

Degrees Salinity Sodicity

EC (milimhos pHs ESP

per centimeter)
Slight 4.0-8.0 8.5-9.0 < 15

Moderate 8.1-30.0 9.1-9.8 15-40

Strong >30 > 9.8 >40

Standards given by CSSRI, Karnal
 Calcareous soil

• Calcareous soil that contains enough free calcium carbonate

(CaCO3).
• The pH of calcareous soil is > 8.5 and it is also regarded as an
alkaline (Basic) soil.
Salt tolerant crops
 High salt tolerant Medium salt tolerant Low salt tolerant
crops crops crops

Barley, Dhencha, Rye, Wheat, Mustard, Sembean, Mung, Urd,

Sugarbeet, Turnip, Radish, Oat, Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Gram, Pea, Ladt finger,
Spinach, Doob grass Maize, Tomato, Bottle gourd, Apple,
Cauliflower, Cabbage, Orange, Lime, Papaya.
Tomato, Onion, Lucerne,
Barseem
Question
to discuss
While the reclamation of Salt affected soil, tillage
operation should be?

• Same as before
• Increased
• Decreased
• Increase with increase in pH
• None of these
Excessive amount of adsorbed sodium can be found in?

• Acidic soil
• Alkaline soil
• Saline Soil
• Saline alkaline soil
• None of these
Alkaline soil can be found in the area?

• Arid region
• Semi arid region
• High groundwater table
• Both A and B
• All of these
Which Crop is suitable while the reclamation of
salt affected soil?

• Cotton
• Sugarbeet
• Wheat
• Rice
• None of these
 Acidic soil

• Highest acidic soil found in West Bengal. (In Area)

• Acidity due to absorption of Al+3, Fe+2, Mn on soil colloids.
• In acid soil regions (ASR) precipitation exceeds the
evapotranspiration and hence leaching is predominant causing
loss of bases from the soil.
• 95% of soils of Assam and 30% of geographical area of Jammu
and Kashmir are acidic.
• In West Bengal, 2.2 M ha, in Himachal Pradesh, 0.33 M ha, in
Bihar, 2 Mha and all hill soils of erstwhile Uttar Pradesh come
under acid soils.
• About 80% of soils in Orissa, 88% in Kerala, 45% in Karnataka
and 20% in Maharastra are acidic.
• Acid soils occupy approximately 60% of the earth land area and
are arise under humid climate conditions from carbonaceous
less soil forming rocks in all thermal belts of the earth.
• World wide – 800 M ha
• India - 100 M ha
 Acid soil management

• Use of Agriculture liming material such as oxide,

hydroxide, carbonates of Ca and Mg.
pH range Nature of acidity
3-4 Very strong
4-5 Strong
5-6 Moderate
6-7 Slight
 Production constraints

• Increased solubility and toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe

• Deficiency of Ca and Mg.
• Reduced availability of P and Mo.
Relative tolerance of
crops to soil acidity
 Crops Optimum pH range

Cereals

Maize, sorghum, wheat, barley 6.0-7.5

Millets 5.0-6.5

Rice 4.0-6.0

Oats 5.0-7.7
 Crops Optimum pH range
Legumes
Field beans, soybean, pea, lentil etc 5.5-7.0
Groundnut 5.3-6.6
Others
Sugarcane 6.0-7.5
Cotton 5.0-6.5
Potato 5.0-5.5
Tea 4.0-6.0
Low acidity tolerant Medium acidity High acidity tolerant
crop tolerant crop crop

Cauliflower, Sugar beet, Wheat, Barley, Oat, Maize, Rye, Grasses

Berseem, Lucerne Bajra, Jowar, Potato
 Acid Sulphate soils

• Acid sulphate are drained coastal wetland soils that have become acid
(pH).
• Undrained soils containing pyrites need not be acid and they are called
potential acid sulphate soils.
• Soil with sufficient sulphides (FeS2 and others) to become strongly acidic
when drained are termed acid sulphate soils or as the Dutch refer to
those soils cat clays.
• n India, acid sulphate soil is, mostly found in Kerala, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
Some Important facts
 Holard, chresard, and echard

• Hollard means total amount of water available in soil.

• Chresard means amount of water available to plants.
• Echard means amount of water not available to plants.
 SIZE OF THE PARTICLES (IN SOIL TEXTURE)

• Particle size is determined by the diameter of individual soil

fragments.
• According to the International system of soil classification ,size of
different particle are as follows:
• Clay – less than 0.002 mm
• Slits – 0.002mm to 0.02mm
• Sand – 0.02mm to 2.0mm
• Gravel - larger than 2.0 mm
 TEXTURAL GROUPS
Textural groups Relative proportion of different sized
Mineral particle

Sandy soil 85% sand + 15%clay or slit or both

Loamy sand 70% sand + 30% clay or slit or both

Loam soil 50% sand +50% clay or slit or both

slit 90% slit + 10% sand

 SERIAL SOIL CLASSES RANGE IN RELATIVE PERCENTAGE OF
NUMBER OR SOIL SEPARATES
TEXTURAL
NAMES SAND SILT CLAY

1 Sandy soil 85-100 0-15 0-10

2 Loamy sand 70-90 0-30 0-15
3 Sandy loam 43-80 0-50 0-20
4 Loam 23-52 28-50 7-27
5 Silt loam 0-50 50-88 0-27
6 Silt 0-20 40-100 0-12
7 Sandy clay loam 45-80 0-28 20-35
8 Clay loam 20-45 15-53 27-40
9 Silty clay loam 0-20 40-73 27-40
10 Sandy clay 45-65 0-20 35-45
11 Silt clay 0-20 40-60 40-60
12 clay 0-45 0-40 40-100

From This data question was asked in NABARD-2019

Thank You