Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SECTION: “B”
Topic:
The Importance of Structural Analysis in the field of civil engineering
Outline:
1) Introduction
1.1) Civil Engineering
1.2) What is a Structure?
2) Historical Background
7) CONCLUSION
1) Introduction
1.1) Civil Engineering:
Civil engineering is one of the major branches of engineering which deals with
the design, analyses, execution and construction of physical structures such as roads, railways, dams,
weirs, harbors, airports, bridges, fly-overs, canals, channels, buildings etc. Civil engineering is the
oldest field of engineering since man started building structures out of stones and wood. Civil
engineering also plays its role in the progress and development of any country or region. It also
generates good percentage of GDP growth of any country. Besides it also adds beauty to the region
or country. Civil engineering is a vast field. Without the progress and implementation of civil
engineering field any nation, country or region cannot be considered as a well-developed country
nation or region.
NOTE: The following pictures have been taken down from internet.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-
1) Tie Rods: Structural elements subjected to tensile force are called tie rods.
2) Beams: Straight horizontal members used to carry vertical loads. Beams are of different types.
Beams can be cantilever, or simply supported at overhanging. In a cantilever beam it is fixed at
one end and free at the other end. A simply supported beam has two supports at respective ends.
An overhanging beam has two supports and a portion hangs over the other support. A cantilever
beam has one vertical reaction and a moment at the fixed support. A simply supported has two
vertical reactions. An overhanging has also two vertical reactions. The loading conditions can be
different on each beam. The loads can be either point loads, uniformly distributed loads and
uniformly varying loads. The loads can be in combined situations such as a point load with a
uniformly distributed load, or a point load with a uniformly varying load. Or a uniformly
distributed load along with a uniformly varying load.
3) Columns: These are vertical members which resist axial compressive loads.
Macaulay’s method allows one to write a BM equation that is valid for the whole beam. It involves
using the terms selectively, depending upon the segment under consideration. In the case of the single
concentrated load on the simply supported beam just considered, Macaulay proposed that the
expression M, = (Pb/L)x - P(x - a) be used for the BM and be valid for the whole beam with the condition
that the term P(x - a) becomes zero if 0 I x I a. In other words, the term (x - a) becomes zero whenever
this term is negative. It must be remembered that this applies to evaluating the constants and
obtaining values from the equations for dy/ dx and y.
(R.Subramaniam 2010)
This method is only applicable to the beams and beam portion which have same
value of E and I. E is the value of Elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity and I represents moment
of inertia. This means that the beam with and depth must be same, and the material must be
same throughout the whole length of the beam. If the material is not same throughout the whole
length of the beam it won’t be possible to apply double integration method to evaluate slope and
deflection at any point.
(i) Simply supported beam: The two ends of the beam do not deflect where they are supported.
The conditions are, therefore, x = 0, y = 0 and x = I, y = 0. (ii) Cantilever: The end of the beam,
having a fixed support, is not deflected. Nor does the axis have any slope at that point. The tangent
at pointA remains horizontal. The conditions are, therefore, x = 0, y = 0 and x = 0, dyldx = 0. (iii)
Overhanging beam: The overhanging beam has the conditions x = 0, y = 0 andx = 1,y = 0. (iv)
Doubly overhanging beam: In this case, the conditions are x = a, y = 0 and t on the beam. x = I + a,
y = 0 (R.Subramaniam 2010)
5.2) Moment Area Method:
This method relates the slope and deflection to the bending moment diagram.
It has two theorems;
This theorem states that the angle between the tangents to the elastic curve between any two points is
equal to the area of the M/EI diagram between the two points. (R.Subramaniam 2010)
This theorem states that the moment of the area of the M/EI diagram between two points of a beam about
one of these points is equal to the vertical intercept made by the tangent drawn at one point on a vertical
line through the second point (about which moment is taken). (R.Subramaniam 2010)
This is a semi-graphical technique which relates bending moment diagram with the slope and deflection
at any point in the beam. This method is more suitable and easier than the double integration method.
The moment-area theorems do not give slope or deflection directly. The area of M/EZ diagram is equal to
the angle between the tangents and the moment of area of M/EZ diagram is equal to the vertical intercept
at the point about which the moment is taken. (R.Subramaniam 2010)s
5.3) Conjugate Beam Method:
In this method the real beam is converted into a conjugate beam having the
same dimension. In a cantilever the supports are interchanged. A simply supported remains same. An
overhanging beam, the interior support is changed into a hinge point and the other free end becomes
fixed end. The conjugate beam is loaded by M/EI diagram. The SF in the conjugate beam is equal to slope
in the real beam and the BM in the conjugate beam is equal to the deflection in the real beam. This method
is also suitable than the double integration method.
The conjugate-beam method is based upon the similarity of relationships between the three quantities.
It is based upon the principles on which the area-moment theorems are derived but uses a different
technique to find slope and deflection. (R.Subramaniam 2010)s
(a) In a cantilever, the supports get interchanged. In the real beam, the deformation conditions are
no slope and deflection at the fixed end but slope and deflection exist at the free end.
Correspondingly, the conjugate beam should have SF as well as BM at the point corresponding to
the free end but no SF and BM at the point corresponding to the fixed end of the real beam. These
conditions are satisfied by exchanging the supports as shown. (b) A simply supported beam
continues to remain so. The condition that deflection is zero at both support points is satisfied,
because there is no BM at the ends of a simply supported (SS) beam. (c) The overhanging beam
shown is a more revealing example of this requirement. At the interior support, there is no
deflection but there is slope. So, at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam, there should
be no BM. This is achieved by providing a hinge at that point, which ensures that there is no BM
in the conjugate beam due to the load due to the MIEZ diagram. In summary, a free end becomes
a fixed end, a fixed end becomes a free end, a simple support at ends continues to remain a simple
support, and a simple support in the interior becomes a hinge. (d) The conjugate beam is loaded
with the MIEZ diagram of the real beam. (e) The SF and BM at a point of the conjugate beam are
equal to the slope and deflection at the corresponding point of the real beam, respectively.
(R.Subramaniam 2010)
(ii) A positive SF in the conjugate beam corresponds to positive slope (clockwise rotation of the
tangent). A negative SF corresponds to a negative slope. (iii) A positive BM in the conjugate beam
means downward deflection. A negative BM consequently means an upward deflection.
(R.Subramaniam 2010)
5.4) Unit-Load Method:
In this method, to find slope the point is loaded with unit moment and to find
deflection the point the point is loaded with unit load. This method can be used to solve the frames as
well. The extra benefit of this method id that it can be used to solve frames as well.
6) Methods of solving Indeterminate Structures:
The End