Geography PDF

Ghanshyam Thori Geography Notes
GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

DEMOGRAPHY:
Continent Density person/sq. km
Asia 108
Europe 101
South America 21
Africa 20
North America 14
Oceania 3
Urbanization by Continents:
SN Continent Urbanization
1. South America 78
2. Europe 74
3. North America 68
Top 20 Countries by Area

S.no Country Area (lakh sq km) S. N Country Area (lakh sq km)
1. Russia 170 11. Algeria 23
2. Canada 99 12. Dem. Rep of Congo 23
3. United States 96 13. Mexico 19
4. China 95 14. Saudi Arabia 19
5. Brazil 85 15. Indonesia 19
6. Australia 76 16. Libya 17
7. India 32 17. Iran 16
8. Argentina 27 18. Mongolia 15
9. Kazakhstan 27 19. Peru 12
10. Sudan 25 20. Chad 12
Worlds Most Populous Countries

S.N Country Population S.N Country Population
in million In Million
1 China 1,306 14 Germany 82
2 India 1,080 15 Egypt 77
3 United States 295 16 Ethiopia 73
4 Indonesia 241 17 Turkey 69
5 Brazil 186 18 Iran 68
6 Pakistan 162 19 Thailand 65
7 Bangladesh 144 20 France 60
8 Russia 143 21 United Kingdom 60
9 Nigeria 128 22 Dem. Rep of Congo 60
10 Japan 127 23 Italy 58
11 Mexico 106 24 Korea, South 48
12 Philippines 87 25 Ukraine 47
13 Vietnam 83
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Contributions of Important Geographers

1. Megalopolis concept Jean Gottman
2. Conurbation Concept, Wrote ‘Cities in Evolution’ Patrick Geddes
3. Polar Front Theory J. Bjerknes
4. Anticyclone term Sir Francis Galton
5. Equilibrium Theory of tides Issac Newton
6. Dynamic Theory of Tides Laplace
7. Progressive Wave Theory William Whewell
8. Canal Theory G. B. Airy
9. Stationary Wave Theory of Tides R. A. Harris
10. Process of Precipitation Bergeron
11. First used the term Ecology Tansley
12. Father of Ecology Haeckel
13. First used the term plate J. T Wilson
14. Coined the term Antecedent Stream J. W. Powell
15. Classification of clouds Luke Howard
16. Ice crystal Theory Tor Bergeron
17. Collision-Coalesce Theory George Simpson & Mason
18. Glacial Control Theory of Coral reef formation Daly
19. Subsidence Theory of Coral reef formation Darwin
20. Stand Still Theory of Coral reef Murray
21. Concept of grade G.K. Gilbert
22. Law of Stream number/Length R. E. Horton
23. Location Allocation Models P. Haggett
24. Law of Retail Gravitation W.J. Reilly
25. Concept of Threshold & Range B.J.L. Berry
26. Introduced the concept of Possibilism Lucien Febvre
27. Coined “Areal Differentiation” Hartshorne
28. General System Theory Ludwig von Bertalanffy
29. Developed Hythergraph G. Taylor
30. Polyconic Projection Ferdinand Hessler
31. Globular projection S.J. Fournier
Minerals & Their Largest Producers

1. Graphite Madagascar
2. Gold South Africa, Australia
3. Platinum South Africa, Canada.
4. Chromium South Africa, Russia
5. Diamond South Africa, Republic of Congo & Australia
6. Zinc Canada, Australia
7. Uranium Canada, USA, Australia, Niger, France, South Africa
8. Nickel Canada, Russia, Australia, USA.
9. Coal China, USA, India, Russia
10. Steel China
11. Iron Ore China, Brazil, Australia.
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12. Cement China
13. Manganese China, South Africa, Australia.
14. Paper Canada
15. Hydro Power Canada, USA, (Norway highest %age User)
16. Tungsten China, Thailand, Korea
17. Asbestos Canada Russia, Zambia, Zimbabwe
18. Natural Gas Russia, Canada, Algeria, Iran
19. Flax Russia
20. Tantalum Australia
21. Bauxite Australia, Guinea, Jamaica & Brazil.
22. Lead Australia, China, US
23. Cadmium Canada
24. Antimony China
25. Uranium (Reser.) Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, South Africa
26. Zirconium Australia Brazil
27. Titanium (Rutile) *Australia*
28. Iron China, Brazil, Australia
29. Copper Chile, United States, Canada, Armenia, Zambia, Zaire
30. Tin China, Indonesia, Peru, Brazil, Malaysia
31. Silver Mexico, Peru, Chile & Poland.
32. Mercury Spain, China, Italy.
33. Sulphur Mexico, USA & Poland
34. Rock Phosphate USA, Peru (Guano).
Agricultural Commodities & Their Largest Producer

1. Milk India
2. Coffee Brazil, Vietnam
3. Tobacco China, turkey
4. Pork China
5. Rice (export) Thailand, Vietnam
6. Rice China, India
7. Banana India, Brazil
8. Banana (Export) Costa Rica, Jamaica, Honduras, Columbia
9. Maize USA, China
10. Wheat China
11. Cork Portugal
12. Palm Oil Malaysia
13. Fresh Water Fish Russia
14. Barley Germany, Canada, Russia, France
15. Tea (Exporter) Sri Lanka
16. Rubber Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia
17. Paper USA
18. Pulp (Export) Canada
19. Paper (Export) Canada
20. Sugar India, Brazil, Cuba
21. Sugar (Export) Cuba
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22. Oil Palm Malaysia, Indonesia
23. Oil Palm (import) India
24. Cotton China, USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan in that order.
25. Cotton (export) USA
26. Mangoes India
27. Manila Hemp (Abaca) Philippines (75%)
28. Raw Silk China, Japan, India, Korea.
29. Tobacco China, USA, India
30. Oranges USA, Brazil
31. Oats Russia
32. Millets India
33. Rye Russia
34. Sorghum USA
35. Pulses India
36. Sugarcane Brazil
37. Tea India, China
38. Dates Iran, Egypt
39. Olives Spain
40. Wine (Exporter) *Algeria*
41. Wine (Producer) Italy, France
42. Coconut Indonesia, Philippines,
43. Grapes Italy, France
44. Potato China
45. Soyabeens U.S.A, Brazil
Sobriquets
1. Island of Cloves Zanzibar
2. Land of Lilies Canada
3. Land of Golden Fleece Australia
4. Port of Five Seas Moscow
5. Island of Pearls Bahrain
6. Hermit Kingdom Korea
7. Land of Golden Pagoda Yangoon (Myanmar)
8. City of Canals Venice
9. Holy Land Palestine
10. Herring Pond Atlantic
11. City of Golden Gate Sand Francisco
12. City of dreaming Spires Oxford
13. Land of Canals Netherlands
14. Empire city New York
15. Land of Cakes Scotland
16. Land of Eskimos Greenland
17. Island of Pearls Bahrain
18. Granite City Aberdeen, Scotland
19. Garden of England Kent
20. Cockpit of Europe Belgium
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21. City of brotherly Love Philadelphia
22. City of Magnificent Distances Washington DC
23. Gateway of tears Bab-el-Mandab
24. Textile Capital of Russia Ivanovo
25. Manchester of Japan Osaka (Textile)
26. Emerald City Ireland
27. The pearl of the Antilles Cuba
Highest Peaks In Various Regions/ Mountain Chain

1. Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro
2. North America Mt. McKinley
3. Europe Mt. Elbrus
4. Antarctica Mt. Vinson
5. Asia Mt. Everest
6. Oceania Mt. Carstensz
7. South America Mt. Aconcagua
8. Australia Mt. Kosciusko
9. Urals Mt. Gora Naradnaya
10. Alps Mt. Mont Blanc
11. Andes Mt. Aconcagua
12. Rockies Mt. Elbert
13. Appalachians Mt. Mitchell
14. South West Asia (Elbruz Chain) Mt. Demavand
Important Places/Regions & Their Locations

1. Llanos Tropical Grasslands of Venezuela
2. Campos Tropical grasslands of Brazil
3. Iberian Peninsula Spain
4. Katanga basin Democratic republic of Congo
5. Canterbury Plain Largest lowland area of New Zealand
6. Chaco / Gran Chaco Low, flat, arid region covering Argentina Paraguay &
Bolivia.
7. Kra Peninsula Malaysia
8. Parana region Brazil –Largest producer of wheat, corn cotton
9. Matto grosso Thick jungle in west central brazil north of Bolivia.
10. Dogger bank Shallow fishing area in north sea, 100km off UK
11. Grand bank Shallow fishing area off new foundland, Canada
12. Georges bank Near bay of fundy & Gulf of Maine
13. Nordic Countries Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Denmark.
14. Ob, Yenisey & Lena Major rivers of Russia
15. Sarawak, Sabah, Labuan These three states make up east Malaysia.
16. Yucatan Peninsula Mexico
17. Ozark Plateau heavily forested upland region, between the Missouri and
Arkansas rivers
18. Sinai Peninsula In north eastern Egypt.
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Miscellaneous Data of Various Nations

S. Country/ Urban Hydro Nuclear Thermal Forest
Region % Elect % % % %
1. Canada 75 60
2. USA 10 25
3. Britain 24
4. Italy 50
5. Norway 90
6. New Zealand 75
7. Switzerland 74
8. Japan 76 32
9. France 77
10. Lithuania 78
11. Germany 30
12. Australia 80 90
13. S. E. Asia 20
14. Russia 60
Tribes of the World

1. Kalmuks Inhabit the Altai mountains & nearby areas - pastoral
2. Kirghiz Occupy the Tien Shan & adjacent Pamirs
3. Gauchos Cowboys of the pampas of Argentina & Uruguay.
4. Mestizos People of mixed white & Indian parentage
5. Ostyaks West Siberian tribe
6. Pygmies Congo basin – Zaire, Congo, Gabon.
7. Boro Amazon basin-sub group of red Indians.
8. Semang Malaysia
9. Papuans New Guinea
10. Bushmen or San Kalahari – Namibia, Botswana, Angola
11. Bedouins Nomadic Arabs in Africa & Middle-East
12. Masai East Africa – Kenya, Uganda
13. Kirghiz Central Asia. Muslim by faith
14. Saami or Lapps Norway, Sweden, Finland – Also known as Laplanders
15. Yuti Siberia
16. Chukchi Far Eastern Siberia
17. Yakuts Tundra region of Russia
18. Aleut Aleutian Islands
19. Yuit Siberia
20. Inuit Greenland, Canada & Siberia
21. Samoyed West Siberia
22. Punan Borneo
23. Afrikaner/Boer Dutch race in S. Africa
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24. Afridis N. West Pakistan
25. Veddas Racial stock of Sri Lanka
26. Bantus Central & southern Africa – Swahili is Bantu derived language.
27. Berbers Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia
28. Maori New Zealand
29. Bindibu Western Australia
30. Cossacks Russia around black & Caspian Sea
31. Magyar Inhabitants of Hungary
32. Croats Croatia
33. Flemish Belgium
34. Finns European Tundra
35. Hamites N-W Africa – Dark skinned muslims
36. Hottentots/khoi khoi Tropical Africa
37. Kaffris S. Africa – known as martial race
38. Kikuyu Kenya’s most populous ethnic group
39. Masuds Waziristan region, Pakistan
40. Mestizos People of mixed Indian & European blood in Latin America
41. Amerinds N. America – People of mixed European & Indian blood
42. Mulatto Mixed European & black blood in South America
43. Moors Mixed tribe of Arabs & Berber people of Morocco
43. Semites Jews & Ethiopians
44. Tartar Turkic people of eastern Europe & central Asia
45. Zambas People of African & Native American Indian in S. America
46. Zulus People of Bantu family inhabiting South Africa
47. Akka Democratic republic of Congo
48. Oromo or Galla African people of hamitic origin in Ethiopia & Kenya
49. Uygur Turkic people inhabiting N-W china & Kazakhstan.
50. Kubu Inhabitants of Sumatra
51. Fulani/Fula Cattle herders of Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea or Chad
52. Buryat Largest ethnic minority in Siberia inhabiting buryat republic.
53. Aeta Mongoloid racial stock found in Philippines (indigenous)
54. Ainu Caucasoids of Japan.
55. Yanomamo Indigenous people of Brazil & Venezuela
Largest Producers of Fish in the World, 2001

S.no Country Prod in Million tons
1. China 16.5
2. Peru 8
3. USA 4.9
4. Japan 4.7
5. Indonesia 4.2
6. WORLD 92.4
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Worst deforestation rate of primary forests, 2000-2005

S.N Country Deforestation Rate %
1. Nigeria 55.7
2. Vietnam 54.5
3. Cambodia 29.4
4. Sri Lanka 15.2
5. Malawi 14.9
6. Indonesia 12.9
Highest average annual deforestation of primary forests, 2000-2005 in hectares

1. Brazil - 3,466,000
2. Indonesia - 1,447,800
3. Russian Federation - 532,200
4. Mexico - 395,000
5. Papua New Guinea - 250,200
Total forest cover in hectares - 2005

1. Russian Federation 808,790,000
2. Brazil 477,698,000
3. Canada 310,134,000
4. United States of America 303,089,000
5. China 197,290,000
Highest total forest cover as a percentage of total land cover, 2005

1. Suriname 94.7
2. French Guiana 91.8
3. Micronesia (Federated States of) 90.6
4. American Samoa 89.4
5. Seychelles 88.9
Minerals & Their Ores

1. Iron Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe304), limonite & Siderite
2. Nickel Millerite, Pentlandite
3. Manganese Pyrolusite, Braunite, Psilomelane
4. Antimony Stibnite
5. Titanium Rutile
6. Chromium Chromite
7. Uranium Pitchblende (UO2)
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8. Lead Galena
9. Thorium Thorianite, Monazite, Allanite, Ilemnite
10. Zinc Calamine, Sphalerite
11. Mercury Cinnabar
12. Beryllium Beryl, chrysoberyl
13. Cobalt Smalitite, Cobaltite
14. Lithium Spodumene
15. Magnesium Magnesite, Dolomite, Kieserite, Carnallite.
16. Potassium Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O)
17. Silver Argentite
18. Sodium Chile Saltpeter (NaNO3)
19. Tin Cassiterite
Major Discontinuities within the earth

1. Conrad Discontinuity Between outer & inner crust
2. Mohorovicic Discontinuity Between crust & mantle
3. Repetti Discontinuity Between outer & inner mantle
4. Weichart-Gutenberg Discontinuity Between mantle & core
5. Lehmann Discontinuity Between outer & inner core.
Important Mining Centers Of The World

1. Cleveland Iron Ore (U. K.)
2. Ungava & Belle Island Iron Ore (Canada)
3. Carajas Iron Ore (Brazil)
4. Yampi Sound Iron Ore (Australia)
5. Paraburdoo Iron Ore (Australia)
6. Bilbao Iron Ore (Spain)
7. Nikopol Largest manganese mines of world (Ukraine)
8. Chuquicamata copper (Chile)
9. Morenci Copper (Arizona - largest in US)
10. El Chino copper (New Mexico)
11. Katanga copper, cobalt, uranium, cadmium, tin, gold, silver (DMC)
12. Mount Isa Silver, lead, zinc & copper (Australia)
13. Broken Hill Silver, Lead & Zinc
14. Witwatersrand Gold (S. Africa)
15. Kalgoorlie Gold (Australia)
16. Fushun Manchuria (Coal)
17. Donetz Coal (Ukraine)
18. Kuznetsk Coal (Russia)
19. Karaganda Coal (Kazakhstan)
20. Mesabi range Iron ore (Northern Minnesota)
21. Pittsburg iron & steel capital of the world (Pennsylvania)
22. Port Louis Sugar industry (Mauritius)
23. Anshan iron & Steel (China)
24. Lille Textiles (France)
25. Yallourn Coal (Australia)
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26. Ipoh Tin (Kinta Valley, Malaysia)
27. Tula Iron ore (near Moscow)
28. Chiatura Manganese (Georgia)
29. Chilean desert Caliche (Chile Saltpeter-NaNO3)
30. Pilbara Iron ore (Australia)
31. Bomi Hill Liberia (Iron Ore
32. Niger Uranium accounts for 75 per cent mineral export
33. Montana Copper ( USA)
34. Kra Peninsula Tin (Narrowest point of Malaysia)
35. Iron Knob Iron ore (Australia- Now almost exhausted)
36. Minas Gerais Iron Ore (Brazil)
37. Jos Plateau Tin (Nigeria)
38. Ozark Lead-Zinc Ores (USA)
39. Bingham Copper (United States largest mine)
40. Chihuahua Important mining town of Mexico – Iron, Lead, copper,
silver.
41. Rum Jungle Uranium (Australia)
42. Krivoi Rog Iron Ore (Ukraine)
43. Sudbury Nickel (Canada)
44. Kinta Valley Tin (Malaysia)
45. Weipa Bauxite (Australia)
46. Gippsland Lignite(Australia)
47. Flin Flon Mining centre in Manitoba, Canada
48. Catavi Bolivia
49. Braden Chile (Copper)
Important Isopleths
1. Isogones Equal magnetic declination
2. Isohel Equal amount of sunlight.
3. Isobront Thunderstorm at the same time
4. Isocheim Same mean winter temperature
5. Isothere Same mean summer temperature
6. Isanomal Isopleth of Anomaly
7. Isochrones Equal travel time from a common center.
8. Isohypse Or Contour lines
9. Isonif Amount of Snow
10. Isophene Isopleths of seasonal phenomena
11. Isopotential Surface to which artesian water can rise
12. Isorymes Equal frost
13. Isarithm A line representing continuous value on map
14. Isonephs Equal cloudiness
15. Co-seismal lines Simultaneous seismic activity
16. Isohypse Or contours
17. Isopach Equal thickness of geological strata
18. Isotach Same wind speed
19. Isotherombrose Equal ratio of summer rainfall to annual rainfall
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20. Isochasm Equal frequency of aurorae
21. Isodynamic Equal magnetic intensity
22. Isogen Equal birthrates
23. Isokeraunic Equal occurrence of thunderstorms
Places & Their Importance

1. Yorkshire woollen textile
2. Lancashire cotton textile
3. Glasgow ship building
4. Sheffield Cutlery & steel works
5. Lorraine Iron ore (France)
6. Lyon Silk Industry (France)
7. Silesia Coal (Poland) – high grade
8. Lodz Manchester of Poland
9. Hamburg Ship Building (Germany)
10. Stuttgart Automobile (Germany)
11. Munich Instruments (Germany)
12. Karl Marx Stadt Textile (Germany)
13. Sambre-Meuse Coal (Belgium)
14. Marseilles Oil Refinery
15. Baku Capital city of Azerbaijan & chief refining center.
16. Chicago Biggest railway junction
17. Detroit Automobile
18. Seattle Aircraft
19. Cadiz Cork (Spain)
20. Changchun Automobile & machine tools (China)
21. Chelyabinsk Iron & Steel (Russia)
22. Dresden Optical, Photo & Graphic instruments (Germany)
23. Dusseldorf Iron & Steel (Germany)
24. Essen Iron & Steel (Germany)
25. Essex Engineering works (England)
26. Kharkov Machine building & Engineering (Ukraine)
27. Kiev Engineering (Ukraine)
28. Magnitogorsk Iron & Steel (Russia)
29. Nagoya Cotton & Ship building (Japan)
30. Nizhny Tagil Iron & Steel (Russia)
31. Venice Glass Industry
32. Vienna Glass Industry
33. Philadelphia Locomotives (USA)
34. Plymouth Shipbuilding (USA)
35. Yenang Yang Oil Drilling (Myanmar)
36. Gorky / Nizhny Novogorod Engineering Industry.
37. Belfast Ship building (Ireland)
Types of Delta
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1. Arcuate Delta Nile, Ganga, Rhine, Hwang Ho, Volga, Indus,
Mekong, Rhone, Danube.
2. Digitate or Bird-Foot Delta Mississippi
3. Estuarine Delta Elb, Ob, Seine, Narmada, Tapti, Mackenzie,
Hudson, Amazon, Rhine
4. Cuspate or Tooth-Shaped Delta Tiber in Italy, Ebro of Spain.
Major Natural Regions

1. Equatorial Lowland Amazon Type
2. Equatorial Highland Malay Type
3. Equatorial High Plateaus Ecuador Type
4. Tropical Eastern Margin Monsoon Type
5. Tropical Interiors Sudan Type
6. Tropical Western Deserts Sahara Type
7. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Western Margins Mediterranean Type
8. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Eastern Margin China Type
9. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Lowland Turan Type
10. Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Plateau Iran Type
11. Cool Temperate Western Margin European Type
12. Cool Temperate Eastern Margin St. Lawrence Type
13. Cool Temperate Interior Lowland Prairie Type
14. Cool Temperate Interior Highland Altai Type
15. Cool Temperate High Plateau Tibet Type
16. Polar Lowland Tundra Type
17. Polar Highland Ice Cap Type
Major Deserts
S. Desert Location
1. Sahara Northern Africa
2. Gobi Mongolia/Northeastern China
3. Patagonian Argentina
4. Rub‘ Al Khali Southern Arabian Peninsula
5. Great Sandy Northwestern Australia
6. Great Victoria Southwestern Australia
7. Chihuahuan Mexico/Southwestern United States
8. Takla Makan Northern China
9. Sonoran Mexico/Southwestern United States
10. Kalahari Southwestern Africa
11. Kyzyl Kum Uzbekistan
12. Thar India/Pakistan
13. Simpson Australia
14. Mohave Southwestern United States
15. Nafud Desert Arabian Peninsula
16. Dasht-I-Kavir Iran
Planets & satellites

1. Mars Deimos, Phobos
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2. Jupiter Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Io
3. Saturn Titan, Tethys, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione
4. Uranus Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel
5. Neptune Triton
6. Pluto Charon
Hypothesis of the origin of Earth

1. Gaseous Hypothesis Kant
2. Nebular Hypothesis Laplace
3. Planetesimal Hypothesis T.C. Chamberlain & F. R. Moulten
4. Tidal Hypothesis James Jeans & Harold Jeffreys
5. Meteoric Hypothesis Lockyer
6. Binary Star Hypothesis H.N. Russel
7. Fission Hypothesis Ross Gun
8. Cepheid Hypothesis A.C. Banerji
9. Supernova Hypothesis F. Hoyle
10. Interstellar Dust Hypothesis Otto Schmidt
11. Nebular Cloud Hypothesis Von Weizsacker
12. Protoplanet Hypothesis Gerald Kuiper
Percentage Area of various bodies

1. Pacific Ocean 35.4 %
2. Atlantic Ocean 18.4 %
3. Indian Ocean 14.5 %
4. Land 29.2 %
Major Trenches in the Ocean

1. Pacific Ocean Aleutian trench, Tonga trench, Philippine trench, Peru-Chile
trench, Mariana Trench (near Micronesia)
2. Atlantic Ocean Puerto Rico trench, South sandwich trench, Romanche trench
3. Indian Ocean Java trench
Submarine Canyons in various oceans

Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean
1. Tokyo Canyon 1. Oceanographer Canyon 1. Indus Canyon
2. Bering Canyon 2. Hudson Canyon 2. Ganges Canyon
3. Columbia Canyon 3. Wilmington Canyon 3.
4. Juan De Fucca Canyon 4. Norfolk Canyon 4.
5. Monterey Canyon 5. Congo Canyon 5.
6. Arguello Canyon 6. San Francisco Canyon 6.
7. Scripps Canyon 7. Mississippi Canyon 7.
8. Coronados Canyon 8. 8.
Basins of the Oceans

1. Atlantic Ocean South Antilles basin, Cape basin, Agulhas basin
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2. Indian Ocean Mascarenes, Sulu, Celebes, Banda basin
3. Pacific Ocean Caroline, Solomon, New Hebrides, Guatemala basin
Major Ridges & Rises in various Oceans

Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean
1. Catham rise 1. Rio Grande rise 1. Carlsberg ridge
2. Galapagos rise 2. Walvis ridge 2. Laccadive-Chagos ridge
3. Nazca ridge 3. Reykjanes ridge (Iceland) 3. Chagos-St Paul ridge
4. South Tasman rise 4. Sierra Leone rise 4. Kerguelen-Gausberg ridge
5. Louisville ridge 5. Para rise
6. Juan de fuca ridge (N-E P) 6. New foundland rise
7. Gorda ridge ( N-E P) 7. Wyville Thomson ridge
8. Explorer ridge 8. Dolphin rise
9. Austral Marshall Gilbert 9. Challenger rise
10. Carneige ridge
11. Cocos ridge
12. Norfolk Island ridge
13. Caroline-Solomon ridge
• Lomonsov ridge & Gakkel ridge is in arctic ocean.
Koppen’s Classification
A Tropical Climate S Steppe Climate
B Dry Climate W Desert Climate
C Mild Humid (Mesothermal) Climate T Tundra climate
D Snowy forest (Microthermal) climate F Ice Cap climate
E Polar Climate f Precipitation in all months
H Undifferentiated highland climate m Monsoon type
w Dry season in winter
s Dry season in summer
h Dry hot; mean ann. Temp >18 C (B only)
k Dry cold; mean ann. temp < 18 C (B only)
Third Letter
1. a Hot summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of above 22 C.
Used in C & D climate
2. b Warm summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of below 22 C.
Used in C & D climates
3. c Cool short summers with fewer than four months having a mean temperature above 10
C. Used in C & D climates
4. d Very cold winters in which the mean temperature of the coldest month is below -38 C.
Used in D climate only.
Types of Climate Under Koppen’s Scheme
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Af Tropical Rainforest Cs Mild humid climate with dry summer
Am Tropical monsoon Df Snowy forest climate with on dry season
Aw Tropical savanna Dw Snowy forest climate with dry winter
BS Steppe climate Ds Snowy forest climate with dry summer
BW Desert climate ET Tundra climate.0<Warmest month< 10 C
Cf Mild humid climate with no dry season EF Perpetual frost. Less than 0 C throughout
Cw Mild humid with a dry winter
Thornthwaite Scheme 1931
Thornthwaite identified 5 humidity zones on the basis of P/E (precipitation effectiveness or efficiency) index.
P/E index = 11.5 (r/T – 10) ^9/10
where r is mean monthly rainfall in inches & t is mean monthly temperature in degree F. Similarly Thermal
efficiency or temperature effectiveness can be computed using
T/E ratio = (t – 32)/4
Where t is the mean monthly temperature in degree F.
Humidity zones based on P/E index Humidity Zones based on T/E index
A Wet 127 A’ Tropical 127
B Humid 64-127 B’ Mesothermal 64-127
C Sub humid 32-63 C’ Microthermal 32-63
D Semi arid 16-31 D’ Taiga 16-31
E arid <16 E’ Tundra 1-15
F’ Frost 0
Third letter
r Rainfall adequate in all season
s Rainfall deficient in summer
w Rainfall deficient in winter
d Rainfall deficient in all season
E.g. AB’r – mesothermal wet climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
Thornthwaite 1948 Classification
Moisture index (Im) = (100S- 60D)/PE

Where S represents monthly surplus of moisture & D represents monthly deficit of moisture. Thermal
efficiency index is simply the potential evapotranspiration expressed in centimeters.
Humidity zones based on moisture index Thermal zone based on thermal efficiency
A Perhumid >100 cm A’ Megathermal >114
B1 – B4 Humid 20 to100 cm B1’ – B4’ Mesothermal 57 to 114
C2 Moist Subhumid 0 to 20 cm C2’ Microthermal 42.7 to 57
C1 Dry subhumid -33.3 to 0 cm C1’ Microthermal 28.5 to 42.7
D Semi arid -67 to -33.3 D’ Tundra 14.2 to 28.5
E Arid -100 to -66.7 E’ Frost < 14.2
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Composition of the Earth

Earths Crust Whole Earth
1. Oxygen 46.6 Iron 35
2. Silicon 27.7 Oxygen 30
3. Aluminium 8 Silicon 15
4. Iron 5 Magnesium 13
5. Calcium 3.6 Nickel 2.4
6. Sodium 2.8 Sulphur 1.9
7. Potassium 2.6 Calcium 1.1
8. Magnesium 2.1 Aluminium 1.1
Mountains & Geological Periods

1. Pre-Cambrian Mountains Feno-Scandian mountains, North west highlands
2. Caledonian Mountains Formed during Silurian & Devonian period. E.g. Scottish
highlands, Appalachians, Aravallis
3. Hercynian Mountains Formed during Permian period. E.g. Spanish Messeta, mountains of
Iberian peninsula, Brittany of France, Vosges, Black forest,
Mendips, Harz (Germany).
4. Alpine Mountains Formed during tertiary period. E.g. Rockies, Andes, alps,
Carpathians, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Balkans, Himalayas , Sierra
Nevada, Zagros & Elburz (Iran), Verkhoyansk mountains
Mountain Types
1. Block Mountain Ruwenzori Mountain range in Central Africa, Black forest, Vosges,
bohemian massif and the Sierra Nevada in the south-western USA.
2. Fold Mountains Himalayas, Aravalli, Appalachians, Alps, Rockies, Andes.
3. Relict Mountains Aravalli, Rajmahal, Nilgiris, Satpuras, Western Ghats.
4. Dome Mountain Henry mountain, USA
Highest Waterfalls of the World

Waterfall Location Total drop (m)
Angel Falls Venezuela 979
Yosemite Falls United States 739
Mardalsfossen-South Norway 655
Thukela (Tugela) Falls South Africa 614
Cuquenan Venezuela 610
Sutherland New Zealand 580
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Worlds Largest Lakes

1. Caspian Sea, Asia
2. Lake Superior North America
3. Lake Victoria Africa
4. Lake Huron North America
5. Lake Michigan North America
6. Lake Tanganyika Burundi (N), Zambia (S), DMC (W)
7. Great Bear Lake North America
8. Lake Baikal Asia
9. Aral Sea Asia
10. Great Slave Lake North America
Other Important Lakes

1. Lake Balkash Kazakhstan
2. Lake Titicaca Bolivia-Peru
3. Lake Nyasa Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania
4. Lake Ladoga Russia (N-W)
5. Lake Onega Russia (N-W)
6. Lake Rudolf Kenya
7. Lake Torrens Just South of Lake Eyre in S. Australia
8. Lake Vanern Sweden
9. Lake Urmia Iran
10. Lake Mobutu Uganda
Principal Gases in the atmosphere

1. Nitrogen 78.084
2. Oxygen 20.947
3. Argon .934
4. Carbon Dioxide .0314
5. Neon .0018
6. Helium .0005
7. Methane .0002
8. Krypton .00011
9. Hydrogen .00005
10. Xenon .0000087
Heterosphere
1. Molecular Nitrogen layer 90-120 km
2. Atomic Oxygen layer 200-1100 km
3. Helium layer 11000-3500 km
4. Hydrogen layer 3500-10000 km
Albedo of Some Surfaces

5. Fresh Snow Cover 80 %
6. Clouds 70-80%
7. Sand 20-30 %
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8. Grass 15-30 %
9. Dry Ground 15-20%
10. Wet Ground 10 %
11. Forest 5-10%
12. Water (Solar Elevation > 60) 3-5%
13. Water (Solar Elevation 25-30 %
Various Measuring Instruments
1. Lysimeter Evapo-Transpiration
2. Anemometer Wind
3. Psychrometer Humidity
4. Planimeter Area on Maps
5. Pantograph Enlargement & Reduction of Maps
6. Parallax Bar Measuring elevations from topographical maps.
7. Abney level Measuring angles in a vertical plane
8. Clinometer Angles in vertical plane
9. Dumpy level Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane
10. Theodolite Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane
11. Spectroradiometer Measures spectral reflectance at different wavelengths.
12. Stereoscope View photos in 3D view. Channelises one image to one eye.
13. Opisometer/ Meilograph Measuring length of curved lines on a map.
14. Eidograph Enlargement & Reduction of maps
15. Alidade A sighting device or pointer for angular measurement used in
plane table survey.
16. Aneroid Barometer Used for measuring altitude as pressure decreases with height
17. Sextant Used to measure angle of objects located on the field
Important Local Winds of the World

Cold Winds
1. Mistral Blows in Spain & France from N-W to S-E. Common during winter
2. Bora Blows along the shores of the Adriatic sea.
3. Blizzard Snow laden wind in
4. Purga Snow laden wind in Russian tundra. Much like Buran.
5. Bise An extremely cold wind in France
6. Levanter Blows in strait of Gibraltar between Spain & Morocco.
7. Pampero Pampas of S. America
8. Papagayo Costa Rica, Mexico, Nicaragua.
9. Haboob Sudan
10. Friagem Amazon Valley
11. Buran Eastern Russia & central Siberia
12. Norther Texas, Gulf of Mexico & western carribean
13. Etesian Eastern Mediterranean.
14. Surazo Cold wind blowing from Argentinean pampas & Patagonia.
15. Norte A strong cold northeasterly wind which blows in Mexico.
16. Tehuantepecer This is a violent, squally wind from north or north-east in S. Mexico.
Hot winds
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1. Fohn Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Alps in Switzerland.
2. Chinook Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Rockies in USA
3. Harmattan Blowing from east & northeast towards west in Sahara
4. Brickfielder Victoria province of Australia
5. Black Roller Great plains of USA
6. Shamal Mesopotamia & Persian Gulf
7. Norwester New Zealand
8. Sirocco From Sahara over Mediterranean. Known as khamsin in Egypt, Chili in
Tunisia, Gibli in Libya, Levech in Spain & Leste in Madiera & Morocco.
9. Simoom Warm & dry dusty wind in the Arabian desert
10. Santa Ana S. California – blowing out of Santa Ana canyon
11. Yamo A warm & dry wind in Japan
12. Zonda A warm & dry wind of the Andean valleys in Argentina
13. Tramontane A warm wind of central Europe.
14. Samun Warm wind in Iran
15. Karaburan Hot dusty wind in central Asia – Tarim basin, Mongolia.
16. Berg A hot dry wind blowing from interior in South Africa.
17. Shamal A hot wind of Iraq and the Persian gulf
18. Austru Dry blows from the lee side of the mountains in Romania (much like fohn).
19. Almwind Local name of fohn that blows in Hungary & Poland over Tatra mountains.
Soil Classification
Soil Common Characteristics Fertility Typical
Name Location
Alfisol Moderately weathered, having a medium to high base High Parts of Canada,
saturation & have a subsoil accumulation of clay. Most U.S & Europe
develop under forest
Aridisols Desert soils with little or no organic content but Low Deserts
significant calcium. Affected by salinization.
Entisols Soil Type with little or no horizon development. Found Low to River valleys,
in young formations (lava, sand-dunes etc) Moderate flood plains &
deltas
Inceptisols More significant horizon development than entisols but Moderate Mountain &
less than others. Used for cultivation of sugarcane & to low other
coffee geologically
young formation
Histosols Organic soils found in bogs, swamps & wetlands Swamps & bogs
Mollisols Dark coloured with upper horizons rich in organic Very High Great American
matter. Geographically associated with aridisols plains. Pampas
& Steppes
Oxisols Infertile, acidic, deeply weathered soils with contain Low Amazon basin &
clays of iron & aluminium oxide Congo basin
Spodosols Sandy soils which develop under forests particularly in Good Coniferous areas
coniferous areas. They are acidic & have accumulation in cool climate.
of organic matter & iron & aluminium oxides.
Ultisols These are acidic, deeply weathered soil of tropical & Poor, Temperate
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subtropical areas with clay accumulation in the B require humid &
horizon. Not as intensely weathered as oxisols fertilizers tropical regions.
Vertisols Clay soils which expand when wet & crack when dry. Good Seasonally dry
Gelisols Soil where permafrost lies within 2 m of the surface Poor Periglacial areas
Andisols Contain ash & volcanic glass Poor Near volcanoes
Changed Geographical Names

S Old Name New Name Old Name New Name
1. Abyssinia Ethiopia 29. Angora Ankara
2. Aden Yemen 24. Basutoland Lesotho
3. Bechuanaland Botswana 25. Batavia Djakarta
4. British Honduras Belize 26. Constantinople Istanbul
5. Dahomey Benin 27. Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy
6. Formosa Taiwan 28. Christina Oslo
7. Leningrad St. Petersburg 29. Congo Zaire
8. Persia Iran 30. Constantinople Istanbul
9. Mesopotamia Iraq 31. Dutch East Indies Indonesia
10. Batavia Jakarta 32. Dutch Guiana Surinam
11. South-West Africa Namibia 33. Japan Nippon
12. Tanganyika/Zanzibar Tanzania 34. Malaya Malaysia
13. Upper Volta Burkina Faso 35. Manchukuo Manchuria
14. Gold Coast Ghana 36. Mesopotamia Iraq
15. Stalingrad Volgograd 37. Nyasaland Malawi
16. Azrak Azov 38. Rangoon Yongon
17. Ister Danube 39. Rhodesia Zimbabwe
18. Paulus Meotus Volga 40. Salisbury Harare
19. Raha Blue Nile 41. Ascension Saint Helena
20. Albion England 42. Bohemia Czech Republic
21. Euxine Black Sea 43. Cilicia Turkey
22. Mare Internum Mediterranean Sea 44. Ellice Islands Tuvalu
23. Taprobana Sri Lanka 45. French Guinea Guinea
24. Northern Rhodesia Zambia 46. Portuguese Guinea Guinea Bissau
25. Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe 47. British Guinea Guyana
26. Leopoldville Kinshasa 48. French West Africa Mali
27. New Hebrides Vanuatu 49. West French Africa Mauritania
28. Manchukuo Manchuria 50. Dutch Guyana Surinam
29. Sea of Herkend Indian Ocean 51.
Cities Located on Rivers

City River Country City River Country
Alexandria Nile Egypt Lahore Ravi Pakistan
Amsterdam Amsel Netherlands Lisbon Tagus Portugal
Antwerp Scheldt Belgium Liverpool Mersey England
Ankara Kizil Turkey London Thames England
Baghdad Tigris Iraq Montreal Ottawa Canada
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Bangkok Menam Thailand Moscow Moskva Russia
Belgrade Danube Yugoslavia Nanking Yang-tse-kiang China
Berlin Spree Germany New Orleans Mississippi USA
Bonn Rhine Germany New York Hudson USA
Bristol Avon England Paris Seine France
Budapest Danube Hungary Philadelphia Delaware USA
Cairo Nile Egypt Quebec St. Lawrence Canada
Canton Canton China Rangoon Irawadi Burma
Chittagong Karnaphuli Bangladesh Rome Tiber Italy
Chungking Yang-tse-kiang China Shanghai Yangtze-kiang China
Cologne Rhine Germany Tokyo Sumida Japan
Glasgow Clyde Scotland Vienna Danube Austria
Hull Humber England Warsaw Vistula Poland
Hamburg Elbe Germany Washington Potomac USA
Karachi Indus Pakistan
Khartoum Nile Sudan
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MISCELLANEOUS FACTS—I
1. Netherlands is the most densely populated country of western Europe.
2. France is the second largest nuclear energy producer after USA
3. World Average of Urbanization is 43%.
4. Portugal is one of the least urbanized European countries – only 30 %.
5. Iceland, U.K., Belgium, Netherlands & Spain – 90% Urbanization
6. Latifundia – Europe, Haciendas – Latin America, Ranches – USA, Stations – Australia, Entancias in
South America.
7. Primary sector – red collar; secondary sector – blue collar; tertiary sector – pink collar; quaternary sector –
white collar; quinary services – gold collar.
18. Nigeria has the highest rate of deforestation in the world & brazil looses the maximum forest area.
19. Shifting cultivation is known as Ladang in Malaysia, Caingin in Philippines, Humah in Indonesia, Chena
in Srilanka, Milpa in Africa & Central America & Taungya in Myanmar.
20. Santos is the major coffee port of Brazil accounting for 3/4th of the export handling.
21. Mocha coffee is from Yemen.
22. India is a net importer of copper.
23. The only area in the world where zinc is mined without lead is the Franklin Furnace area in New Jersey
State of USA.
24. Republic of Congo is the largest producer of industrial diamonds.
25. Nearly three-fourths of the electric requirement needs of south American countries are met through
hydroelectricity.
26. Benelux countries include Belgium, Netherlands & Luxembourg.
27. Atlanta is the busiest airport in the world, followed by Chicago airport.
28. Israel is the most urbanized country in the world with >90% urban population.
29. Orinoco river of Venezuela rises in the Guiana highlands & passes through llanos.
30. Shrublands – chaparral in California, macques in Mediterranean region, the caatinga of northeastern
Brazil, and the mallee of Australia, which is dominated by low-growing eucalyptus.
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31. South of the Great European Plain, a band of dissimilar geological structures sweeps across Europe,
creating the most intricate landscapes of the continent—the Central European Uplands. Throughout this
region the forces of folding (the Jura range), faulting (the Vosges and Black Forest mountains), volcanism
(the Massif Central, or central highlands, of France), and uplift (the Meseta Central, or central plateau, of
Spain) have interacted to create alternating mountains, plateaus, and valleys.
32. Islamabad is situated on Potwar plateau.
33. Period of rotation is the longest for the planet Venus & shortest for Jupiter. Venus takes longer time to
complete one rotation on its axis than one revolution around the sun. Mercury & Venus do not have any
satellites. Mars has two satellites & Pluto has one.
34. Venus is closest planet to earth. Venus is also the hottest planet in the solar system perhaps due to its slow
rotation causing longer exposure of a particular area to sun.
35. The period of revolution of planets increases outwards without any exception. The linear distance of a
degree of latitude on an average is 69 miles. The length of longitudes outside tropics varies widely. Vernal
equinox is on March 22 & autumnal equinox on September 23.
36. Earth is the densest of all planets & Saturn has the least density. Earth is almost twice the radius of mars &
roughly equal to Venus. Uranus is slightly bigger than Neptune.
37. Caledonian movement (e.g. Scottish highlands) & Hercynian movement (Harz mountain range in central
Germany) took place during Devonian period & Permian period respectively.
38. Pleistocene epoch is best known for emergence of humans & Great Ice age.
39. Annual range of temperature is the difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the warmest &
the coldest months. The difference is not between highest & lowest temperature.
40. In absolute humidity the denominator is dry air while in specific humidity it is moist air. The temperature
at which an air parcel gets saturated at its present moisture level is called dew point.
41. Stratiform or layered clouds; Cumuliform or globular clouds. Cirrus or highest clouds & Alto or medium
clouds. Nimbus or rain bearing clouds. Stratus clouds are very close to ground surface.
42. Cirrocumulus clouds form ‘mackerel clouds’ & cirrostratus clouds produce ‘haloes’. Alto-cumulus are
called sheep clouds. Rain falling from nimbo-stratus but not reaching ground is called virga. Low clouds
less than 2 km high are stratus, cumulus, stratocumulus & nimbostratus & these are the only ones which
give precipitation.
43. Slope of the warm front is much gentler (1:100 or less) than cold front (~1:50). In the warm front
precipitation is gradual but of long duration. In cold front precipitation is short but in the form of heavy
downpour.
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44. One fathom = 1.84 meters. The width of the continental shelf on the western coast of India is broader than
the eastern coast as the former is coastline of submergence & latter is emergence.
45. Flat-topped seamounts are called guyots (pronounced “gee-o”).
46. Mariana trench, off the island of Guam, Emden Deep off Philippines, & kuril trench in which lies the
famous Tuscarora Deep & Mindanao deep (Mindanao, island of the Philippines, the second largest, after
Luzon and southernmost of the country's islands) are prominent in Pacific.
47. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge breaks the ocean's surface in several places, forming seven islands or groups of
islands. From north to south, these islands include Iceland, the Azores, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks,
Ascension, Saint Helena, Tristan da Cunha, and Bouvet.
48. Strait of Hormuz, linking the Persian Gulf on the west, with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea on the
east. Bab el Mandeb connecting the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden.
49. Salinity is equatorial areas is lower than in the tropical areas. It’s lowest in polar areas. Great Salt lake in
Utah has a salinity of 220 %, Dead Sea has 240 %, & Lake Van in Asia Minor has 330 %.
50. Lake Laguna De Bay (Philippines), Lake Biwa (Japan), Lake Tiberias (Israel & Syria), Lake Asad (Syria),
Lake Sevan (Armenia)
51. From the equatorial region, water density tends to rise in the tropics. From the tropics to the middle
latitudes there is a decline & it increases again in polar areas due to temperature decline.
52. Kuril Island - small volcanic islands in far eastern Russia, separating the Sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific
Ocean. Faroe Island is under Denmark. Orkney Islands lie north of Scotland.
53. In 24 hours & 52 minutes every place will have two high tides & two low tides. Two successive high tides
are about 12 hours & 26 minutes apart & the time difference between the high tide & the following low
tide is about 6 hrs 13 minutes. The extra 52 minutes are caused due to revolution of the moon around the
earth in the same direction i.e. west to east. The tidal magnitude at a given meridian will be more in the
low latitudes & lesser in the higher latitudes due to the greater centrifugal force on the equator.
54. O, A, E, B & C & R are the soil horizons from top to bottom. The removal of soil minerals & colloids
from the upper horizons is called Eluviation & deposition in lower horizons is Illuviaton.
55. Rich, dark soils called Chernozems. They lack the leached E horizon. Soils in cooler continental climates
(coniferous forests) are known as Podzols, a soil type that is not very fertile but rich in humus due to cold
climate. The leaching action of heavy rain and water runoff removes many of the nutrients from podzols.
Lateritic soils, one of the least fertile soil types are found in wet & hot climate (Tropical Forests).
Gleization is the pedogenic regime of warm water-logged areas. Glei soils are rich in organic material &
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the soil changes to blue colour due to reduction of iron minerals. Calcimorphic soil develop in areas of
seasonal drought.
56. Hydroponics, term applied to cultivation of plants in nutrient solutions without use of soil.
57. Pyramid of energy can never take an inverted form, the other two (biomass & number) can.
58. Boreal forest refers to the Taiga vegetation comprising coniferous trees. The Mediterranean type of
vegetation is also called Sclerophyll forest (e.g. Chaparral).
59. Serengeti National Park is located in northern Tanzania. Asuncion is the capital of Paraguay &
Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay. Paraguay is landlocked.
60. Elephant grass is found in Savanna & Buffalo grass is typical of Steppe grasslands.
61. The period of revolution & rotation of the moon is the same i.e. 27.3 days. The shortest route between two
places on the surface of the earth is along the great circles i.e. longitude.
62. Orogenetic forces producing mountains are horizontal & epeirogenetic forces are vertical.
63. Block mountain – black forest, Old fold mountain – Appalachian, young fold mountain – rocky, relict
mountain – Scottish highlands
64. Arenaceous rock (having sandy features) – Sandstone, Argillaceous rock (having clayey features) – Shale,
Plutonic rock (intrusive igneous rock) - Gabbros & dolerite, Volcanic rock (extrusive igneous rock) –
Andesite, Rhyolite, Basalt. Sedimentary rock – Ironstone. Slate results from the metamorphosis of shale or
clay. Basaltic magma is fluid & granitic is viscous.
65. A basin-shaped depression surrounded by mountains is called bolson. In a karstic region, a steep natural
shaft which emerges at the surface is called Ponor. A steep-sided hill, of roughly circular cross-section,
characteristic of karst topography is called “hum”.
66. A broad slope of alluvial material at the foot of an escarpment is called Bajada. From the eroded angular
peaks of more resistant rocks, alluvial fans lead away to deposit large slopes of debris, called bajadas, at
the base. These slopes level off to form low basins called playas. Salt covered playa beds are called
Salinas.
67. The deposition of sediment building up a sand bridge that connects the island to the mainland. The sand
bridge is called a tombolo.
68. The inclination of a fault from the vertical is called hade & it is complimentary to dip. The horizontal
displacement is called heave. Rake angle measures the slip.
69. Erosion of the ground beneath and at the sides of a snowbank, mainly as a result of alternate freezing and
thawing is called nivation.
70. An area of shifting desert sand-dunes, esp. in the Sahara is called erg.
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71. The trades are strongest in winter season. The primary divisions of koppen classification are based on
mean monthly temperature & mean precipitation & evaporation. The secondary divisions are based on
seasonality of rainfall.
72. Temperate cyclones generally develop over land.
73. Ninety East Ridge is situated in Indian Ocean. The mid Atlantic ridge comprises the Dolphin rise on the
north & challenger rise to the south separated by Romanche deep. It is known as Wyville Thompson ridge
between Iceland & Scotland. The ridge becomes quite extensive to the south of Greenland & Iceland & is
called Telegraphic plateau.
74. Globigerina ooze is the most abundant in Atlantic Ocean. Warm Agulhas current flows in the Indian
Ocean in southerly direction & Cold Falkland current in Atlantic Ocean towards north.
75. Azov Sea, inland sea, connected with the Black Sea by the Strait of Kerch.
76. Magnetic declination is the difference between true north (the axis around which the earth rotates) and
magnetic north (the direction the needle of a compass will point).
77. A traveler crossing the International Date Line from west to east gains a day & from east to west loses a
day.
78. Earth is the fifth largest planet & Pluto the smallest. Pulsars are sources of powerful, pulsating radio
waves in space which are rapidly rotating neutron stars. Quasar stands for quasi-stellar object & is a
compact object that looks like a point of light but emits more energy than a hundred super giant galaxies.
79. Earth’s history has two main divisions or eons: the Cryptozoic Eon & Phanerozoic Eon. The cryptozoic
eon is divided into Hadean, the Archean & the Proterozoic eras. The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic eras.
80. Amphibolite is a metamorphic rock & is formed by metamorphosis of igneous rocks such as basalt &
gabbro. Chert & flint are sedimentary rocks. Clastic rocks are mechanically formed. Hornblende is
igneous while hornfel is metamorphic.
81. Cratons form the cores of most continents and consist of inactive geological areas more than 2 billion
years old with thick crust and deep roots extending into the mantle beneath.
82. Because North America and Africa were connected, the Appalachians form part of the same mountain
chain as the Atlas mountains in Morocco.
83. Inselbergs (bornhardts) eventually erode & degenerate into what are called Kopjes.
84. Isoclinal Fold is one in which both limbs are approximately parallel. Recumbent Fold: A fold with a
nearly horizontal axial plane. Monocline: When folding takes place in very small magnitude or at a very
small angle a monocline is formed. Here the limbs are almost horizontal producing simple flexure.
26
85. The Peru-Chile trench marks where the Nazca plate is being subducted beneath the South American plate.
The volcanic activity and uplift of the Andes are a result of the subduction.
86. There are 26 oceanic trenches in the world: 3 in the Atlantic Ocean, 1 in the Indian Ocean, and 22 in the
Pacific Ocean.
87. Examples of cinder or ash cones are Mt Jorullo of Mexico & Mt Izalco of San Salvador. Most of the
famous volcanoes have composite cone. Mt. Etna of Sicily is an example of parasitic cone. Caldera (Lake
Toba of Sumatra is most famous example). Maar is a broad, low relief crater that is caused by a phreatic
eruption or explosion caused by groundwater contact with magma.
88. Kilauea, the world's most active volcanic crater, located on central Hawaii Island.
89. Mt Etna of Sicily, Mt. Vesuvius of Naples & Mt Stromboli, the northernmost & Mt Vulcano the
southernmost of the seven Lipari Island are all located in Italy.
90. The classification of volcanoes in order of increasing intensity of explosion is: Hawaiian type, Stromblian
type, Vulcanian type, Vesuvian type, Pelean type.
91. Fluid basaltic lava forms pahoehoe lava flow & viscous forms blocky aa lava flow. Mt Hood & Mt Rainier
& Mt. Vesuvius are dormant volcanoes. Mt Meru (Tanzania) & Mt Elgon (Kenya-Uganda border) are
extinct volcanoes.
92. Laccolith is mushroom shaped causing the crust over it to form a dome. Lopoliths are saucer shaped with
concave side upwards & Phaccoliths are lens shaped deposits in anticlines & synclines.
93. Thawing of slopes in the summer may move soil downslope to produce solifluction, or “flowing soil”
terraces. Rockfalls produce a deposit called talus at the base of the cliff.
94. Sequent Streams are those which are well adjusted to the geological structures & follow the regional
slope. Insequent streams do not follow regional slopes.
95. Centrifugal drainage is also known as radial drainage (e.g. Sri Lanka). In barbed pattern the tributary
flows in opposite direction to the master stream & such pattern usually develops due to river capture.
Annular/Circular drainage pattern is different from centrifugal pattern.
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Annular Drainage pattern
Resequent
Consequent
Subsequent
Obsequent
96. Abrasion or Corrasion is with the help of erosional tools. Attrition refers to the wear & tear of erosional
tools in themselves.
97. Block disintegration is due to different material. Granular disintegration is due to different colour.
Shattering is due to rain shower over heated rocks. Sheeting & cambering refers to the development of
horizontal & vertical cracks due to unloading. Spalling is development of platy rock fragments due to
unloading. Flaking results from differential heating of outer & inner layers of a rock. After flaking the
wind peels off the layer & this is known as exfoliation.
98. Structural benches are formed due to differential erosion of soft & hard rocks while river terraces are
produced due to valley-in-valley topography by rejuvenation. Victoria fall on Zambezi river is a result of
faulting & Yosemite falls California is due to glaciated hanging valley.
99. Alluvial fans have a gentler slope as compared to cones. Sometimes neighboring cones & fans meet to
form Piedmont alluvial plain or Bajada.
100. Yazoo Channel meets the original river at deferred junction.
Miscellaneous Facts - II
1. Davisian cycle ends in peneplain, Penck’s in endrumpf & kings in pediplain. Kings cycle basically deals
with the evolution of landforms in arid & savanna regions.
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2. Penck cycle has three stages. Aufsteigende Entwickelung means a phase of waxing (accelerating) rate of
landform development where the slopes of the valley sides are convex in plan. Gleichformige
Entwickelung means uniform development of landforms. Absteigende Entwickelung means wanning
development & parallel retreat of slope continues
3. Boschungen is the upper steep part & haldenhang is the lower part with lesser inclination. Thus the
intersection of boschungen & haldenhang produce a sharp knick. Ultimately the boschungen are reduced
to inselbergs.
4. Monadnocks are also known as unakas & mosores.
5. Sinkholes < Swallow Holes < Dolines <Jamas < Uvala < Polje. All these karst landforms are
differentiated just on the basis of size. Uvala results from subsidence of large roof over underground
courses. Ponores are vertical pipelike passages that connect caves & swallow holes. Hums are residual
hills analogous to monadnocks in fully developed karst topography. Lappies are bare terra rosa having
crevasse like pinnacle structure formed where relief is considerable.
6. Speleothems is the term collectively used for all types of deposits in caverns. Dripstones growing
sidewards from stalactites & stalagmites are called helectites & helegmites. Helectites of globular
structure are called globulites & banded calcareous deposits are called tavernites.
7. Longshore Drift is movement of sand parallel to the shoreline, in the “along-the-shore” direction. The
process arises when waves approach the shore obliquely. The swash moves the sediment particles up the
beach at this angle, while the backwash brings them away fom the beach. This has the net effect of gradual
movement of the particles along the shore.
8. Notch is formed as a depression at the base of a cliff due to wave attack. Blowholes formed at roof tops
sometimes enlarge & cause the roof top to fall forming Geos or inlets.
9. Big sand bars usually parallel to the beach are called offshore or longshore bar. If the bars are formed such
that there one end is attached to the beach & the other end is projecting into the sea, they are called spits.
Hooks are curved spits & a bar connecting two land masses is a Tombolo.
10. Old man of Hoy is the most famous wave cut stack located in Orkney Islands, North Scotland.
11. Rias (ria coast) is form when sea levels rise or plate tectonics cause coastal levels to fall. When this
happens valleys which were previously at sea level become submerged. The result is often a very large
estuary at the mouth of a relatively insignificant river.
12. Dalmatian coast are found in Italy & Dalmatian area of Croatia where ranges are parallel to coast
13. Gulf of Aqaba, northeastern arm of the Red Sea, separating the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas.
14. Negev Desert is in Israel.
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15. Pedestal or Mushroom rock is also known as Gour in Sahara & pilzfelsen in Germany.
16. Inselbergs or Bornhardts are isolated hills rising abruptly from virtually level plain. Demoiselles have
resistant rock cap at the top. Zeugens have horizontal rock strata & yardangs have vertical. Ventifact with
a single face is called einkanter, zweikanter (2 faces) & driekanter (3 faces).
17. Areas of shifting sand-dunes is called erg. Barchans are also known as transverse dunes.
18. Glacial loess of N. America is called adobe & that of Europe is called limon
19. When a basin is more or less rimmed by mountain (inter-montane basin), it is called a bolson. The basin is
characterized by centripetal drainage which leads to formation of salty lakes called playas in N. America,
“Shatts” in Sahara, ‘Mamlaha’ & ‘Khabari’ in the Arabian desert.
20. The whole slope between the mountains to the playas is called pediment.
21. When two cirques converge cutting back it is called col. A cirque lake is called tarn. Paternoster lakes are
formed at the foot of glacial stairways. A nunatak is a mountain top that is not covered by land ice, and
protrudes out of a surrounding glacier. Roches moutonnees is a residual rock hummock whose upstream is
smoothened by abrasion & downstream is roughened by plucking. Riegel marks the outcrop of a highly
resistant rock layer. They have plucked downside.
22. Eskers or Osser or Oss is a stratified deposit. If the ice front halts at regular intervals, beaded eskers are
formed. Kames are small hills which are deposited by meltwater near or at the edge of the retreating ice
sheets.
23. Kettles are depressions in the outwash plain. Large kettles are clotted with numerous low mounds called
hummocks. Drumlins are elongated hummocks of boulder clay (basket of egg).
24. Protalus rampart is the accumulation of debris formed due to rockfall from the cliff.
25.
26. Varve is the yearly deposit of sediment forming distinctive layers. It is most frequently used to refer to
deposits formed in lakes on the margins of glaciers.
27. Pingos are ice mounds formed due freeze thaw action in periglacial environment. Palsas are low
permafrost mounds with cores of layered segregated ice and peat, similar to a pingo. Talik refers to an
30
unfrozen section of ground found above, below, or within a layer of discontinuous permafrost. Tors are
piles of rock on the top & clitters on the sides formed due to congelifraction
28. Borneo is the 3rd largest island in the world after Greenland & New Guinea.
Climatology:
1. ‘Mother of pearl’ or ‘nacreous’ clouds are found in stratosphere. Noctiluent clouds are found in
Mesosphere.
Division of Ionosphere (60-640 Km)
1. D layer 60-. Km Reflects signals of low frequency radio waves only.
Disappears with sunset.
2. E layer 99-130 km Called Kenley- Heaviside layer. Reflects medium &
high frequency radio waves. Produced by ultraviolet
photons reacting with nitrogen. Disappears with sunset.
3. Sporadic E Layer 110 km Associated with very high velocity winds & created
under special circumstances. Reflects VHF waves
4. E2 layer 150 km Produced by reaction of UV photons with O2.
Disappears with night.
5. F Layer 1550-380 km Consists of F1 & F2 layers collectively called Appleton
layer. Reflects medium & high frequency radio waves.
6. G layer 400 km & Persists day & night but not detectable as F layer reflects
above all the waves reflected by this layer. Interaction of UV
photon with nitrogen produces free electrons here.
2. The auroras are maximum when the sun is very active. Hence they are opposite of sun spot cycle. Inside
the magnetosphere are the Van Allen radiation belts concentrated in two bands at about 3000 km & 16000
km.
3. According to Wein’s displacement law, hotter the object smaller the wavelength. According to Stefan
Boltzman law influx of radiation is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the
radiating body.
4. Heat Budget: Out of the 100 units of incoming solar radiation, 35 units (27-clouds, 2-snow, 6-atmosphere
top) are reflected back as albedo. Out of the remaining 65 units, 14 units are absorbed by atmosphere & 51
units by earth surface. The earth radiates back 17 units directly into space & remaining 34 units are
absorbed by atmosphere. The atmosphere than radiates back the 48 units absorbed by it.
5. Green house gases include CFCs, Nitrous oxide, water vapour & ozone. CFCs account for 25 % of green
house effect & methane for 15 %. Carbon dioxide leads with 55 %.
6. The greatest range of temperature occurs at latitude 60 N.
7. The major types of inversion are: radiation, air drainage, frontal, advection, subsidence. Advection
inversion generally occurs when a warm air passes over cold water surface.
31
8. Highs are Siberian, Hawaiian & Siberian. Lows are Aleutian & Icelandic.
9. Anemometer is used for measuring the speed of wind. Beaufort scale deals with the wind speed & ranges
from calm wind to hurricane.
10. Jet streams are fastest during winter season. They blow from west to east.
11. A mist becomes a fog when visibility is reduced to less than a km. Dry adiabatic rate is 10 C per 1000m &
moist adiabatic rate is 6 C per 1000m. Stability occurs when the dry adiabatic rate is higher than the
normal lapse rate & instability occurs when normal lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. If
normal lapse rate is lower than wet adiabatic rate it leads to absolute stability & vice versa.
12. Sleet is partially melted snowflakes while hail refers to small balls of ice. Rime refers to very small super
cooled droplets which strike ground & tend to freeze immediately on impact.
13. Four principal forms of airmasses are continental polar (cP), maritime polar (mP), continental tropical
(cT), and maritime tropical (mT). Thermodynamic modification results in airmasses becoming warm
represented by W or cold (K). Mechanical or dynamic modification causes it to become stable (s) or
unstable (u).
14. Baroclinic zone is where distinct air mass regions exist & where Fronts separate warmer from colder air.
Barotropic is region of uniform temperature distribution with lack of fronts. Temperate cyclones are
formed under baroclinic condition & tropical under barotropic condition.
15. Anticyclones are larger than cyclones. Airflow converges aloft in anticyclones & diverges in case of
cyclones. Katabatic wind blows from mountains to valley & anabatic vice versa.
Oceanography:
16. The Peru-Chile trench is the longest in the world. The only difference between ridge & rises is that ridges
are steep sided while rises are gently sloped.
17. Juan de Fuca Strait, is the arm of the Pacific Ocean between Washington & Vancouver.
18. Thermocline is the transition layer between the mixed layer at the surface and the deep water. The various
salts in the sea in order of decreasing quantity are NaCl, MgCl, MgSO4, CaSO4.
19. Danube, Dneiper, & Dneister all fall into black sea reducing it salinity.
20. Water moves from areas over which there is a low pressure to areas over which there is a high pressure.
21. The pelagic zone includes those waters further from the land, basically the open ocean. It is divided into
neritic zone (having a depth of 200metres) & the oceanic province (separated from the neritic province by
the edge of the continental shelf). The benthic zone refers to the sea bottom itself & is divided into littoral
zone & deep sea zone. The two zones have their frontier at a depth of 200 meters. Benthos (plants such as
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kelp, sponges) are organisms that live on the ocean floor while nektons are swimming animals such as
fishes & whales.
22. The east pacific rise is known as albatross plateau extending from north of New Zealand to the Californian
coast.
23. Oozes are pelagic deposit in the form of liquid mud. There are divided on the basis of content into
calcareous ooze (lime) & siliceous ooze (silica). Calcareous ooze is further divided into pteropod ooze &
globigerina (most widespread) ooze. Siliceous ooze is divided into radiolarian (formed of shells of
foraminifera) & diatom ooze.
24. Red clay is the most widely spread pelagic deposit & consists mainly of hydrated silicate of Aluminium &
oxides of iron. Neritic deposits consists of dead shells of plants & animals.
25. Atlantic Ocean: The warm North Atlantic Drift (NAD) gives rise to the Irminger Current south of Iceland
which travels along western and northwestern coasts of Iceland until it meets East Greenland Current.
Another branch of NAD flows along Norway coast forming Norwegian current. Falkland current brings
the cold waters of the Antarctic sea northward up to Argentina.
26. Pacific Ocean :Kuroshio (or Kuro Siwo) Current of Pacific is similar to the gulf stream of Atlantic. One
branch separates from Kuroshio current & enters the sea of Japan as Tsushima current. The Cold Oyashio
(or Oya Siwo) Current (similar to Labrador current) is also known as Kurile current & it flows through
the Bering Strait in a southerly direction. The cold Okhotsk current flows past Sakhalin to merge with Oya
Siwo current near Hokkaido Island & later mergers with the warm Kuro Siwo current producing dense
fogs. The north pacific drift continues later as Aleutian current which divides into two parts – the northern
branch becomes Alaska current while the southern branch becomes California cold current (similar to
Canary cold current of Atlantic). Cromwell current also called pacific equatorial undercurrent is a
submarine river & flows towards east. Mindanao current is a southward flowing boundary current along
the Philippine coast.
27. Indian Ocean: One branch of the south equatorial current moves southward through the Mozambique
Channel to form the Mozambique Current. This current joins the Agulhas Current & moves to the
southern tip of Africa. During the northeast monsoon season the Somali Current flows southward &
During the southwest monsoon the current develops into an intense northward jet
28. La Nina is opposite of El Nino & intensifies the Humboldt Current. El Nino causes drought conditions in
India, Southern Africa, Australia & heavy rains in Chile, Colorado. The El Nino events of 1982 & 1997
were severe. The Southern Oscillation, a more recent discovery, refers to an oscillation in the surface
33
pressure (atmospheric mass) between the southeastern tropical Pacific and the Australian-Indonesian
regions
29. Tahiti is the largest and most important of the Society Islands, in the southern Pacific Ocean. The chief
town on the island is Papeete which is also the capital of French Polynesia.
30. In gravity waves (large waves) the restoring force is gravity while in capillary waves (ripples caused by
winds) the restoring force is surface tension. Swell refers to long crested waves with longer periods which
have traveled out of their source areas. Surf refers to a belt of nearly continuously breaking waves.
Internal waves are caused due to density differences. Seiches are standing waves (e.g. Lake Geneva).
Biogeography
31. Field capacity refers to 50 % water & 50 % air. Leaching produces increasingly acidic & mineral deficient
soil. Laterization (now called Ferralization) occurs in humid tropics where heavy rain & uninterrupted
warmth give rise to a deeply weathered layer. Melanization refers to darkening of soil profile while
Leuciniation refers to lightening of the colour both in A horizon. Induration refers to hardening of soil &
Audification refers to the accumulation of H ions mainly in surface horizons.
32. The surface horizon is usually referred to as the O layer; it consists of loose organic matter such as fallen
leaves and other biomass. O horizon is further divided into 3 sub horizons. The layer of plant material on
the soil surface is classified as: the L horizon (fresh litter); the F horizon (decomposing litter); the H
horizon (well decomposed litter)
33. Below that is the A horizon, containing a mixture of inorganic mineral materials and organic matter.
Next is the E horizon, a layer from which clay, iron, and aluminum oxides have been lost by a process
known as leaching (when water carries materials in solution down from one soil level to another).
Removal of materials in this manner is known as eluviation, the process that gives the E horizon its name.
Below E horizon is the B horizon, in which most of the iron, clays, and other leached materials have
accumulated. The influx of such materials is called illuviation. Under that layer is the C horizon,
consisting of partially weather bedrock, and last, the R horizon of hard bedrock. Hence the horizons are
L, F, H, A, E, B, C & R from top to bottom.
34. Aridisols (23 %), Inceptisols (16 %), Alfisols (13.5 %) & Entisols (11 %) – Coverage.
35. Epiphytes are abundant in tropical rainforest (Selva) which have little undergrowth.
36. Gross primary productivity less that is used in respiration is net primary productivity. Only 1 % of the
sun’s energy reaching the earth is used by plants through photosynthesis. The mean productivity of the
world is around 300 gm/sq.m/year.
34
37. 15 lakh species of animals & 2.5 lakh plant species on earth. Out of which 75 thousand animal & 15
thousand plant species are found in India.
38. The most commonly used Freon is Freon-12, or dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2). Freon-11 is
Trichlorofluoromethane (CCl3F).
39. Solonchak soils are defined by high soluble salt accumulation & formed from saline parent material under
conditions of high evaporation. Pedocals are soils of arid regions and are characterized by calcite (CaCO3)
cementation due to upward movement of water (evaporation). Pedalfers are soils of humid regions and are
characterized by highly leached clays due to downward movement of water. Extreme pedalfers are called
laterites.
40. Ferrous group includes iron, chromite, manganese, & nickel. Non-Ferrous group has copper, lead, zinc,
tungsten, aluminium, vanadium etc.
41. The largest number of sheeps & goats are both in China.
42. Coal, Petroleum & electricity are respectively known as black, liquid & white gold.
43. Czechoslovakia separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Yugoslavia was created by joining
various regions (Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro), and then
split again
44. Intercropping refers to the growing of more than one crop on the same field while mixed cropping refers
to the growing of a variety of crops on different fields.
45. Weir canal connects Lake Erie & Ontario. Worldwide jet stream that occurs in winter is the sub-tropical
jet stream.
46. Port Said lies towards the red sea side on Suez Canal. Purus, Sao Francisco & Madeira are all large rivers
of Brazil.
47. Oder Niesse line is the boundary between Poland & Germany. 38th Parallel between North & South Korea.
49th Parallel between USA & Canada. Maginot line between France & Germany.
48. Micronesia includes the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, Guam, the Republic of Palau, the
Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, and the Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesia lies to the north of
Melanesia & to the North-West of Polynesia.
49. Melanesia’s westernmost island is New Guinea. Stretching east and south of New Guinea are the countries
of Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, the French territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies, and the nation
of Fiji Islands (commonly known as Fiji).
35
50. Polynesia consists of American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Easter Island, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New
Zealand, Niue, the Pitcairn Islands, Samoa (formerly Western Samoa), Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and the
Wallis and Futuna Islands.
51. Apiculture refers to rearing of honey bees. Silviculture refers to growing & tending of trees as a branch of
forestry. Connate water (also called fossil water) refers to water trapped in the interstices of rocks during
their formation. Phenology is the study of seasonal changes upon animal & plant life.
52. Hall Herault process is used in the extraction of Aluminium from its ore.
53. South China sea is the largest sea.
Analysis of Mocks
1. Cuestas or Homoclinal Ridge, physical feature that has a steep cliff or escarpment on one side and a
gentle dip or back slope on the other. This landform occurs in areas of tilted strata and is caused by the
differential weathering and erosion of the hard capping layer and the soft underlying cliff maker, which
erodes more rapidly. Cuestas with dip slopes of 40°–45° are usually called hogback ridges. A mesa is an
elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs.
36
2. A sandur (plural sandar) is a plain formed by meltwater from glaciers. Sandar are usually wider than their
length, and consist of soft sediments, which are criss-crossed by braided streams of meltwater.
3. Regolith is a layer of loose, heterogeneous material covering solid rock. Peridotite, igneous rock
composed of pyroxene, olivine, and hornblende. It is the rock that makes up the earth's mantle. Very
sudden cooling of volcanic magma results in formation of volcanic glass called obsidian. The extrusive
equivalent of granite is rhyolite & gabbro is the intrusive equivalent of basalt.
4. Entrenched & intrenched meanders are one & the same & it is ingrown meanders which grow on
assymetric valley.
5. Tephra & pyroclastic material are the same & refer collectively to volcanic materials.
6. A glacier with a negative budget is a receding glacier & that with positive budget is advancing.
7. Rectangular inselbergs are called koppie or kopje.
8. Gloup is a blow hole, where a chimney has developed behind the cliff face, often above a cave, and spray
is blasted out during high seas.
9. In a braided stream, the main channel divides into a number of smaller, interlocking or braided channels.
Streams with high sediment loads that encounter a sudden reduction in flow velocity generally have a
braided channel type.
10. Rise of land or fall of sea level is called negative movement & is connected with rejuvenation.
11. Jura mountains were formed during Mesozoic period.
12. Researchers now recognize five glaciations in the Quaternary period: Donau, Gunz, Mindel, Riss and
Wurm (in that order from old to new). Their names derive from water courses in the North Slope of the
Alps. These glaciations are included in the first period of the Quaternary: the Pleistocene. The second
period of the Quaternary, the Holocene, starts at the end of the last glaciation (Wurm), about 10 thousand
years ago. Mindel falls under middle Pleistocene.
13. Solifluction is the slow downslope flow of soil and sediment that is saturated with water
14. Both P waves & S waves (shear, transverse) are collectively called body waves. While Surface waves
include Rayleigh waves (vertical and longitudinal) & Love waves (transverse horizontal).
15. A strike slip fault is also known as wrench fault. The scientific study of rivers is called Potamology.
Colluvium is the loose deposits of rock, usually located at the foot of a slope or cliff, having been brought
there under the influence of gravity (mass wasting). Talus includes angular fragments of rock below cliffs
and steep slopes. Colluvium includes slope wash.
16. Evidences of earliest known life have been found to archaeozoic period.
37
17. Victoria fall is due to faulting. Livingstone fall is at the edge of a plateau. Yosemite fall is a hanging
valley & Niagara fall is due to alternate bands of resistant & soft rocks.
18. Reg is a surface covering of coarse gravel, pebbles from which all sand and dust have been removed by
wind and water.
19. Billow clouds are created when different layers of wind flow at different velocities resulting in unstable
turbulence between the layers. The common name for this instability is Kelvin-Helmholtz instability.
Billow clouds provide a visible signal to pilots of potentially dangerous turbulence.
Essential Extra Reference

1. Koeppens & Thornthwaite classification of India (Geo Notes-Page 77,80 Vol-1)
2. World Population Data (K. Siddhartha –Ensemble-Appendix –Geo of India-page 13)
3. Isostasy, Map references.
GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
Tribal Groups of India

1. Gonds Largest tribe found in M.P., Jharkhand, A.P., Orissa &
Maharashtra.
2. Bhils M.P, Gujarat, Rajasthan, A.P., Karnataka, Tripura
3. Santhals West Bengal, Bihar-Jharkhand & Orissa
4. Minas Rajasthan & MP. Account for 50% tribal population of
Rajasthan
5. Oraons Bihar-Jharkhand, M.P.-Chattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal &
Maharashtra. Speak Kurukh Language
6. Mundas Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal & Tripura
38
7. Khonds Orissa is mainland. Also found in Bihar, AP, MP, West Bengal.
8. Tharu Uttaranchal & MP
9. Chenchu Andhra Pradesh
10. Todas Nilgiri Hills. Classic example of polyandry.
11. Lahaula Himachal Pradesh
12. Adivasis Bastar district, Chattisgarh
13. Badagas Nilgiri region, Tamil Nadu
14. Baiga M.P.
15. Bakkarwals J&K
16. Bhotias Uttaranchal, Sikkim & West Bengal
17. Bhuia M.P.
18. Birhors M.P., Chattisgarh, Jharkhand & Orissa
19. Gaddis Himachal Pradesh
20. Gujjars J&K & Himachal Pradesh
21. Irula Tamil Nadu
22. Kanikar Tamil Nadu
23. Katkari M.P.
24. Kharia M.P.
25. Khasa Jaunsar region, Uttaranchal
26. Lahualas Lahual region, Himachal Pradesh
27. Moplahs Muslims of Malabar district, Kerala
28. Sabra M.P.
29. Kol M.P. & Maharashtra
30. Kolam Andhra Pradesh
31. Kotas Nilgiri Hills
32. Murias Bastar District, Chattisgarh
33. Uralis Kerala
34. Varlis Maharashtra, Gujarat, Dadra & Nagar Haveli
35. Yurva Tamil Nadu
Tribes of the North East & Andaman Nicobar

1. Khasis Meghalaya & Tripura
2. Mikirs Assam
3. Kukis Manipur, Assam, Nagaland & Tripura
4. Angami Nagaland
5. Ao Nagaland
6. Apatani Arunachal Pradesh
7. Chutra Assam
8. Garos Meghalaya & Assam
9. Jaintia Meghalaya & Assam
10. Sema Nagaland
39
11. Lushai Mizoram & Tripura
12. Lepchas Original Tribals of Sikkim
13. Abors Arunachal Pradesh
14. Chakma Tripura
15. Chang A Naga tribe
16. Gallong Tribe of Arunachal Pradesh
17. Jarawas Andaman & Nicobar. Negrito

18. Onges Andaman & Nicobar. Negritos racial stock.
19. Shompens Andaman & Nicobar. Belong to mongoloid stock like nicobarese
& inhabit Great Nicobar.
20. Sentinelese Andaman & Nicobar. Inhabit sentinel island. Negrito
21. Great Negrito
Andamanese
Major Formations & their Periods

1. Cenozoic Holocene
2. Pleistocene
3. Pliocene Upper Siwalik
4. Miocene
5. Oligocene
6. Eocene
7. Paleocene
8. Mesozoic Cretaceous Deccan Traps
9. Jurassic
10. Triassic
11. Paleozoic Permian
12. Carboniferous
13. Devonian
14. Silurian
15. Ordovician
16. Cambrian
17. Pre-Cambrian Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Dharwar, Archean systems
Important Ranges of the Himalayas

1. Siwaliks Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi (all in Arunachal), Dhang range,
Dundwa range, Churia ghat hills (Nepal), Jammu Hills
2. Lesser Himalayas Pir Panjal range, Dhaula Dhar range, Nag Tibba range,
Mussorie range, Mahabharat range.
Mountain Passes
1. J&K Burzil pass, Zozi La pass
2. Himachal Bara Lacha pass, Shipki La pass
3. Uttaranchal Thagla pass, Niti pass & Lipu Lekh
4. Sikkim Nathu La pass, Jelep La pass
5. Arunachal Pradesh Bomdila Pass.
40
Major Rock Systems

1. Archean System Primarily Gneiss & granites. Found in Peninsular India, M.P,
Jharkhand & Rajasthan.
2. Dharwar System
3. Cuddapah System Named after cuddapah district of AP.
4. Vindhyan System Found & named after Vindhyas. Stand over Cuddapah rocks.
Contains limestones, sandstones, shale & slate
5. Gondwana System Formed in middle carboniferous period. Chhotanagpur is main.
6. Deccan Traps Cretaceous period.
7. Tertiary Systems
8. Quarternary Formations Important formations of this period are Rajasthan desert, Indo
Gangetic alluvium, Rann of Kachchh, Karewas of Kashmir (flat
topped mound).
Forests & Their Species

1. Tropical Evergreen Teak, Rosewood, Ebony, Ironwood, Bamboo, Canes, Champa, Sal,
Mahua, Sandal & Sheesham
2. Tropical Dry Khirni, Jamun, Khokko, Ritha, Tamarind, Neem, Toddy Palm,
Evergreen Cane.
3. Tropical Dry Teak, Tendu, Sal, Amaltas, Palas, Rose-wood, Axlewood, Bijsal,
Deciduous Khair, Satinwood, Ghant, Pepal & Semal
4. Swamp Forests Sundari tree, Nipa Friticans (a Palm), Epiphytes.
5. Himalaya Temperate Oak, Deodar, Celtis, Maple, Chestnut.
6. Alpine Rhododendron, Birch, Fir, Spruce, Plum
Various Revolutions in Indian Economy

1. Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds
2. White Revolution Milk
3. Blue Revolution Fish
4. Pink Revolution Shrimp
5. Brown Revolution Masaaley
6. Grey Revolution Wool
7. Golden Revolution Horticulture
Rivers: Origin & Length

S. River Kms Origin Characteristics
1. Indus 2900 Mansarovar Shyok, Dras, Gartang, Nubra, Hunza, Zanskar,
Shigar. Kabul, Kurram, Tochi, Viboa, Sangar.
2. Jhelum 400 Verinag Flows through Wular lake & along Indo Pak border.
3. Chenab 1180 Bara-Lacha Largest Indus tributary. Formed by Chandra &
Bhaga.
4. Ravi 725 Rohtang Pass Flows through Chamba valley.
5. Beas 470 Beas Kund Flows through Kullu valley & joins Satluj near
Harike
6. Sutlej 1050 Rakas Lake Passes through Ship kila. Govind Sagar lake at
41
Bhakra
7. Ganga 2525 Gangotri Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda at Devprayag. It splits
into Bhagirathi-Hugli & Padma below Farrakha in
Malda distt.
8. Yamuna 1300 Yamunotri Tons, Giri, Asan, Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Enters
Ganga plain at Paonta Sahib.
9. Chambal 960 Mhow Gandhisagar dam at Kota. Banas (left), Kali & Sind
(right)
10. Gandak Everest & Joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna
Dhulagiri
11. Kosi 730 Everest & Its main stream is Arun. Joined by Sun kosi from the
Kanchenjunga west & Tamur Kosi from the east
12. Ramganga 600 Kumaon Hills Joins Ganga near Kanauj
13. Sarda (Saryu) Milam Glacier Along Indo Nepal border it is called Kali. Joins
Ghaghara.
14. Mahananda Darjeeliing It is the last left bank tributary of the Ganga
Hills
15. Son Amarkantak Joins Ganga at Patna
16. Damodar 540 Barakar is main tributary. Joins Hugli
17. Ghaghara 1180 Mapchachungo Meets Ganga at Chapra.
glacier
18. Gomti Pilibhit Distt Lucknow situated on its bank. Kathna & Sarayan
tributaries.
19. Brahmaputra 2900 Near Receives Dibang & Lohit on left bank & then
Mansarovar known as Brahmaputra. Burhi Dihing, Dhansari &
Kalang (left) & Subansari, Kamang, Manas &
Sankosh.
20. Tista Chitamu lake Forms Sivok Gola Pass in Darjeeling.
(Tibet)
21. Surma 900 Meghna is the name of Brahmaputra after its
confluence with Surma. Surma is distributary of
river Barak.
22. Mahanadi 850 Sihawa (near Tel, Ib, Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Jonking
Raipur)
23. Godavari 1465 Nashik Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga, Sabari, Idravati,
Manjra & Pranhita.
24. Krishna 1400 Mahabaleshwar Koyna, Yerla, Verna, Panchganga, Dudhgana, Musi,
Tungabhadra, Bhima
25. Cauveri 800 Brahmagiri Amravati, Hemavati, Akravati, Herangi, Shimsa,
Hills (Coorg) Lakshmantirtha, Lokpavani, Kabbani.
26. Narmada 1300 Amarkantak Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa,
Hiran, Baran
27. Tapti 724 Betul Distt Parna, Veghar, Girna, Bori, Panhara, Betul
28. Sabarmati 320 Mewar Hills
29. Brahmani 800 Formed by confluence of Koel & Sankh. Baitrani
joins later
30. Subarnarekha 400 S-W of Ranchi
42
31. Luni 320 Arawallis Ends in Sahni marshes. Sarsuti, Bundi, Sukri, Jawai
join it.
Various Central Institutes in India

1. Wildlife Institute of India Dehradun
2. Salim Ali centre for Ornithology & Natural History Coimbatore
3. Central Sheep Breeding Farm Haryana
4. Central Tobacco Research Institute Rajamundhry, A.P.
5. National Ship Design & Research Centre Vishakhapatnam
6. Civil Aviation Training College Hyderabad
7. National Institute of Aviation Management & Research Delhi
8. Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Udan Academy Fursatgunj (U.P.)
9. National Remote Sensing Agency Hyderabad
10. Postal Staff College of India Ghaziabad
11. Central Poultry Training Institute Hessarghatta, Karnataka
12. Central Institute of Coastal Engineering for fisheries Bangalore.
13. Central Institute of Fisheries education Mumbai
14. Lal Bahadur shastri college of advanced maritime studies & Mumbai
research
15. Hindustan Photo films Ooty.
16. Survey of India Dehradun
Various Policies & Programmes in India

1. Forest Policy 1894, 1952, 1988 (revised)
2. Indian Board for wildlife formed 1952
3. Wildlife Protection Act 1972
4. Project Tiger 1973
5. Operation Crocodile 1975
6. National Wildlife Action Plan 1983, Revised 2002-2016
7. Environment Protection Act 1986
8. Rhinoceros project 1987
9. Project Elephant 1992
Energy Resources of India

35. Coal Jharkhand Jharia, Bokaro, Giridh, karanpura, Ramgarh, Daltonganj,
Aurangabad, Hutar, Deogarh, Rajmahal
36. Orissa Talcher, Rampur
37. M.P (Former) Central Indian Coalfields -Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla, Umaria
Satupura Coalfields - Pench, Kanhan, Pathkhera
North Chhattisgarh - Chirmiri-Kaurasia, Bisrampur, Jhillmili,
Sonhat, Lakhanpur, Sendurgarh, lakhanpur-Ramkola
South Chhattisgarh-Hasdo-Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh
38. West Bengal Raniganj, Darjeeling
43
39. Andhra Pr. Singareni, Kothgundam, Tandur
40. Maharashtra Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander
41. Tetiary Meghalaya Daranggiri, Cherpunji, Laitryngew, Mawlong, Langrin, Pendengru,
coal Longoi, Waimong
42. Assam Makum, Jaipur, Nazira
43. Arunachal Pr Namchuk-Namphuk
44. J&K Kalakot, Mohogala, Metka
45. Rajasthan Palana (lignite) & Khari
46. Petroleum North-East Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar, Galeki, Hugrijan, Nigru,
Borholla
47. Gujarat Ankeleshwar, Kalol, Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana,
Barkol,Mehsana, Sanand, Lunej, Aliabet island
48. Mumbai High Bombay high, Bassein
49. East Coast Narimanam, Kovillapal, Amlapur, Rawa
50. Other Jaiselmer, Jwalamukhi Area (Punjab)
51. Natural Mumbai Bombay high, Bassein
52. Gas Gujarat Jagatia, Gogha
53. Assam Nahorkatiya & Moran
54. Tamil Nadu Neypaltur, Mangamadam, Avadi, Virugambakam
55. Tripura Baranura, Atharnure
56. Rajasthan Barmer, Charaswala
57. Arunachal Pr Non Chick, Mia-Pung, Laptan pung
58. Himachal Pr Jwalamukhi, Kangra
59. West Bengal Medinipur
60. Uranium Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Bhatin, Narwapahar under Uranium
Corportation in India are the only mines worked at present
61. Thorium Beach Sands (Kerala), Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pr, Orissa
Mineral Resources of India

50. Iron Ore Chhattisgarh 24 % Dalli, Rajhra (Durg), Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri
51. Goa (21%) Sanquelim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim
52. Karnataka (20%) Bellary, Hospet, Sandur
53. Jharkhand (17 %) Noamund, Gua
54. Orissa (15 %) Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj),
Kiriburu, Meghahataburu, Bonai (Sundargarh).
55. Maharashtra Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara
56. Andhra Pr. Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnod, Cuddapah, Anantpur district
44
57. Tamil Nadu Tirthmalai, Yadapalli, Killimalai, kanjamalai, & Gondumalai
58. Copper M. P (46%) Balghat (Malanjkhand)
59. Rajasthan (33%) Khetri (Jhunjhunu & Alwar)
60. Jharkhand (21%) Singhbum
61. Manganese Karnataka (38%) Bellary, North Kanara, Shimoga
62. Orissa (17%) Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir
63. M.P. (10 %) Balghat
64. Maharashtra (8%) Nagpur & Bhandara
65. Bauxite Orissa (44 %) Koraput, Kalahandi, Sundargarh
66. Jharkhand (18 %) Gumla, Lohardaga, Ranchi, Palamau
67. Maharashtra (13%) Kolhapur, Ratnagir
68. Chhattisgarh(11%) Bastar, Bilaspur, Surguja district
69. M.P. (11 %) Mandla, Satna, Jabalpur, Shahdol
70. Gujarat (8 %) Jamnagar, Kachchh, Junagarh
71. Tamil Nadu (4 %) Salem, Nilgiri
72. Chromite Orissa (97 %) Sukinda, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal ditricts
73. Karnataka (2.3 %) Hassan
74. Maharashtra (%) Chandrapur
75. Jharkhand (%) Purbi & Paschmi Singhbum district
76. Andhra Pr (%) Khammam
77. Lead Rajasthan (80 %) Zawar region (Udaipur), Dariba, Rajura
78. Orissa (11%)
79. Andhra Pr (8 %)
80. Zinc Rajasthan (99 %) Zawar –a. Pipli khan to Barla khan b. Mochia, Magra, Balaria
81. Sikkim
82. Gold Karnataka (67 %) Kolar, Hutti gold fields (Raichur), Gulbarga
83. Jharkhand (26 %) Subarnarekha, Sona, Sanjai, South koel, Garra rivers
84. Andhra Pr (7 %) Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district)
85. Silver Andhra Pr (42 %)
86. Bihar Jharkhand32
87. Rajashtan (25 %) Zawar
88. Karnataka
89. Nickel Orissa Cuttack, Kyonjhar, & Maiyurbhanj
Non Metallic Minerals

1. Limestone M.P, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
2. Dolomite Orissa (Birmitrapur in Sundergarh District-largest in India), M.P & Chattisgarh
3. Phosphate Rajasthan (Udaipur) Uttaranchal (Dehradun), M.P. (Jhabua), U.P. (Lalitpur)
4. Kaolin Kerala is largest producer.
5. Mica Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand (Kodarma-Large) & Rajasthan
6. Gypsum Rajasthan & J & K.
7. Steatite Rajasthan. It is also called soapstone/ Potstone.
8. Magnesite Tamil Nadu
45
9. Pyrite Bihar is sole producer
10. Graphite Orissa, Rajasthan
11. Diamond M.P. (Panna)
12. Beryllium Rajathan, Jharkhand
13. Salt (NaCl) Gujarat (60%), Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra
14. Marble Rajasthan
15. Zircon Beach Sand of Kerala
16. Kyanite Singhbum distict in Jharkhand-largest. Used as refractory material
17. Antimony Punjab
18. Asbestos Karnataka & Rajasthan
19. Beryllium Rajasthan
20. Sulphur Tamil Nadu
21. Tin Bihar, Jharkhand
Multipurpose Projects & Hydro-Electric Projects in India

Project River State
56. Damodar Valley Project Damodar West Bengal & Jharkhand. It includes Maithon
& Tilaiya Dam on Barakar river in Bihar, Konar
Dam (Konar river) & Panchet Dam (Damodar).
57. Rihand Dam Rihand Uttar Pradesh
58. Nagarjunasagar Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh. Consists of two canals – Lal
Bahadur Canal (Left) & Jawahar canal (Right).
59. Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra JV of Andhra Pr & Karnataka.
60. Gandak Project Gandak JV between UP, Bihar & Nepal
61. Kosi Project Kosi JV of Bihar & Nepal
62. Beas Project Beas Includes Pong Dam
63. Mayurkashi Project Mayurkashi Mayurkashi is a tributary of Hugli.
64. Indira Gandhi Canal It consists of Rajastan Feeder Canal (taking off
from Harike Barrage, 204 km long, fully lined
masonry canal) & Rajasthan main canal (445
Km)
65. Narmada Valley Project Involves Sardar Sarovar dam in Gujarat &
Narmada sagar (or Indira Sagar) dam in M.P.
66. Pochampad Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh.
67. Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttaranchal. Implemented with Soviet Aid.
Highest rock fall dam in the country.
68. Parambikulam Project JV between Tamil Nadu & Kerala.
Hydro-Electric Projects
69. Mata Tella Dam Betwa Near Jhansi in U.P.
70. Kangsbati Project West Bengal
71. Rajasthan Canal Project Sutlej, Beas JV of Punjab & Rajastan. Ravi water is also
used.
72. Kadana Project Mahi Gujarat
73. Tata Hydroelectric Scheme Indravati Maharashtra. Called Bhivpuri dam.
74. Koyna Hydroelectic Dam Koyna Maharashtra
75. Sivasamudram Cauvery Falls Karnataka
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76. Pykara Hydro Elec Project Pykara Tamil Nadu (along Nilgiris)
77. Mettur Project Cauvery Tamil Nadu
78. Papansam Scheme Tambraparni Tamil Nadu
79. Sabargiri Hydel Project Pampa Kerala
80. Idukki Project Periyar Kerala
81. Sholayar Project Sholayar Kerala. JV between Kerala & Tamil Nadu
82. Machkund Power Project Machkund Orissa. JV between A.P & Orissa
83. Srisailam Power Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
84. Balimela Hydro Project Sileru river JV between A.P & Orissa
85. Umiam Project Umiam Meghalaya
86. Salal Hydro Project Chenab J&K
87. Thein Dam Project Ravi Punjab
88. Banasagar Project Son JV between MP, UP & Bihar
89. Jayakwadi Project Godavari Maharashtra
90. Kakrapara Project Tapi Gujarat
91. Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat
92. Malprabha Project Malprabha Karnataka
93. Pallivasal project Mudirapujha Kerala
94. Poochampad Godavari Andhra Pradesh
95. Rajghat Dam Project Betwa
96. Sarda Sahayak Ghagara Uttar Pradesh
97. Hansdev Bango Project Hansdev M.P.
98. Tawa Project Tawa M.P. Tawa is tributary of Narmada
99. Ukai Project Tapi Gujarat
100. Purna Project Purna Maharashtra
101. Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)
102. Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal Rajasthan (Kota)
103. Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal Churasigarh Fort at MP-Rajasthan border
104. Chibro Tons Uttar Pradesh
43. Dool Hasti Chenab J & K.
105. Nathpa Jhakri Satluj Himachal Pr. Biggest hydel power project in
India
106. Panchet Dam Damodar West Bengal
Thermal Power Projects in India

1. Kothagundam Project Singareni Coalfields Andhra Pradesh
2. Dhuraran Project Kheda district Gujarat
3. Satpura Power Station M.P.
4. Korba Project Chhattisgarh
5. Talcher Power Station Talcher Orissa
6. Obra Power Station Obra U.P.
7. Bhusawal Power Station Maharashtra
8. Hardauganj Power Station U.P.
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9. Bandel Power Station West Bengal
10. Chandrapura Power Station Bihar
11. Kolaghat Power Station West Bengal
12. Bakreshwar (Birbhum) Station West Bengal
Soils & Their Properties

1. Alluvial Soils 22 Most fertile, Sandy loam in texture,
Rich in Potash, Phosphoric Acid, Lime & Organic matter
Deficient in Nitrogen & Humus
2. Regur/Black Soils 30 Also classified as Chernozem. Clay content 50%
Rich in iron, lime & Aluminium
Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & organic content
3. Red & Yellow Soils 28 Known as omnibus group.
Rich in oxides of iron
Poor in Nitrogen, Phosphorus & Humus
4. Laterite Soils 2.62 Not very fertile. Typical of tropical region with heavy rainfall
Rich in iron oxide & potash
Poor in nitrogen, phosphate & calcium
5. Arid Soils 6.13 Rich in phosphate
Poor in Nitrogen & humus
6. Saline Soils 1.29 Known as Usara, Reh or Kallar
Contain a large proportion of Sodium, Potassium & Magnesium
Poor in Nitrogen & Calcium
7. Peaty & Organic 2.17 Normally heavy & black in colour. Highly acidic.
Rich in organic matter
Poor in phosphate & potash
8. Forest Soils 7.94 Acidic with low humus content
Poor in potash, phosphorus & lime
Sobriquets
1. Bolton of the east Ahmedabad
2. Manchester of South India Coimbatore
3. Granary of South India Thanjavur
Agricultural Crops of India

Crop State Prod Prod Yield Rainfall Temp Soil
% (Mil Kg/Ha cm Deg C
T)
Rice W. Bengal 15 87 1900 125-200 cm >23 C Deep Fertile
UP 14 Clayey or loamy
Andhra Pr 13 soil
Punjab 11
Wheat UP 35 74 2700 80 cm 10-25 C Light loam
48
Punjab 20 Sandy Loam
Haryana 172 Clay Loam
M.P. 11
Jowar Maharashtra 47 7.7 770 30-65 cm 27-32 C Black clayey soil
Karnataka 20
M.P. 10
Bajra Rajasthan 33 7.1 720 40-50 cm 25-30 C Light sandy
UP 18 Shallow black
Gujarat 16 Red upland soil
Maharashtra 14
Maize U.P. 15 12.1 1850 50-75 cm 21-27 C Well drained
Karnataka 15 alluvial or red
Rajasthan 11 loamy soil
Bihar/MP 10
Barley UP 44 1.7 1750 70-90 cm 10-18 C Light soil
Rajasthan 30
MP 7
Ragi Karnataka 60 2.3 1350
TamilNadu 13
U.P. 8
Pulses M.P. 25 14
U.P. 20
Rajasthan 17
Gram M.P. 40 3.5 720 35-50 cm 20-25 C Drained loamy
Rajasthan 31 soil
U.P. 12
Tur/Arhar Maharashtra 22 2.3 620 40-80 cm 20-25 C Range of soil
U.P. 20
M.P./Gujar. 15
Sugarcane U.P. 43 300 70 tonne 150 cm 20-25 C Deep rich loamy
Maharashtra 14 soil
Tamil Nadu 13
Karnataka 10
Commercial & Plantation Crops of India

Crop State Prod Prod Yield Rainfall Temp Soil
% (Mil Kg/Ha Cm Deg C
T)
Cotton Gujarat 28 11.6 226 50-75 cm 21-30 C Black Soil
Maharashtra 15 Million
Andhra Pr 11 Bales
Haryana 10 170 Kg
Jute W. Bengal 75 10 1960 125-200 cm 25-35 C Light sandy or
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Bihar 14 Million Clayey Loams
Assam 9 Bales
Orissa 1 180 kg
Tobacco Andhra Pr. 31 .65 1400 50 cm 15-38 C Well Drained
Gujarat 29 Friable sandy
U.P. 23 loams
Groundnut Gujarat 33 9.2 1220 50-100 cm 20-30 C Sandy loam, red,
Andra Pr. 15 yellow, black soil
Tamil Nadu 22
Sunflower Karnataka 47 1.3 620 50 cm 15-25 C Loamy soils
Maharashtra 23
Andhra Pr. 17 5
Soyabeen M.P. 75 1000 50 cm 14-24 C Friable loamy
Maharashtra 13 Acidic Soil
Rajasthan 9
Tea Assam 55 0.78 1900 150-250 cm 25-30 C Well drained deep
W. Bengal 22 friable loams or
Tamil Nadu 15 Acidic Forest soil
Coffee Karnataka 71 0.3 960 150-250 cm 15-28 C Well drained
Kerala 21 friable forest loam
Tamil Nadu 8
Rubber Kerala 90 0.6 1600 300 cm 25-35 C Deep, well
Tamil Nadu drained loams
Oilseeds
1. Ground Nut Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu
2. Rapeseed & Rajasthan (45%), U.P, M.P.
Mustard
3. Seasum Gujarat (28 %), W. Bengal
4. Linseed U.P, Maharashtra
5. Castorseed Gujarat (82%)
6. Soyabeen Madhya Pradesh (75%), Maharashtra, Rajasthan
7. Sunflower Karnataka (47%), Maharashtra (23%), Andhra Pradesh (17%)
8. Coconut Kerala (45%), Tamil Nadu (28 %)
Spices
1. Black Pepper Kerala (97 %)
2. Chillies Andhra Pradesh (37%)
3. Turmeric Andhra Pradesh (56%)
4. Ginger Kerala (22), Meghalaya (20%)
5. Cardamom Karnataka (57%)
6. Arecanut Karnataka (41%), Kerala (30%)
Horticultural Crops
50
1. Mango UP (32), Bihar (13) Andhra Pradesh. Accounts for 40 percent of all fruits
2. Banana Maharashtra (28%), Gujarat (10%), Andhra Pradesh. Jalgaon district
alone supplies more than 80 % of Maharashtra’s Banana
3. Cashew Kerala (31%), Maharashtra (18%), Andhra Pradesh (14%). Cashew is a
genus of Brazil. Largest foreign exchange earner
4. Orange Maharashtra, M.P, Karnataka. Genus from China
5. Grapes Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra. Native plant of Armenia. Grapes are
imported in India.
6. Guava U.P., Bihar. Native plant of Tropical America
7. Apple J & K, Himachal Pr, Uttaranchal
8. Potato U.P (35%), West Bengal (33%)
9. Onion Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
Types of Crops
Kharif Crops Rice, Maize, Jowar, Ragi, Bajra, Tur, Moong, Urad, Cotton,
Jute, Seasum, Groundnut, Soyabeen,
Rabi Crops Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Rapeseed, Mustard, Linseed, Lentil,
Gram, Peas
Zaid Crops Sown during march to June. E.g. Water Melon, Melon,
Cucumber, Vegetables, Moong, Urad.
Jowar is both a Kharif & Rabi Crop.
National Parks of India

1. Wandur National Park Andaman & Nicobar
2. Kaziranga National Park Assam
3. Manas National Park Assam
4. Palamau National Park Jharkhand
5. Hazaribagh National Park Jharkhand (Rhinoceros)
6. Dachigam National Park J & K – Kashmir Stag (Hangul)
7. Hemis National Park J&K
8. Kishtwar National Park J&K
9. Silent Valley National Park Kerala
10. Eravikulam National Park Kerala
11. Bandhavgarh National Park M.P.
12. Kanha National Park M.P.
13. Madhav National Park M.P.
14. Pench National Park M.P.
15. Shivpuri National Park M.P. - Birds
16. Indravati National Park Chhattisgarh
17. Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan
18. Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan
19. Desert National Park Rajasthan
20. Sariska National Park Rajasthan
21. Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh
22. Marine National Park Gujarat
23. Pin Valley National Park Himachal Pradesh
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24. Bandipur National Park Karnataka
25. Nagarhole National Park Karnataka
26. Bannerghatta National Park Karnataka
27. Tadoba National Park Maharashtra
28. Boriveli National Park Maharashtra (or Sanjay Gandhi National Park)
29. Balpakram National Park Meghalaya
30. Nokrek National Park Meghalaya
31. Nandan Kanan National Park Orissa
32. Chandka Elephant Reserve Orissa
33. Simlipal Tiger Reserve Orissa
34. Corbett National Park Uttaranchal
35. Rajaji National Park Uttaranchal
36. Valley of Flower N. Park Uttaranchal
37. Nandadevi National Park Uttaranchal
38. Dudhwa National Park U.P.
39. Govind National Park U.P.
Wildlife Sanctuaries of India

1. Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary Andhra Pradesh
2. Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
3. Srisailam Wildlife Sanctuary Andhra Pradesh
4. Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary Assam
5. Kaimur wildlife Sanctuary Bihar (largest)
6. Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary Karnataka
7. Periyar Wildlife sanctuary Kerala
8. National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary M.P., U.P & Rajasthan
9. Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary Maharashtra (Ahmednagar)
10. Gomardha Wildlife Sanctuary Chhattisgarh
11. Harike Headworks Punjab
12. Jaldapara Wildlife sanctuary West Bengal
13. Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary Haryana
14. Raganathittu Wildlife Sanctuary Karnataka
15. Madumalai Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
16. Pulicat Sanctuary Andhra Pradesh
17. Chandraprabha Wildlife Sanctuary U.P (Varanasi)
18. Ranganthitoo Bird Sanctury Karnataka
19. Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
Breeds of Cattle
1. Cow Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Deoni (Andhra Pr.), Nagori, Rathi, Siri, Malvi,
Tharparkar. Exotic breeds – Holstein, Friesian, Jersey, Brown Swiss.
2. Buffalo Murrah, Bhadawari, Nagpuri, Mehsana, Jaffrabadi, Surti, Nali-Ravi.
3. Sheep Jaisalmeri, Pugal, Bikaneri, Marwari, Kathiawari.
4. Goats Jamnapuri, Barbari
High Yielding Varieties of Seed
52
1. Wheat Kalyan Sona, Sonalika, Arjun, Lerma, Sharbati Sonora, WL series.
2. Rice Padma, Jaya, IR-8, Hamsa, Krishna, Cauvery, Annapurna
3. Maize Ganga-101, Deccan Hybrid
4. Jowar CSV-1 to CSV-7
5. Ragi Sharda
6. Cotton V-797, Hybrid 4,5, Digvijay, Varalaxmi, Sanjay, Deviraj, Virnar.
Roads, Railways & Waterways in India

1. National Highways 67700 Km Broad Guage 46800 km
2. State Highways 137000 Km Meter Guage 13000 km
3. District Roads 12 Lakh Km Narrow Guage 3100 km
4. Village Roads 15 Lakh Km Total Railway guage 63200 km
5. Border Roads 30,000 Km No of Trains 13500
6. Total Roads 33 Lakh Km No of Stations 7100
7. Total Waterways 14500 Km Electrified route 28%
National Waterways
1. National Waterways-1 Allahabad-Haldia stretch of the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hoogly system
2. National Waterways-2 Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra system
3. National Waterways-3 The west coast canal from Kottapuram to Kollam along with the
Udyogmandal & Champakar canals (All in Kerala).
Indian Railways, Headquarters

1. Nothern Raiway Delhi
2. Southern Railway Chennai
3. Eastern Raiway Kolkata
4. Western Railway Mumbai (Churchgate)
5. North-Western Railway Jaipur
6. North-Central Railway Allahabad
7. North-Eastern Railway Gorakhpur
8. North-East Frontier Railway Guwahati
9. East Coast Railway Bhubaneshwar
10. East Central Railway Hazipur
11. West Central Railway Jabalpur
12. Central Railway Mumbai (V.T)
13. South-Central Railway Secundarabad
14. South Eastern Railway Kolkata
15. South-Western Railway Bangalore
16. South-East Central Railway Bilaspur
India Pipelines
1. Naharkatiya Oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar via Noonmati – First pipeline
2. Barauni-Kanpur pipeline for transport of refined petroleum
3. Haldia-Maurgram-Rajbandh pipeline
4. Ankleshwar oilfield to Koyali refinery in Gujarat
5. Mumbai High Koyali pipeline
6. Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline (1750 km). Extended from Bijapur to Dadri in U.P.
53
7. Kandla to Luni in U.P via Delhi for LPG transport (1250 Km)
Airways-Internatioanal Airports
1. Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport (Sahar)
2. Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport
3. Chennai Anna International Airport (Meenambakam)
4. Kolkata Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport
5. Ahmedabad Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport
6. Amritsar Raja Sansi Airport
7. Bangalore Needumbassery International Airport
8. Goa Dabolim International Airport
9. Guwahati Lokapriya Gopinat Bardoli International Airport
10. Hyderabad Rajiv Gandhi International Airport
11. Thiruvananthapuram Trivandrum International Airport
12. Kochi Nedumbassery International Airport.
India’s Foreign Trade

1. Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL) 27 % 1. Gems & Jewellery 17 %
2. Pearls & Precious stones 9% 2. Readymade Garments 13 %
3. Gold & Silver 8.5 % 3. Chemicals 11 %
4. Capital goods 12 % 4. Cotton Textile 8%
5. Electronic goods 9% 5. Machine & Transport 6%
6. Chemicals 7% 6. Agricultural Exports 13.5 %
7. Edible Oils 3% 7.
8. Coke, Coal & briquettes 2% 8.
Fish & Fish products lead agricultural exports accounting for 3.1 % of the total value.
India’s major trading partners

1. USA 11.6 %
2. UAE 5.0 %
3. China 5 .0%
4. UK 4.4 %
5. Belgium 4.1 %
6. Germany 3.9 %
7. Japan 3.1 %
8. Switzerland 2.7 %
9. Hongkong 3.4 %
10. Singapore 3.0 %
Cities located on Rivers

City River State
Agra Yamuna UP
Badrinath Alaknanda Uttranchal
Cuttack Mahanadi Orissa
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Assam
Ferozpur Sutlej Punjab
54
Guwahati Brahmaputra Assam
Hyderabad Musi AP
Jabalpur Narmada MP
Kanpur Ganga UP
Kota Chambal Rajasthan
Lucknow Gomti UP
Ludhiana Sutlej Punjab
Nasik Godavari Maharashtra
Pandharpur Bhima Maharashtra
Patna Ganga Bihar
Sambalpur Mahanadi Orissa
Srinagar Jhelum J&K
Surat Tapti Gujarat
Tiruchirapalli Cauvery Tamil Nadu
Varanasi Ganga UP
Vijaywada Krishna AP
Industries of India
1. Iron & Steel IISCO has 3 plants at Kulti, Hirapur & Burnpur. Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel
Co is located on the bank of Bhadravati river in Karnataka.
Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) at Bhilai, Durgapur & Bokaro.
2. Cotton Textile 4% of GDP. 3.5 Crore population employed.
3. Sugar Industry
4. Aluminum HINDALCO (Renukoot), INDAL (Alupuram, Hirakud, Belgaum), Madras
Industry Aluminium Company (MALCO, Mettur), BALCO (Korba), NALCO
(Koraput)
5. Copper Smelting HCL is the main player & operates Khetri copper complex, Indian copper
complex (Ghatsila, Jharkhand), Malanjkhand copper project (Balghat,
M.P.), Taloja copper project (Raigad, Maharashtra).
6. Jute Textile Centers are Titagarh, budge-budge, Haora, Rishra, Serampore,
Bhadreshware, Shyamnagar.
7. Silk Textile Its varieties are Mulberry (88%), Eri (9%), Tassar (2%), Muga (1%)
8. Woolen Textile Punjab, Maharashtra & U.P account for 75% production. Dhariwal is most
important centre. Others are Amritsar, Ludhiana, Kharar.
9. Heavy Industry Heavy Engineering Corp Ltd (Ranchi), Tungabhadra Steel Products Ltd
(Karnataka), Bharat heavy plates & Vessels (Vishakhapatnam)
Mining & allied machinery corporation (Durgapur).
10. Machine Tools HMT (Bangalore, Pinjore in Haryana, Kalamassery in Kerala, Hyderabad,
Ajmer & Sri Nagar), Heavy Machine Tools (Ranchi), Machine Tools Corp
of India (Ajmer), National Instruments Factory at Kolkata.
11. Automobiles TELCO in Mumbai, Ashok Leyland in Chennai, Bajaj Tempo (Pune).
Defense vehicles are produced at Jabalpur.
12. Pesticides Hindustan Insecticides Ltd (Delhi, Kerala & Rasayani, Maharashtra)
Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd (Rasayani, Raigad & Kochi)
13. Cement Industry Top manufacturing states are M.P, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pr & Raj. Jamul
is largest plant of M.P. & Sawai Madhopur leads in Rajasthan
14. Leather Industry India is 3rd largest player after Italy & U.S.
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15. Glass Industry Bahjoi & Naini (Both in U.P.) are famous for glass sheets & Firozabad for
bangles.
16. Paper Industry Rajmundhry (Andhra Pr), Ballarpur (Maharshtra), Titagarh (Bengal)
Bhadravati, Dandeli (Karnataka), Hoshangabad (M.P)
17. Liquor Industry U.P. has more than 50% installed capacity. Maharashtra, A.P are others.
18. Aircraft industry Important centres are HAL-Bangalore, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Others are
Koraput (Orissa) & Nasik.
19. Railway Chittaranjan Locomotive works (Electric engines) – West Bengal
Equipments Diesel Locomotive works – Varanasi
Integral Coach Factory – Perambur, Tamil Nadu
Rail Coach Factory – Kapurthala, Punjab.
Diesel Componets Works - Patiala
Railway wheels & Axels - Yalahanka (Banalore) & Durgapur.
20. Ship Building Hindustan Shipyard (Vishakhapatnam), Garden-Reach Shipbuilders
(Kolkata), Mazagaon Dock (Mumbai), Goa Shipyard (Vasco).
21. Pharmaceuticals IDPL – Rhishikesh, Hyderabad, Gurgaon, Chennai, Muzzafarpur
Hindustan Antibiotics Ltd – Pimpri, Pune – first public sector undertaking
in this industry
22. Zinc & Lead Hindustan Zinc Ltd at Debari, Rajasthan (both zinc & lead)
23. Fertilizers FCI-Sindri
Industry National Fertilizers Limited – Nangal
Hindustan Fertilizer Corp Ltd- Namrup (Assam), Durgapur.
Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd – Trombay, Thal
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, U.P & Maharashtra are the 4 largest in order.
24. Heavy Electricals BHEL (Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Ramchandrapuram in A.P, Jammu,
Bangalore, Hardwar). Ms ABL at Durgapur.
Hindustan Cables Factory (Rupnarainpur, Bengal), Indian Telephone
industries (Bangalore), Bharat Electronics (Bangalore),
Electronics corporation of India (Hyderabad)
Industrial Regions of India

4. Mumbai-Pune rgion Tata hydel stations at Khopali, Bhivpuri, Bhira & koyna
Solapur, Satara, Sangli & Ahmednagar
5. Hugli Industrial Belt From Naihati to Budge-Budge along left bank & Tribeni to
Nalpur along right bank. Other centres are Serampur, Rishra,
Shibpur, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Bansbaria,
Belgurriah, Triveni, Belur.
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6. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Pykara project supplies electricity. Salem, Madurai,
Tiruchirapalli, Mettur, Mysore, Mandya.
7. Ahmedabad-Vadodara Dhuvaran Thermal power station, Uttaran gas power station,
Ukai hydro project. Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,
Rajkot, Surat, Valsad, Jamnagar
8. Chhotanagpur Region Chaibasa, Dhanbad, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Asansol, Durgapur,
Dalmianagar, Ranchi, Daltonganj.
9. Gurgaon Delhi Meerut Faridabad, Modinagar, Ambala, Agra, Mathura
Six Largest National Highways

National Highway Route Lengh Km
NH 7 Varanasi-Kanyakumari 2369
NH 6 Kolkata & Dhule via Raipur, Nagpur. 1932
NH 5 Baharagora-Chennai 1533
NH 2 Delhi-Kolkata 1490
NH 8 Delhi-Mumbai 1428
NH 17 Panvel-Edapally (Karnataka) 1270
Important National Highways

NH-1 Delhi to Amritsar via Ambala & Jallandhar 456
NH-1A Jallandhar & Uri via Jammu, Srinagar & Baramula
NH 22 Ambala to Shipkila on Indo china border 460
NH 28 A Pipra to Nepal border 68
NH 35 Barasat-Bongaigaon-Indo Bangladesh border 61
NH 39 Numaligarh-Indo Burma border. 436
NH 3 Agra to Mumbai via Gwalior
NH 4 Chennai with Thane
Important Industrial Centers of India

1. Ferozabad Glass Bangles
2. Mirzapur Pottery
3. Jaipur Gems Industry
4. Trivandrum Wood Carving
5. Kadi Mineral Oil
6. Korba Aluminium
7. Bhatinda Fertilizers
Racial Profile of India

1. Negritos Only on Andamans & Nicobar
2. Proto-Australoid Includes Tribal group of central & southern India. Veddahs,
Maleveddahs, Irulas, Sholgas considere true representative.
3. Mongoloids Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Lipchas, Chakmas, Murmis, Naga & Dafla
4. Mediterranean Divided into: Palaeo-Mediterranean (or Dravidians) inhabiting
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southern parts of India & True Mediterranean inhabiting northern &
western part of the country.
5. Brachycephals Characterized by broad heads. Coorgis & Parsis are representative.
They are divided into Alpinoids, Dinarics & Armenoids
6. Nordics/Indo-Aryans Inhabit parts of north India. They are mostly represented among the
upper castes in northern India esp in Punjab
Demographic Profile of India

S. Parameter Top in Parameter Bottom in Parameter
1. Population U.P, Maharasthra, Bihar, W. Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal
(1027 million) Bengal & Andhra Pr. Pradesh & Goa
Delhi (UTs) Lakshadweep (UT)
2. Population Density West Bengal (904), Bihar (880), Arunachal Pr (13), Mizoram,
(324 per/Sq km) Kerala, U.P, Punjab. Sikkim
Delhi Andaman & Nicobar.
3. Popln Growth Nagaland (64%), Sikkim Kerala (9.4%)
4. Growth Urban population Arunachal Pradesh Kerala
Dadra & Nagar haveli
5. Growth rural population Nagaland Tamil Nadu
6. Proportion of Urban Populn Goa (50%) Arunachal Pradesh (5%)
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
7. Average size of Villages Kerala (~15000 people) Arunachal (~200)
8. Sex Ratio (933) Kerala (1058) Haryana (861), Punjab &
Pondicherry Sikkim
Daman & Diu
9. Death Rate Orissa Kerala (6 per thousand)
10. Infant Mortality Rate Orissa Kerala
11. Literacy Kerala (91%), Mizoram, Goa, Bihar (47%), Jharkhand,
Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh J&K, Arunachal Pr, U.P.
Lakshadweep (UT) Dadra & Nagar Haveli (UT)
Miscellaneous Facts
A. Physiography:
1. India is the seventh largest country in the world. The north south extent is 3214km & E-W 2933 Km. The
mainland coastline is 6100 km long & including islands it is 7516 km long. Its geographical area is around
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33 lakh sq km (or 328.72 million hectares). The southernmost point (Indira Point) is 6 degree 30 minutes
north latitude.
2. Narcondam & Barren Island are volcanic islands of India. Most of the sandalwood of India comes from
Karnataka.
3. The northernmost Himalayan ranges are called central Himalayas or Himadri. Beyond this range lies the
Tibetan or Tethys Himalayas beyond with lies the Indus Tsangpo suture zone. To the south of the central
or the Inner Himalayas lies the lesser or lower Himalayas or Middle Himalayas & is separated from the
Greater Himalayas by a structural zone called Main Central Thrust. In between the Lower Himalayas
(Middle Himalayas) & the Shivaliks lies the Main Boundary Thrust.
4. The Indus Suture Zone, ISZ (or Indus-Yarlung-Tsangpo Suture Zone) defines the zone of collision
between the Indian Plate and the Ladakh Batholith to the north. Between the Pir Panjal & the Zaskar range
lies the valley of kashmir. Karakoram range, Ladakh range, Zaskar range from north to south. Important
peaks of the Zaskar range are Kamet (highest), Nanda Devi & Gurla Mandhata.
5. The peaks above 8000 m in the himalayas in descending order are Mt Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu,
Dhaulagiri, Mansalu, Cho Oyu, Nanga Parbat, Annapurna. Raman Peak is situated in Arabian Sea
6. The transhimalayas include the Karakoram & the Laddakh range. Karakoram range has its highest in peak
K2 (or Qagir named after Chinese occupation). The highest peak of Kailash range is Mt. Kailash & that of
Ladakh range is Mt. Rakaposhi.
7. The purvanchal (NE Himalayas) are divided into Purvu-NEFA (composed of Mishmi Hills & Patkai
Bum), Naga hills (Saramati is highest peak), Manipur Hills, North Cachar hills, Mizo hills (earlier known
as Lushai hills) & the Tripura hills.
8. The Garo, Khasi, Jaintia & the outlying Mikir & Rengma hills are structurally parts of peninsular plateau
separated from the Indian peninsula by the Malda gap.
9. Bhabhar (in Punjab or Duars in Assam) lies to the north of Terai & is a pebble studded region which
causes many steams to get lost underneath which re-emerge in the Terai belt. Khadar is known as bet in
punjab & Bhangar comprises of Kankars. The northern part of the punjab plains adjoinin the shivaliks
have witnesses intense erosion throgh boulder clanned streams called “Chos”.
10. In the pujab plain the area between rivers is called Doab & the river bluffs are called Dhayas. The thar
desert has numerous features like dhrian (shifting sand dunes), sar (saline playa lakes), rohi (fertile tracts
formed by rivers west of Aravallis) & dhands (alkaline lakes).
11. The east coast (or Coromandel coast) also known as Utkal ghat in orisssa & Payant ghat in Andhra &
Tamil Nadu has two lagoon lakes (Pulicat lake north of Chennai & Chilka lake). The eastern ghats are
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broader whant the western ghats. Western ghat is divided into kathiawar, konkan & Malabar coast. It
consists of Kayals (lagoons & backwaters largest being Vembnad lake). In karnataka the ghats are known
as Kanara plain.
Physiographic divisions of the Peninsular Upland
1. North Central Uplands Aravalli Range, Rajasthan Uplands, Madhya Bharat Pathar
2. South Cental Highlands Malwa plateau, Vindhyan Scarplands, Vindhyan range,
Narmada valley
3. Eastern Plateau Chotanagpur Plateau, Baghelkand plateau, Mahanadi basin,
Dandakaranya, Garhjat Hills
4. Western plateau Maharashtra plateau, Satpura range
5. South Deccan Karnataka plateau, Telangana plateau
6. Meghalaya Mikir Uplands Meghalaya plateau, Mikir Hills
7. Western Ghats
8. Eastern Ghats
12. Madhya Bharat pathar is made of ancient vindhyan sediments through which the Chambal river has
formed badland. To the further east lies Bundelkhand upland.
13. North of Mahanadi lies the Baghelkhand plateau which is drained by tributaries of Son river. The
Chotanagpur plateau composed of granites & gneisses forms Jharkhand & is drained by Damodar. It has
three lava hills of the Dalma, Porahat & Rajmahal. South of Chattisgarh basin (also called Mahanadi
basin) lies a region of rugged topography called Dandakaranya plateau. Garhjat hills are also called Orissa
highlands & have their highest peak in Mehendragiri.
14. The Satpura range has three parts: Rajpipla hills in the western part, Mahadeo hills (highest peak
Dhupgarh near Panchmarhi) in the central part & Maikala range (highest peak Amarkantak) in the eastern
reaches. Dhupgarh is the highest peak in entire Satpuras.
15. The Telangana or Andhra plateau has two parts: the Telangana & Rayalseema upland.
16. The highest peak of Anaimudi is the central point from which the three ranges radiate: Cardamom hills to
the south, the Anamalai to the north & the Palni to the northeast. Thalghat (Kasara to Igatpuri), Bhorghat
(between kalian & lonavala) & Palghat are the gaps in Sahyadris. Western ghats are block mountains
formed by the downwarping of a part of the land into the Arabian sea & are steeper towards west. Cochin
is connected to interior through the Palghat gap.
17. The Eastern Ghats are also known as Mehendragiri in Orissa. The Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu are the meeting
point of the Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats & southern hills. Its highest peak is Dodabeta & it also includes
Ooty hill station. Southwards of Nilgiri & separated from them by the Palghat gap are the Annamalail
Hills.
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18. The islands & passages from north to south are Coco Channel, North, middle & south Andamans, Duncan
passage, little Andamans, Ten degree Channel, Car Nicobar, & Great Nicobar. In Lakshwadeep the
sequence from north to south is Amindivi Island, Nine degree channel & Minicoy.
B. Drainage:
19. Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, & Indus (Sri Ram called Jubiliant Indra) from south to north. Gomati,
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi & Mahananda are from west to east. Chambal, Sind, Betwa, ken & Son are in
that order from west to east.
20. Sanskrit names Indus (Sindu), Jhelum (Vitasta), Ravi (Parushini), Beas (Vipasa) & Satluj (Satadru).
21. In Bangladesh Tista joins Brahmaputra on the right bank from where it is known as Jamuna.
22. Subernarekha & Brahmani both arise in the Chhotanagpur plateau & lie to the north of Mahanadi. The
Baitrani is another stream of this system & its source lies in the Keonjhar plateau.
23. Bharatuzha (or Ponnani) is the longest river of Kerala. Periyar is second largest & Pamba falls into the
Vembanad Lake. The penner originates in Karnataka (Kolar) & flows through Andhra Pradesh. The
Vaigai rises in kerala & receives diverted waters of the Periyar & ultimately joins Palk bay.
24. The dendritic pattern is best developed in the Indo Gangetic plains. Narmada flows between vidhyas &
Satupura while Tapti lies to the south of Satpura. “Dhuandhar” falls (or marble falls) near Jabalpur on
Narmada is famous. Pinnate pattern is found in Narmada & Tapti valleys. Naini Tal, Bhim Tal & Khewan
Tal are Lakes of Kumaon. Kolleru lake is located in east Godavari district (A.P.). Loktak lake is in
Manipur. Chitrakote falls is located on river Indravati in Bastar.
25. Cauveri is the least seasonal of all the rivers of the peninsular plateau. Karewas are lacustrine deposits of
Kashmir. The Cardamom hills are part of Annamalai hills.
26. Lonar lake (Crater lake) is situated in Maharashtra. It is the largest crater in basaltic rock. Adams Bridge,
is a narrow ridge of sand, mostly dry, which connects Mannar Island with Pamban Island
C: Climate, Vegetation & Soil
27. Jet Steams are of two types: Westerly jet streams which blow from west to east at a height of 12 km &
easterly jet steams which blow from east to west at 13 km above. The tropical easterly jet exists over India
during summer & disintegrates during winter.
28. Kalbaisakhi in West Bengal, Bordoichilla in Assam & Mango Showers in Peninsula. Tropical Cyclones
occur in India during monsoon period. The average annual rainfall in India is 125 cm & most of it is
orographic in nature.
29. Tropic of Cancer passes through Mizoram, Tripura, W. Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, M.P. Rajasthan
& Gujarat. Gulf of Mannar lies on the east coast of Tamil Nadu.
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30. Other classifications of the climate of India were given by Subramanyam & Sivaramakrishnaiah
(discomfortable to most comfortable), Kendrew & Stamp (18 C isotherm basis), BLC Johnson.
31. Jowar & Ragi are very popular on red soils.
32. Tropical Deciduous is the most widely distributed vegetation in India. Lakshwadeep has zero percent
forest area & Andamans & Nicobar Islands have 87 percent. Mizoram, Arunachal & Nagaland have more
than 80 percent forest cover. J & k has around one percent. Maximum Teak & Sal come from the forests
of M.P & Chhattisgarh.
33. The term social forestry was first used by National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 & involves
planting trees on farms among other things.
34. Kaziranga National Park, Keoladeo National Park, Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve, Sundarbans Biosphere
Reserve are identified as having outstanding universal value.
35. The biosphere reserves of India in order of their establishment from oldest to recent are Nilgiri, Nanda
Devi, Nokrek (Meghalaya), Great Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Manas, Sunderbans, Simlipal
(Orissa), Dibru-Saikhowa (Assam), Dehang-Debang (Arunachal), Pachmarhi, Khangchendzonga,
Agasthyamalai
36. Magnetite occurs at Daltonganj in palamau district (Jharkhand).
37. Net sown area is around 46 % of total land in area. In India net sown area is 142 million hectares & total
cropped area is 187 million hectares. Ludhiana has highest yields of wheat & west Godavari is most
important for rice cultivation in Andhra Pr. Pearl fishing is done at Tuticorin.
38. The contributors to petroleum production are Mumbai (65 %), Gujarat (18 %), Assam (16 %) & Tamil
Nadu (1.37 %). Same trend of states is there in case of gas production with a little different %ages.
39. Petroleum Refining is done at Guwahati, Barauni, Koyali, Haldia, Mathura, Digboi, Panipat, Chennai,
Narimanam, Bongaigaon, Mumbai (HPCL, BPCL), Vishakhapatnam, Kochi, Numaligarh (Assam) &
Tatipaka (ONGC-Andhra Pr). Tertiary coal is better than Gondwana coal.
40. Jharia coalfield (Dhanbad district, Jharkhand) alone accounts for 35 % of Indian production.
41. Only a few non-metallic minerals are significant in the mining economy. Limestone accounts alone for
two-thirds of the total value under the group.
42. Nuclear power plants in India are at Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam, Narora (UP), Kaiga (Karnataka) &
Kakarapara (Gujarat). Requirements for these reactors are fulfilled by the Nuclear Fuel complex located at
Hyderabad & Heavy water plant at Vadodara. Eight heavy water plants are operational in India at
Vadodara, Thal, Nangal, Tuticorin, Kota, Talcher, Hazira, Manuguro. A number of research reactors have
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been built to carry R&D in this field which include Apsara, Cirus, Zerlina, Purnima (I, II, & III), Dhruva
& Kamini.
43. India is fifth in wind energy after Germany, USA, Denmark & Spain. Asia’s largest wind farm is located
at Lamba in Gujarat. Tamil Nadu has highest installation of wind turbines.
44. Geothermal energy – Tattapani field (Chhattisgarh), Puga Valley (J & K), Manikaran Area (H.P.)
45. The farourable sites for ocean energy are Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kachchh & estuary of Hugli. India’s
first tidal power plant is at Kandla. The fist solar energy plant & solar plant both are at Bhuj.
46. Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur pipeline transports liquid gas from the South Bassein offshore field off
Mumbai to Jagdishpur and Aonla, deep in the mainland in Uttar Pradesh.
47. Cropped area in a year under consideration is known as net sown area. The gross cultivated area includes
the net sown area used more than once a year. Cropping intensity is given by total cropped area divided by
net sown area.
48. West Bengal produces three crops of rice every year viz Aus, Aaman & Boro. Arabica coffee is grown at
an altitude of around 750-1500 metres & Robusta around 300-600 metres.
49. The largest producing state for silk is Karnataka (60%), Andhra Pradesh (17%), Assam & Bihar. The
fertilizer consumption is highest for Punjab (185 kg/ha), followed by Tamil Nadu & Andra Pradesh.
Orissa has the lowest consumption.
50. Irrigation in India – Wells & Tubewell (56%), Canal (32%), Tank (6%) , Others (6.5%). Uttar Pradesh
leads in Canal irrigation as well as Tubewell irrigation. Andhra Pradesh leads in Tank Irrigation. Tamil
Nadu has developed highest proportion of its irrigation potential (95%).
51. The fish production in India during 2004-05 was around 6.4 Million Tonnes. Inland fisheries account for
around 50 % of the total fish cash. Kerala leads in marine fish catch.
52. India with 18.5 crore cattle and 10 crore buffaloes ranks first in cattle and buffalo population in the world.
India accounts for 15 % of world’s cattle & 57% of world’s buffalo population.
53. Mulching (ploughing in of crops), retting (fresh water treatment of Jute) & ratooning (using the same root
for crop growth as in sugarcane) are some of the practices of agriculture.
54. Eutrophication is a process where water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant
growth choking weaker species & altering species composition.
55. The scientific name of Teak (Tectona Grandis) & Sal (Shorea Robusta). Sal is used for railway sleepers &
Deodar for pencils
56. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which
provides for the conservation and wise use of wetlands
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57. During the second five year plan, Iron & Steel plants were set up at Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Rourkela
(Orisaa), & Durgapur (W. Bengal) & two aluminium plants were established at Hirakud (INDAL) &
Renukoot (Hinalco). During the fourth plan a steel plant was set up at Bokaro (Jharkhand). The
Vishakhapatnam steel project is the first on-shore steel project built during 6th plan. The Bhilai & Bokaro
steel plants were built with Russian collaboration & they are the two biggest in that order.
58. M/s Jessops, Kolkata & Bharat Earth Movers Limited, Bangalore also manufacture rail coaches &
electrical multiple units.
59. India imports 40 % of its copper requirement from abroad. Most of the gold in India occurs in the form of
veins in Dharwar schists.
60. Currency paper comed from Hoshangabad in M.P & defense vehicles from Jabalpur. Cochin shipyard is
the largest in India & built with Japanese assistance.
61. The east-west corridor extends from Silcher in Assam to Porbander in Gujarat. Kerala has the highest
density of roads & J&K has the least. Goa has the highest density of surfaced roads. Maharasthra is the
state with highest road length followed by Tamil Nadu, M.P & U.P.
62. Konkan railway runs from Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka (760 Km long). It has Asia’s
longest rail tunnel. Rail route per unit area is highest in Punjab and least for J&K. Rail route per unit
population is highest for Gujarat & lowest for Tripura.
63. Buckingham Canal in Andhra Pradesh & Cumberjua Canal in Goa were once very important. Grand
Anicut canal is in Thanjuvar, Tamil Nadu. India has over two million square km of EEZ. Overall share of
Indian Vessels in overseas trade is 32 % only. Maharashtra (53) has the maximum no of minor ports (184
in all), followed by Gujarat (40).
64. The ports are Kandla, Mumbai, Nhava Sheva, Mormugao, Mangalore, Kochi, Tuticorin, Chennai, Ennore
(newest), Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Haldia, Kolkata. Jawaharlal Nehru port has been developed at Nhava
Sheva off the Mumbai port. Haldia decongests Kolkata & Ennore (25 Km north of Chennai & newest
port) helps Chennai (Artificial shallow port) tackling its cargo. Paradip (Orissa) has the deepest harbour.
65. The New Mangalore port is used to export iron ore from Kudremukh & iron ore from Bailadila
(Chhattisgarh) is exported through Vishakhapatnam port. Marmagao port is situated at the entrance of the
estuary of river Zuari in Goa. Dandakarnya is known for iron-ore deposits.
66. Prasar Bharati was created by merging Door-Darshan & All India radio in 1997. Indian postal system is
the largest in the world with more than 1.5 lakh post offices. Rajdani channel (yellow boxes) for letters
emanating from Delhi for state capitals. Metro Channel (light blue box). QMS was introduced in 1975 &
works on the basis of PIN numbers.
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67. India’s imports stand at around 36000 crores & exports at 29300 crores. Trade deficit is around 6500
crores. Exports are around 10.7 % of GDP. It is just 0.6 % of world trade. Foreign Debt is around 18% of
GDP. It is 8th largest debted country in the world.
68. India produces around 90 million tonnes of milk every year (Buffalo 50%, Cow 46%, Goats 4%). M.P has
the largest number of cattle followed by U.P & Bihar & West Bengal.
69. India’s Diesel power stations are located at Naharkatiya (Assam), Barauni (Bihar), Dhuvaran (Gujarat) &
Trombay. The first Fertilizer-manufacturing unit was set up in 1906 at Ranipet near Chennai.
70. General Fertility ratio is the number of live births in a year per thousand of women of normal reproductive
age group. Replacement or reproduction ratio is the number of female babies born per thousand of female
population in the reproductive age group. The infant mortality rate is expressed as the number of deaths of
children below one year per thousand of live births. Maternal mortality rate refers to the number of female
deaths due to maternity causes per ten thousand of live births.
71. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary sex ratio refers to the sex ratio at conception, Birth & Enumeration
respectively. There is no doubt that more males are born than the females in case of all mammals
including humans all over the world.
72. Percentage of Urban population in India is 27.78% & rural 72.22 %. Surat has the distinction of
experiencing the highest growth rate among the 35 metropolitan cities during 1991-2001. Madurai grew
with the slowest pace. Haryana experienced an increase in the population growth rate during the period
1991-2001.
73. Tamil Nadu has the highest urbanization among the top ten populous states.
74. India’s age composition is 0-15 years (36.5%), 15-59 years (56.7%) & above 60 (6.8 %). The dependency
ratio is higher in rural areas than urban.
75. The sex ratio of the country is 933. Rural areas have more favourable sex ratio (946) compared to 901 of
urban areas. Sex ratio registered sharpest decline during 1961-71.
76. In India the workers are: main workers (30.5 %), Marginal workers (8.7%) & non-workers (60.8%).
Proportion of main workers (>183 days employment a year) is lowest in Kerala (26%) & highest in
Arunachal Pradesh (38%).
77. Scheduled caste – highest population in U.P followed by West Bengal. Punjab has the highest proportion
of scheduled caste. There is no scheduled caste population in Nagaland & Andamans. Among UTs highest
SC population is in Delhi. Madhya Pradesh has the highest tribal population followed by Maharashtra &
Orissa. Goa (376 people only) has the least ST population. Punjab, Haryana have no ST population.
Mizoram (95%) & Lakshadweep (93%) have the highest percentage of tribal population.
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78. The scheduled languages arranged in descending order of the number of speakers is Hindi, Bengali,
Teulgu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali, Konkani,
Manipuri, Kashmiri & Sanskrit.
79. North Indian languages including Gujrati, Marathi, Oriya, Bengali, & Assamese belong to Aryan group.
Dravidian group includes Tamil, Kannada, Telugu & Malayalam. Austric languages are spoken by tribal
groups of Meghalaya, Jharkhand & Western Satpura. Sino Tibetan languages prevalent in North eastern
states: Tibeto Himalayan (Bhutia, Kinnauri), Arunachal (Aka, Dafla, Miri & Abor) & Naga-Myanmari
(Bodo, Naga & Kuku group).
80. According to 2001 census: Hindu (80.5%), Muslim (13.4%), Christian (2.3%) & Sikh (1.8%). Hindu
population proportion is highest in Himachal, Muslim in J&K, Christians in Kerala, Buddhist & Jain in
Maharashtra
81. Overall literacy of India is 65.38 %. Male literacy is 75.85 % & Female 54.16 %. Lowest literacy levels
are 47.53 % in Bihar to 90.92 % in Kerala. The proportion of children of eligible age group enrolled in
primary schools is lowest in Uttar Pradesh & highest in Sikkim. Literacy is 80 % in Urban areas & 60 %
in rural areas.
82. Environmental Imact I = PAT (population * Affluence * Harmful technology used in production). Poverty
is higher in rural areas.
Urban Population Distribution in Different Cities & Towns
I 100,000 & More 61.48 IV 10,000-19,999 8.08
II 50,000-99,000 12.3 V 5,000-9,999 2.85
III 20,000-49,999 15 VI Less than 5000 .29
83. For whole India, the average distance among villages is 2.52 km. Average density of villages is highest in
West Bengal, Bihar & U.P in that order. The maximum proportion of no of villages fall in the 500-999
category (25%), followed by 200-499 (24.3%) & less than 200 (18%). However the maximum population
percentage is in 2000-5000 (30%) & 1000-2000 (26%).
84. The 35 million cities of India support more around 38 % of the total urban population. Chhattisgarh &
Orissa do not have million cities.
85. The proportion of slums population to total population is highest in Meghalaya (41%) & lowest in Kerala
(1.8%). Among the million plus cities highest proportion of slum population is in Mumbai & least in
Patna. Maharashtra has highest slum population.
86. India grew at a rate of 1.93 % during the period 1991-2001. The population of the country rose by 21.34
% during 1991 - 2001.
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87. Human activities are allowed in Sanctuary but not in National parks. Moreover sanctuaries are species
specific while National parks are habitat oriented.
88. Badrinath is situated on the banks of river Alaknanda.
89. Rabaris are pastoralists in Gujarat. The highest Christian population is in Nagaland. Largest number of
villages is in U.P.
Essential Extra Reference
• List of National highways (page 15.82 Indian Geograhphy –TMH-Surendra Singh)
• Pratyogita Darpan page 287.
• Million cities of India (Geography Notes)
• Cities in India & their industry (E.g Firozabad glass), Cities situated on river banks.
• Refer TMH guide for tables to be pasted
Important Works of Geographers

1. Illiad, Odyssey Homer
2. “Ges-Periodos” – Description of the earth Hecataeus
3. Ekumene Eratosthenes.
4. Geographica Strabo
5. Almagest or Syntaxis (on astronomy) Ptolemy
The outline of geography (consisted of Graticule for place location)
6. Historia Naturalis Pliny
7. De Chorographica Pomponius Mela
8. A book of routes & realms Ibn Huakal
9. Kitab-al-Ashkal Al Balkhi
10. “Kitab-Miraj-al Dhahab”, “Kitab-al-Tanbhwal Ishraf”, “Kitab-Akhbar- Al-Masudi
al-Zaman” & “Kitab-al-Ausat”
11. “Kitab-al-Hind”, “Al-Qanum-al-Masudi”, “Tarik-ul-Hind”, “Kitab-al- Al-Biruni
Jamakhir”, “Ahal-al-Bagiya”, “Kitab-al-Saydna”, “Rashikat-al-Hind”
12. Amusement for Him who desires to travel around the world Al-Idrisi
Roger’s Book
13. Rihlah Ibn Batuta
14. “Muqaddimah” – Introduction to world history Ibn-Khaldun
15. Panch Siddhantika Varahmihira
16. Siddhant Tatwavivek Kamlakar
17. Introduction to Universal Geography Cluvarius
18. Geography delineated forth in two bookes Nathaneal
Carpenter
19. Histoire naturelle (compendium about earth & living things) Comte de Buffon
20. Geographia Generalis Varenius
21. “Description regni Lapaniate et Siam” Varenius
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22. “Critique of Pure Reason”, “Critique of Judgement” & “Anthropology Immanuel Kant
from pragmatic point of view”
23. Ankundingung Immanuel Kant
24. General Natural history & theory of Heavens Immanuel Kant
25. “Kosmos” & “Relation Historique” Humboldt
26. ‘Erdkunde’, 6 maps of Europe, Essays on Methodology Carl Ritter
Europe: A Geographical, Historical & Statistical Painting
27. ‘Anthropogeographie’, ‘Political Geography’ Friedrich Ratzel
28. ‘Das Ausland’ (editor) & ‘Geschichte der Erdkunde’. Oscar Peschel
29. ‘Travel in the Columbian Andes’, Alfred Hettner
‘Geography: Its history character & methods’ ,
‘A geography of man’ , ‘Transport geography’, ‘Economic Geography’
30. Foundations of Regional Geography Hettner
31. ‘Principles de Geographie Humaine’ Vidal Blache
32. Geographie Humaine: Essai de classification positive Jean Brunhes
33. La Terra Elisee Reclus
34. Les Sciences Geographiques Camille Vallaux
35. Problems de Geographie Humaine Albert Demangeon
36. ‘American history & its geographical conditions’, ‘Influences of Ellen C. Semple
Geographical Environment’.
37. The pulse of Asia’, ‘Civilization & Climate’, ‘Principles of Human Huntington.
Geography’.
38. The geography of the central Andes Isaiah Bowman
39. Morphology of the landscape Carl O’ Sauer.
40. Physiography Rollin D. Salisbury
41. Heartland Theory ’,‘ Britain & the British Seas’ & ‘Democratic Ideals Mackinder
& Reality’
42. The geographical pivot of history Mackinder
43. Americas strategy in world’s politics Nicholas Spykman
Geography of the peace.
44. Geographic perspective on Urban systems B.J.L. Berry
45. The quantitative revolution & theoretical geography Ian Burton
46. The makers of modern geography R.E. Dickinson
47. ‘Models in human geography’, ‘Locational Analysis in Human Hagget & Chorley
Geography’ & ‘Frontiers of geographical teaching’.
48. Geography: A modern synthesis Hagget
49. Handbook of commercial geography Chisholm
50. Cities in Evolution Partrick Geddes
51. History of Civilization of England Buckle
52. Geographical introduction to history Lucien Febvre
53. Tableau de la geographie de la France Blache
54. A Handbook of Physical Geography, Guiding principles of General A. Supan (German)
Political Geography
55. ‘Traite de Geographique Physique’. De Martonne
56. Atlas de France Margarie & De
Martonne
57. “Geography made easy”, “American Universal Geography” Jedidiah Morse
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The American Geography
58. Nature of Geography Hartshorne
59. Perspectives on the nature of geography Hartshorne
60. The decision process in spatial context Julian Wolpert
61. Regional geography of India R.L. Singh
62. The geography of Puranas S. M. Ali
63. The nature of Cities Harris & Ullman
64. Explanations in Geography (b) Social justice & the city David Harvey
65. All possible worlds Preston .E James
66. The structure of scientific revolution Thomas Kuhn
67. The economics of location August Losch
68. Limits to growth Dennis Meadows
69. The city in history Lewis Mumford
70. Spatial Organization of society R. Morill
71. (A) Some aspects of Medical Geography (B) Asia L.D. Stamp
72. The development of social physics John Q. Stewart
73. Intervening Oppurtunities S. Stouffer
74. The isolated state Von Thunen
75. Space & Place in human geography Yi-Fu Tuan
76. The spirit & purpose of geography S. Woolridge
Famous quotations
1. ‘Geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly & rational Hartshorne
description & interpretation of the variable character of earth suface’.
2. ‘Man is the product of the earth’s surface’. Ellen Semple
3. ‘Man is a geographical agent & not the least.’ Lucien Febvre
4. ‘There are no necessities but everywhere possibilities’. Lucien Febvre.
5. ‘Mutually coordinated & not subordinated in space’ – on Possibilism Hettner
6. Climatic influences are persistent, often obdurate in their control Semple
7. Routes through which people have migrated have impressed upon their Demolins.
social characteristics
8. Supreme achievements of civilization were bounded by climate Huntington.
9. Everywhere man contributes in inverting the physiognomy of earth Brunhes
10. Geography is the mirror & reveals essence of human existence & striving Yi Fu Tuan
11. Humanism is a conviction that men & women can best improve their lives Ralph
by thinking & acting for themselves & especially by excercising their
capacity for reason.
12. We should study the earth as if we were sitting in a balloon & looking Brunhes
down upon it.
Contributions of Greeks
1. Homer “Father of Geography” in Greek period. Wrote Illiad & Odyssey.
Believed earth to be a circular floor surrounded by oceans on all sides.
Boreas (N), Eurus(E), Notus (S), Zephyrus (W) winds
2. Thales Six Geometric Theorems. Earth disc floating in water. Water essence
(624-548 B.C.) of all matter. Reported magnetism of a loadstone.
3. Anaximander Disciple of Thales. Introduction of ‘Gnomon’ – today called sundial.
First to draw a map of the world to scale with Greece at center. Thales
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& Anaximander founded mathematical geography.
4. Democritus Introduced a theory of origin of universe based on atoms in the void.
5. Pythagoras Rotation of earth on its axis.
6. Hecataeus Originated literary tradition in geography. First writer in Greek prose.
Wrote “Ges-Periodos”. Laid the foundation of regional geography.
7. Herodotus Opposed Hecataeus. First great historian. Nile mud causes delta &
winds blow from colder places to warmer places. Regarded Caspian
sea as an inland sea. Considered earth as circular plate in water. First
to draw a meridian on the world map. First to divide the world into
three land masses- Europe, Asia & Libya
8. Plato Master of deductive reasoning. First to announce the concept of round
(428-348 BC) earth located in the centre of the universe with celestial bodies
revolving around it.
9. Aristotle Master of inductive thought. Accepted Plato’s concept of spherical
(384-322 BC) earth & sought explanation for it (eclipse, pole star). Interested in
mathematical geography
10. Alexander Studied with Aristotle for only 3 years.
11. Theophrastus Special interest was in meteorology.
12. Eratosthenes Father of Geography & coined the term “Geography”. Calculation of
(276-194 BC) the circumference of the earth. Wrote Ekumene in which he accepted
two torrid zone, two temperate & two frizid zones. He improved on
Aristotle by giving mathematical boundaries to these zones.
13. Polybius Interested mainly in physical geography.
14. Hipparachus Succeeded Eratosthenes as chief Librarian. First to divide a circle into
360 degrees. Defined grid of latitude & longitude. Pointed equator as
a great circle & longitude too. Wrested with the problem of showing
curved surface area on a flat surface. Designed orthographic &
stereographic projections. Invented Astrolabe to determine latitude
using pole star. Discovered the precision of the equinoxes.
15. Posidonius Refuted the idea that equator region was uninhabitable. Wrote a book
‘the Ocean’ & was considered an authority on oceanography.
Roman Geographers
1. Strabo Most of the earlier scholar’s works disappeared. Defended Homer’s
(64 BC-20 AD) work & discarded Herodotus. First correct explanation of Nile’s
flood. 8 books on Europe, 6 books on Asia & one on Africa.
Considered earth as oblong. Interested in political geography. He
divided geography into – physical, mathematical, political &
historical. He was basically a regional geographer.
2. Ptolemy Mathematical geographer & Astronomer. Earth was a sphere that
(90-168 AD) remained stationery in the center while the celestial bodies moved
around it (remained accepted till 17th century-Copernicus). Far
ahead in map projections & map improvements. Considered India
ocean to be enclosed on the south by unknown land (Terra
Incognita). First to draw Bay of Bengal & Volga (Rha) on his map.
Equatorial land was considered uninhabitable.
3. Pomponius Mela Periplus of Scylax-shores of Mediterranean & Periplus of Arrian-
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Black Sea (guidelines to ship captains). Widely quoted in works of
Pliny the elder.
4. Marcus Tarantius Compedium of geography that dealt with a theory of culture. Food
Varro form virgin earth-Pastralism-Agriculture-Contemporary culture.
5. Pliny Wrote “Historia Naturalis”
6. Solinus General geographical account of the world.
Contribution of Arabs
1. Ibn Haukal Traveled extensively in last 30 years. Noted people in considerable
(943-978 AD) numbers in equatorial regions. “A book of routes & realms”. Said
that the Caspian is not connected to the Northern Sea by channel.
2. Al Balkhi First climatic Atlas of the world. “Kitab-al-Ashkal”
3. Al-Masudi Monsoon description. Described evaporation & condensation.
Kitab-Miraj-al Dhahab, Kitab-al-Tanbhwal Ishraf, Kitab-Akhbar-al-
Zaman & Kitab-al-Ausat. Divided the world into 7 regions based on
languges.
4. Al-Maqdisi Division of world into 14 climatic regions. Noticed that meridians
also affect climate. Southern hemisphere was open ocean
5. Al- Biruni “Kitab-al-Hind”- Geography of India in which he described
(973-1039 AD) significance of rounded stone. Tides caused by moons. Towards the
south pole night ceases to exist. Himalayas source of perennial river
6. Ibn Sina or Knowledge of Landforms – Mountain streams cutting down the
Avicenna valley in Central Asia. Mountains are raised & immediately
exposed to erosional process. ‘Fossils’- Nature efforts to create life
ending in Failure
7. Al Idrisi at Palermo Extensive correction of erroneous ideas handed down from Ptolemy
Corrects idea of enclosed Indian ocean & Caspian sea as gulf.
Position of Danube, Niger-Correction of several mountain ranges
8. Ibn-Batuta Confirmed Ibn Haukal that equatorial region was habitable. Served
Mongol emperor at Delhi. Visited China, Ceylon, Sumatra,
Maldives. Covered 75000 miles – a world record. Descried the
house types & building materials in deserts.
9. Ibn-Khaldun Emphasized & wrote on man-environment relationship. Repeated
the mistake of uninhabitable equatorial zone.
10.
Contribution of Indian Geographers

1. The first reference to Bhogol in Indian Literature is found in Suryasiddhanta & in the Padma Puranas a
distinction has been made between Bhogol (Geography), Khogol (the space science) & Jyotishastra.
2. The ancient Indian literature has a reference of seven dwipas or continents. The southern dwipa was named
Jambu. The Meru (Pamir knot) lying in the center of the Jambu was heaven. River Sita (Hwang Ho) lies on
the eastern side of Meru. Other dwipas were kusu dwipa (Iran, Arabia), Plaska dwipa (Mediterranean),
Puskara dwipa (Russia-east of Urals), Kraunca dwipa (area above black sea), Saka dwipa (Burma, Thailand,
Vietnam, and Indonesia) & Salmali dwipa.
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3. The spherical shape of the earth was visualized by the Aitareya Brahmana who stated that the sun neither sets
nor rises. Akshansa (latitudes) & Deshantara (longitude) were known.
4. Vasanta (spring), prourit (rainy season), sarad (autumn) & hemanta (severe winter). The chapters of
geography in Puranas have been called Bhuvankosh.
Pre-Modern Period
1. Cluvarius German geographer of 17th century. Wrote introduction to universal
geography. Emphasized & wrote on regional geog.
2. Varenius or German. Wrote Geographia Generalis. Laid down the foundation of the
Bernhard Varen dichotomy of “Systematic Vs Regional Geography. Divided general or
(1622-1650) systematic geography into Absolute (terrestrial), Relative (Planetary-earth
relationship with other parts) & the Comparative (location, navigation) parts.
Advocated highest temperatures in tropics rather than equator. Believed in
heliocentric concept of Copernicus, Kepler & Galileo.
3. J.R. Forster & J. Father & son in that order. Accompanied Captain Cook on his voyage. Visited
G. Forster Volga steppe on invitation of the Russian government. There method of
working has been often named ‘comparative method’.
4. Immanuel Kant German. Professor of Geography at the university of Konigsberg. Gave
(1724-1804) philosophical dimension to geography. Gave logical classification (similar
origin) & physical classification (same time). Physical classification gives the
basis for geography & history. Identified physical geography as including not
only natural features but also man. World as perceived by inner senses is soul
& by outer senses is nature.
Laid down the foundation of “Exceptionalism” in Geography i.e. geography
& history are methodologically distinct from other sciences. Said that
generalization in the form of laws is useless in geography & regarded it as as
“Idiographic”. Geography was chorological & history – chronological.
5. Alexander Von “Father of Modern Geography”. Coined the term “Cosmography” & divided it
Humboldt into Uranography (astronomy), geography (physical feature) & Concept of
(1769-1859 AD) whole (visualized earth as inseparable whole).
Affect of altitude, Temperature variation at same latitude with distance from
sun, Map showing isotherms (invention), concept of Continentality, Coined
the term “Permafrost”
Extensive studies of Ecuadorian volcanoes, Concluded that graphite, gneiss
are of volcanic origin, description of vertical zones of Andes, Humboldt or
Peruvian current.
Exact longitude calculation for Lima, established correlation between forest &
rainfall. Lake Valenica in Venezuela was shrinking due to deforestation.
Explored Orinoco & established its connection with Amazon. Explored virgin
lands of Siberia.
In his ‘Relation Historique’ he laid down the foundation of plant geography.
Divided regions of Latin America into botanical provinces. His “Kosmos”
talked about universe & geographical thought since Egyptians.
Believed in empirical, comparative & inductive method.
6. Carl Ritter Was a teleologist. Gave the concept of “Unity in Diversity”. Stressed on land
(1779-1859 AD) & water hemispheres, distinction between the rates of cooling of land &
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water. Defined geography as empirical science rather than deductive.
Was a professor at university of Frankfurt & Berlin & founded the “Berlin
Geographical Society”. He rejected the idea of ‘Pure Geography’(Reine
Geography) & said that history & geography must always remain inseparable.
Chiefly concerned with the studies of human geography. Identified each
continent with a different race. He was an armchair geographer.
Wrote “Erdkunde” meaning science of the earth. Asia & Africa covered but
not Europe.
German School of Thought

1. Friedrich Ratzel Worked at university of Munich & Leipzig. Application of Darwin’s
(1844-1904 AD) concept to human species called ‘Social Darwinism’. Studied modes of
life of Germans outside Germany. Published two books on N. America.
‘Anthropogeographie’ talked about the effects of different physical
features on the life of people. Coined the term “Anthropogeography”
Protagonist of Determinism. Wrote ‘Political Geography’ where he
compared state to an organism & persuaded Germany to expand. It was
his policy of ‘Lebensraum’ or living space that urged to expand-Organic
theory of State. It earned him the title of ‘founder of political geography’.
He also gave the stages through which human society passes.
2. Oscar Peschel First professor at university of Leipzig after Ritters death. Editor of ‘Das
Ausland’ & wrote ‘Geschichte der Erdkunde’. Contributed very much to
the development of geomorphology through a study of relief types.
3. Ferdinand Von First to identify “Loess” in China. His studies of China were published in
Richthofen five volumes.
4. Alfred Hettner Disciple of Ratzel & Richthofen. Revived the concept of geography as
chorology. Published ‘Geography: Its history character & methods’.
Supported Possibilism. Geography as “Landshatskunde” (landscape
science) became popular during his period.
5. Otto Schluter Hettner-Schluter controversy. It was Schluter who applied the term
‘Landshaftskunde’ to describe the concept of geography. He objected to
chorological definition of geography.
6. Albrecht Penck First use of the term ‘geomorphology’. Penck’s ideas inspired Koppen.
Other German geographers were Obst, Waibel, Sapper, Gustav Brown, Andree, Karl Haushofer &
Walther Christaller.
French School of Thought

1. Vidal de la Blache Founder of Human Geography. ‘Pays’ as basic homogenous region to
(1848-1918 AD) study as opposed to drainage basins. He developed the idea of ‘Terrestrial
Unity’. Wrote, ‘Principles de Geographie Humaine’. Founded a journal
called, ‘Annals de Geographie’.
2. Jean Brunhes Gave the concept of “Terrestrial Harmonies’ – Man & his environment.
Wrote ‘Geographie Humaine: Essai de classification positive’. He
divided human geography into unproductive occupation of the soil,
Plants & animal conquest & destructive exploitation.
3. Elise Reclus Disciple of Carl Ritter & a determinist. Wrote ‘La Terra’.
4. De Martonne Major work in physical geography. Son in law of Blache. Wrote ‘Traite
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de Geographique Physique’.
5. Camille Vallaux Wrote ‘Les Sciences Geographiques’.
6. Albert Demangeon Devoted most of the time to editing ‘Annals’. Wrote ‘Problems de
Geographie Humaine”. Interested in rural settlements.
Other geographers were Gallois, Blanchard, Bauling, Jean Gottmann, A. Siegfried, J. Ancel
American School of Thought

1. Jedidiah Morse Father of American Geography.
2. W. Morris Davis One of the founders of the ‘Association of American Geographers’ estd
(1850-1934 AD) in 1904. Jefferson, Bowman, Huntington, Semple & Birmingham were
some of his students. Coined the term ‘Ontography’ to denote the organic
half of geography. He added subsequent, obsequent & resequent to
Powell’s 3 types of rivers. Advocate of Darwinism
3. Mark Jefferson Professor at the Michigan State normal college in Ypsilanti for 38 years.
Never accepted the concept of determinism. Concept of ‘central place’,
‘primate city’ & ‘civilizing rails’.
4. Ellen Churchill Disciple of Ratzel at Leipzig. Her first book was, ‘American history & its
Semple geographical conditions’. Her version of Ratzel’s Anthropogeographie
(1863-1932) was, ‘Influences of Geographical Environment’
Worked on Mediterranean region for about 20 years.
5. Ellsworth Published, ‘The pulse of Asia’. Wrote, ‘Civilization & Climate’ in which
Huntington he said that man’s civilization could develop only in regions of
stimulating climate. His book, ‘Principles of Human Geography’ was a
college textbook. Determinist in approach.
6. Isaiah Bowman Thesis on ‘The geography of central Andes’. Pioneered boundary studies
– ‘Guatemala-Honduras dispute’. Earlier determinist later possibilist.
7. Albert Parry Wrote ‘Geographic influences on American history’. He was critical of
Birmingham people making generalizations about climatic influences on humans.
8. Rollin D. Salisbury Recognized as best teacher in the university. He published his ideas in
‘Physiography’.
9. Carl O Sauer Activist of the possibilistic movement. Protagonist of ‘Chorological
Theme’. Published, ‘The morphology of the landscape’ in which he
explained the concept of ‘Landschaft’. Did not deny ‘determinism’.
British School of Thought

1. Malford Mackinder ‘Heartland Theory ’,‘ Britain & the British Seas’ & ‘Democratic Ideals
& Reality’
2. P. Hagget & They have authored ‘Models in human geography’, ‘Locational Analysis
Richard Chorley in Human Geography’ & ‘Frontiers of geographical teaching’.
3. Patrick Geddes Founder of Le Play society. Wrote ‘City in Evolution’. Gave the concept
of ‘urban conurbation.’
4. J. Herbertson Assistant of Geddes at Oxford
5. Chisholm Wrote, ‘Handbook of commercial geography’.
6. Robert Mill Wrote, ‘General Geography’.
Determinists & Possibilists

Determinists Hippocrates, Aristotle, Strabo, Al Masudi, Ibn Haukal, Al-Idrisi,
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(Ancient period) Ibn-Khaldun,
(Pre-Modern Period) J. Biodim, Motesquieu, Humboldt, Ritter, Haeckel, Buckle, Demolins
Modern Period Ratzel, Semple, Elise Reclus, Darwin, Huntingon, Taylor
Possibilists Lucien Febvre, Durkheim, Blache, Jean Brunhes, Hettner, Mark Jefferson
Carl O’ Sauer, Isaiah Bowman, Barrow, Fleure (genre de vie).
Various Paradigm Shifts & Approaches in Geography

1. Quantitative 1950’s-1960’s. Make precise statements about locational order. Use
Revolution mathematical language (Cwg). No place for normative questions. Great
emphasis on locational analysis.
2. Radicalism Developed as a reaction to quantitative revolution & positivism. Concerned with
issues of social relevance like racism, poverty, inequality etc. In 1969,
“Antipode”, a journal of radical geography was launched at Clark university.
Marxism provided a firm theoretical base for the radical movement. Fall of
USSR gave radicalism a blow.
3. Behaviorism Cognition is the key. It treats man as a responder to stimuli. It has maintained
strong positive ties with the positivist tradition & is still widely accepted within
the positivist orientation.
Julian Wolpert in ‘Decision process in spatial context’ – landuse in Sweden
Pred devised a behavioral matrix on the basis of information availability & skill
Huff developed the idea of understanding the consumer spatial behaviour.
Haggerstand developed the idea of spatial diffusion of innovation.
Lowenthal tried to study the goal motivations of a person & how he acts.
K.R. Cox was the first to introduce behavioral concept in political geography.
Peter Gould gave the concept of mental maps. W. Tobbler (Geometry of mind).
Conceptual framework was given by downs (See fig)
A conventional model of man-environment relationship was give by boulding.
Sonnenfield proposed 4 levels at which the environment should be studied viz
Geographical, Operational, Perceptual & Behavioural from outside to inside.
Poteus recognized existence of (a) phenomenal environment (physical objects)
(b) the personal environment (perceived images of real environment) (c) the
contextual environment (culture, religion, beliefs).
4. Humanism Developed as dissatisfaction from models of spatial science. The important
proponents were Kirk, Tuan, Sauer, Vidal, Lowenthal, Wright.
Woolridge claimed that historical geography must see countryside through the
eyes of the farmer. Later John Wright introduced the term ‘Geosophy’ as a part
of his contention that geographical knowledge is part of mental stock of all
humans.
Lowenthal tried to study goal motivations of a person & how he acts. Kirk
became popular later. However the term ‘Humanistic geography’ was coined by
Yi Fu Tuan in 1976. Tuan explored 5 themes of general interest to geographers
viz (a) Geographical knowledge (b) Territory & place (c) Crowding & Privacy
(d) Livelihood & Economics (e) Religion.
5. Positivism Also called Empericism. It is anti-idealism. It excludes normative questions. It
has been criticized by realists, Marxists, existentialists, behaviouralists.
Proponents: Auguste comte , BJL Berry, David Harvey, William Bunge.
6. Pragmatism It is an action oriented approach & led to the development of applied
geography. It is modified form of Positivism.
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Proponents: Pierce
7. Functionalism Used by Jean Brunhes. Very popular these days e.g. Mumbai, Tatanagar can be
explained on the basis of the functions they perform
8. Existentialism Emphasizes that man is responsible for making his own nature. It emerges to
challenge & even abandon purely objective, quantitative & deterministic
analysis. It is the study of biography of landscape.
9. Idealism It is in opposition to naturalism & materialism. According to this, it is possible
to reconstruct logical sequence of thought of another person.
Proponent: Leonard Guelke
10. Realism It says reality exists independent of the mind. It is opposite to idealism. Close to
positivism but different methodology. Positivists ask ‘how’ & realists - ‘why’.
Proponent: Gibson, Cook Wilson (Naïve Realism), T.P. Nunn (New/Critical
realism).
11. Probabilism Postulated by Spate. It said that although physical environment does not
determine human actions, it does make some responses more likely than others.
12. Marxism Developed against capitalism. Main concern is social issues.
Proponent: David Harvey.
13. Historicism Chronological description. Ignores spatiality
14. Post Recent movement in humanities, philosophy, arts & social sciences. It
Modernism developed in reaction to historicism in modern geographical thought. Its
distinguishing characteristics are: Skepticism towards the grand claims & grand
theory of the modern era & their claim to intellectual superiority.
15. Welfare Issue like poverty, regional imbalances, slums etc are its focus
Approach Proponents: David Harvey, D. M. Smith.
Other Geographical Paradigms
1. Areal Coined by Hartshorne in his Nature of Geography. It is concerned with areal
Differentiation variation of human & physical phenomena. It helped in the reconstruction of
“regional geography”. It is also known as “Chorology” or “Chorography”.
2. Locational Focuses on spatial arrangement of phenomena. Its purpose is to build accurate
Analysis generalizations, models & theories. It is based on positivism.
Proponents: Bunge, Mc Carty, Hagget, Morril, Chorley, Cox, Harvey, Johnston
3. Regional The whittlesey committee on regional geography which drafted the document
Synthesis on regional geography published in James & Jones (1954) defined region as
‘Any segment or portion of the earth’s surface which is homogeneous in terms
of such an areal grouping.’
4. System Framework for investigating the structure & function of a system.
Analysis
Environmental Perception & Behaviour (After Downs)
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Value
System Information
Perceptual Perceptual
Filters Receptors
Image
Real
World
Decision Behaviour
Conventional Model of Man-Environment Relationship (Boulding)
Environment Image Behaviour
Miscellaneous Facts
1. Ritter & Humboldt both died in the year 1859, the same year in which Darwin published his “Origin of
Species”.
2. Greeks are often given credit for their monopoly in speculation. Mathematical geography attracted most of
the Arab geographers. Ibn Batuta described Morocco as having best climate.
3. Busching belonged to the Political Statistical School. Leyer suggested the natural boundaries for regional
studies. The idea of German-centered Europe was given by Nauman. Kjellen was one the most famous
Swedish political geographer.
4. The use of natural geography rather than political boundaries for the description of regional geography is
known as Reine Geography. Bauche initiated this approach, Getterer divided the whole world into natural
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regions. Hommeyer implemented this approach & Zeune brought more sophistication in it in that he
delimited regions even on the basis of climate, vegetation, etc.
5. Peter Kropotkin & V.V. Dokuchaiev were important geographers of the Russian school of thought.
6. The Cultural or social determinism popular among American geographers. Edward Ullman is a strong
proponent of this theory.
7. Schaefer (1953) in his paper titled, “Exceptionalism in Geography” in which he criticized exceptionalists
& asked geographers to adopt methodology of scientific positivism. Hartshorne met this criticism by
writing, ‘Perspectives on the nature of Geography’ in which he stuck to his chorological concept of
Geography. The result was adoption of nomothetic approach in geography.
8. Areal Differentiation is also known as “Chorology” or “Chorography”.
9. Voluntarism is one of the latest approaches in geography which states that human mode of life depends
upon his interaction with his environment. It considers man as a modifier of nature.
10. The heartland (or Pivot Area) theory was given by Mackinder. Heartland referred to Eastern Europe.
Mackinder considered the eastern & western side of the Atlantic to be complimentary to each other.
11. The Rimland theory was given by Nicholas Spykman. Rimland referred to the rimland of Eurasia. This
theory considered that the key to the supremacy of the world lies in a combination of land power & sea
power.
12. Froebel was a staunch opponent of the Comparative method. He said that no one place or mountain can be
compared with others as they are not alike. He also rejected teleological view.
13. Marco Polo was an Italian. Bartholomew Diaz, was a Portuguese navigator who discovered Cape of good
hope. Columbus was Italian & Vasco de Gama was Portuguese. Balboa (Spanish) crossed the Isthmus of
Panama & became the first European to see the Pacific. James Cook (England) made three Pacific
Voyages: First to Tahiti, second to New Zealand & third to Hawaii. Francis Champlain established
Quebec City as the first French colony in Canada. Magellan & Francis Drake took the journey of the
whole world.
14. The term ‘Compage’ was use by Whittlesey means a total region is distinguished by a community of
feeling among its inhabitants as well as by all features of the physical & biotic environment.
15. L.D. Stamp carried out the land utilization survey in Great Britain. Torsten Haggerstand developed the
stochastic model apart from spatial diffusion of innovation & migration studies (Sweden).
16. Genre de vie means genre of living i.e. same pattern of living. Regional synthesis is associated with B.J.L.
Berry who wrote ‘Approaches to regional analysis: A synthesis’. Teleology is opposite to causal
explanation.
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17. Topophilia was coined by Yi-Fu Tuan to denote all the effective ties & love of a human being for his
material environment.
18. Edward Ackerman was an American geographer who encouraged his students to take up quantitative
approach wrote, ‘Where is the research frontier’.
Various Types of Maps

1. Chorochromatic Maps in which different colours are used to show distribution
2. Choroschematic Maps where pictures of various phenomena or commodities are used. E.g.
a car depicts automobile production.
3. Isopleth Also called isarithmic maps. Used for representing rainfall, temperature &
pressure data.
4. Choropleth Technique of representing quantitative data by means of varying densities
of shades in single colour. In it administrative area gets primary
importance unlike isopleth where distribution is primary. Used for
population density distribution, cropping intensity etc.
5. Dot Maps Representing absolute numbers on map.
6. Flow Map Flow line used to represent migration, trade, traffic etc.
Map Projections
Accuracy of Size Equal area or orthographic projection
Accuracy of Shape Orthomorphic or true shape projection
Accuracy of Direction Azimuthal or Zenithal projection
Accuracy of Distance/ Scale Equidistant
Accuracy of Area Homolographic
On the basis of nature of developable surface

Zenithal Projections Obtained with the help of a plain developable surface
Conical Projections Obtained with the help of a conical developable surface
Cylindrical Projections Obtained with the help of a cylindrical developable surface
Conventional Projections Obtained without developable surface – mathematically
On the basis of point of tangent

Equatorial Case Developable surface touches the globe at equator
Polar Case Developable surface touches the globe at poles
Oblique Case Developable surface touches the globe anywhere between the poles
& the equator.
On the basis of source of light

Gnomonic When the source of light is at the center of the globe
Stereographic Source of light at the antipode to the point of contact of
developable surface
Orthographic Source of light at infinity
Azimuthal or Zenithal Projections
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1. Zenithal Gnomonic Plain developable surface acting as tangent at the poles when
Polar case source of light. The distance between parallels increases away from
the poles. Equator cannot be shown.
Application: small areas around the poles
2. Stereographic or Source light at antipode. Distance between parallels of latitude
Azimuthal orhomorphic increase away from the centre but the increase is less in comparison
Projection (polar case) to gnomonic projection. Hence exaggeration away from pole is
lesser. Entire hemisphere can be shown.
The scale away from the center increases along both parallels &
meridians but the proportion of increase in case of both is almost
equal & this results in maintaining correct shape (orthomorphic)
Application: Navigational & political maps of high latitudes
3. Zenithal orthographic Light at infinity. Distance between parallels decrease away from
Projection (polar case) the pole. Directions from centre are correct as in all azimuthal
projections. Scale along parallels is correct in Zenithal
orthomorphic projection but along the meridians it is distorted.
Both shape & size distorted away from centre.
Application: Distribution Map in high latitude, Astronomical maps
4. Zenithal Equidistant Non Perspective projection. Parallels are equispaced. Areas away
Projection from centre are exaggerated
Application: Maps between 50 & 90 degree latitude.
5. Zenithal Equal Area Also known as Lamberts Azimuthal Equal-Area projection.
projection (polar case) Distances between parallels decrease away from the equator.
Distance along the parallels increases rapidly moving away from
the centre but the exaggeration is compensated by shortening of
distance along the meridians. The area therefore remains correct.
Application: Distribution maps.
Conical Projections
The circle along which the cone touches the globe is known as the standard parallel. The source of
light is supposed to be at the centre of the globe. In all the pole is represented by an arc of circle.
1. Simple conical with one The standard parallel is divided to draw the lines of meridian. Scale
standard parallel is true only along the standard parallel the other parallels being
incorrect along their length. Scale is true along central meridian by
construction & other meridians by being radii of same concentric
curves. Area is true in a narrow zone on both sides of the standard
parallel. Pole is different from centre of parallels.
Application: boundary between USA & Canada.
2. Conical with two It is not a perspective projection as a cone can touch a globe only
standard parallels or along one standard parallel. Parallels are equispaced. Scale is true
Lamberts conformal along meridians. Between the standard parallels the distances are
conical projection represented shorter than the actual distances & outside greater.
Application: Trans-Siberian railway, area with great east to west
but relatively smaller latitudinal distance
3. Bonne’s Projection or In this all parallels are standard parallels as all are true to scale but
Conical Equal Area for the purpose of construction, one standard parallel is selected
Projection (usually centre). The central meridian is a straight line while others
are smooth curves. The scale is correct only along the central
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meridian & along others it is exaggerated. The degree of
exaggeration increases from the central meridian. It is an equal area
projection but it is not orthomorphic.
Application: Europe, North America, Australia. Not good for Asia
because of large east west extent. Not used for Africa.
4. Polyconic Projection Assumption of a number of cones, placed over the globe in such a
manner that each one of these cones is tangent at a different parallel
All parallels are drawn as standard parallels & representation is
correct along them. The parallels are arcs of non-concentric circles
& each of the parallels is drawn from a different centre. All
meridians except for central are smooth curves.
Application: Basis of International projection (World Toposheets)
Countries with large north south but small east west extent
5. Conical Equal Area with Also called Lamberts conical equal-area projection. It is similar to
one standard parallel simple conical with one standard parallel but the scale along the
meridians in this projection is not correct. The exaggeration of the
scale along the scale along the meridians is made good by
proportional minimization of scale along the meridians. The
parallels are all concentric circles but unequally spaced from each
other. Meridians are all straight lines. Scale is correct along the
standard parallel but exaggerated along the rest.
Application: Distribution Maps in middle latitudes (as Equal
Area). Can be used for a relatively large country like India.
Cylindrical Projections
While both conical & Azimuthal projections can be drawn for a single hemisphere, the cylindrical
projections are drawn for both the hemispheres.
1. Simple Cylindrical or Non perspective. Meridians are drawn true to scale. All the
Cylindrical Equidistant meridians are straight lines & their length is equal to half that of
the equator. Both parallels & meridians are equally spaced. The
equator & the meridians are true to scale. Scale along the
parallels is increasingly exaggerated going away from equator
Application: Narrow strip along the equator
2. Cylindrical Equal Area Non Perspective. Orthographic projection. Equator is true to
Projection scale but none of the parallels & meridians is true to scale. It is
based on the principle of reduction of scale along the meridians
in proportion to the exaggeration along the parallels. Meridians
are equispaced but the distance between parallels decreases
away from the equator. The scale obviously increases more &
more along the parallels away from equator.
Application: Distribution maps because of equal area.
3. Mercators projection or Developed by Gerhard Kramer or Mercator. Meridians are
cylindrical orthomorphic equispaced. The distance between parallels increases towards
projection the poles. It is based on the principle of exaggerating the scale
along the meridians in the same proportion as it increases along
the parallels. It maintains the accuracy of shape of areas. Poles
lie at infinite distance from the equator & so cannot be shown.
Application: shows European countries larger than their actual
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size & hence popular among British cartographers. Making
charts of sailing routes by use of great circle & loxodrome.
A loxodrome is a line of constant bearing that intersects all meridians at the same angle. A
loxodrome is also called a rhumb line. Such a line is represented by a straight line on Mercator’s
projection. Therefore the great circles are represented by straight line on mercators projection.
Transverse Mercator projection is also known as Gauss Conformal Projection.
Conventional Projections
1. Sinusoidal or Mercator The projection is an equal area one. It might be considered as a
Samson-Flamsteed special case of Bonne’s projection with equator as the standard
projection parallel. Equator & parallels are shown as straight lines. The
central meridian is a straight line while others are sine curves.
Parallels are equispaced. The scale is true along the equator &
the parallels but in case of other meridians there is an
increasing exaggeration away from the central meridian.
Application: Showing continents extending in the equatorial
regions & also in middle lat. Not suited much for whole world.
2. Mollweide’s Projection or Equal area projection. Parallels are straight lines & meridians
Babinets Equal surface are elliptical in shape. Parallels are not equidistant & the
projection distance between them decreases towards the poles. The
meridians 90 degree E or W of the central meridian form a
circle. The scale is not true along the equator. The maximum
distortion of scale occurs at equator & polar areas.
Application: Distribution map, Whole world represented better
than sinusoidal projection.
3. Gall’s Projection It is a stereographic cylindrical projection quite akin to
Mercators but it is different in that it is not orthomorphic. The
distance between the parallels is reduced to avoid too much
exaggeration of areas towards the poles. The cylinder is
thought to cut the sphere along the 45 degree N & S. Therefore
45 N & S are true to scale. So from these two latitudes, scale
along the parallels decreases towards the equator & increases
towards the poles.
Application: General purpose world maps on single sheet.
4. Globular Projection Meridians are drawn at equal distance along the equator. One
degree of longitude along the equator & one degree of latitude
along the central meridian are the same. It just depicts one
hemisphere i.e. 90 E or W & not complete globe. The area of
the central part is slightly lesser than real & vice versa.
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Miscellaneous Facts
1. Maps are more accurate than plans. Comparative scale has two scales with different units with their zeros
aligned. Diagonal scale facilitates reading fractional distance.
2. Maps drawn with a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000 are small scale maps & with greater scale large scale
maps. Most of the wall maps & atlas maps are small scale maps. Topographical maps of India are
published by the f, Dehradun at scales like 1:50,000 & 1:25,000. The topographical maps are based on
International Sheets (4 degree lat. x 4 degree long.) that are prepared at a scale 1:1,000,000. Cadastral
maps have a scale around 1:5000.
3. Maps can be enlarged or reduced using grid method, triangle method (for linear feature) or using
Pantograph (works on the principle of parallelogram). The most accurate is photographic method.
4. A thematic map shows the spatial distribution of one or more specific data themes for standard geographic
areas. The map may be qualitative in nature (e.g., predominant farm types) or quantitative (e.g.,
percentage population change).
5. In case of an overhanging cliff contour lines intersect. In case of a waterfall or vertical cliff the contour of
different values might meet. Contours drawn on the basis of estimation are shown in the form of broken
lines called form lines.
6. Hachures are broken lines drawn in the direction of slope & they are less accurate than contours. Higher
the intensity higher the slope & vice versa.
7. Hythergraph is a type of climograph showing mean monthly wet bulb temperature & relative humidity.
Developed by G. Taylor. NE (scorching-low humidity & high temperature), NW (Muggy -temperature &
humidity both high), S.W (Raw-low temperature & high humidity) SE (Keen – humidity & Temperature
both high).
Hythergraph
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Muggy Scorching
Temperature
Raw Keen
Humidity
8. Wind rose is a diagram to show the frequency & direction of wind where frequency is proportional to
radii.
9. Block piling refers to piling of cubes to represent desired numbers. Pictographs represent the data by
drawing symbolic pictures (e.g. drawing car for automobile production).
10. If a portion of the ground is cut vertically along a certain straight line, the side view of the cut forms a
profile. When a number of profiles are drawn separately & arranged in a column representing a series
from one end of the map to other, it is known as serial profiles. If all the profiles of a series of profile can
be traced to a single frame it is called superimposed profile. In projected profile, the superimposed profile
is modified in such a way that the portion of each profile which comes below the succeeding one is
omitted (or rubbed off), Projected profiles thus show only those features which are not obstructed by
higher intervening forms. Composite profiles only depict the ruggedness of the skyline. It is constructed to
represent the surface as viewed in the horizontal plane of the summit-levels from an infinite distance.
(Refer p-22 ensemble for diagram).The areas obstructed in a profile are known as dead ground.
11. In triangulation once the base line is determined, its end are used to measure the angle to a distant point
using theodolite. Then using trigonometry the lengths of the two unknown sides can be determined as
length of baseline & angles are known.
12. The bearing is the angular distance of an object from the magnetic north measured in a clockwise
direction. The prismatic compass is used for measuring the bearing.
13. Spherical surface is undevolopable while cylindrical, conical, & a plane surface are developable.
14. Molleweid’s projection is based on the principle that a circle drawn with the minor radius of an ellipse
occupies half the area of the ellipse with the same minor radius & the major radius twice the size of the
minor radius.
Aerial Photography, Remote Sensing & GIS
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1. Gaspard Felix Tournachon took the first aerial photograph. Wilbur Wright took the first aerial motion
pictures over Centocelli, Italy.
2. Radar is an example of active remote sensing sensor. Passive remote sensing sensors include photographic
camera, Return Beam Vidicon, Electro-optical scanner, Imaging spectrometer. A photographic film can
record over wavelength range about twice as broad as that of human eye (.3 to .9 microns).
3. The diaphragm determines the size of the opening for exposure & shutter determines the exposure time. In
most of the aerial cameras the distance between their film plane (v) & the lens is precisely equal to the
focal length (f) of the camera as 1/u in the lens formula becomes almost negligible because of large
distance between the lens & the object on the ground.
4. The factors affecting the exposure measurements (extraneous effects) are divided into two types,
geometric & atmospheric. Exposure falloff is an effect due to which a ground scene of spatially uniform
reflectance does not produce spatially uniform exposure in the focal plane. Instead exposure is maximum
at the centre & decreases towards the edges. Vignetting refers to internal shadowing resulting from the
lens mounts & other aperture surfaces within the camera. Relief displacement is directly proportional to
the height of the object & inversely proportional to the flying height above the ground.
5. A fast film requires lesser exposure time but it consists of large film grains which limit spatial resolution.
Radiometric resolution refers to the smallest difference in exposure that can be detected on a given film
analysis. Radiometric resolution is inversely proportional to contrast in an image. Due to this a higher
contrast film is capable of resolving smaller differences in exposure.
6. The term remote sensing originated at the Willow Run laboratories of the University of Michigan, USA.
TIROS (Television infra-red observation satellite) from which the first satellite TV image was taken.
7. Cosmic rays, Gamma rays & X rays cannot be registered with remote sensing methods. Most of the
remote sensing methods work with visible, infra-red & micro-wave region. The non-blocked spectral
regions are called atmospheric windows (.4 – 3.0 micron, 3 – 5 micron, 8 – 14 micron).
Specular Diffuse or Lambertian

8. Most of the earth’s features are neither perfectly specular nor diffuse. The specular reflections do not
contain spectral information, while spectral information is obtained in case of diffuse reflections. Hence in
remote sensing diffuse reflectance properties are more important.
85
9. The reference data is called ground truth. GPS system consists of 24 satellites each of which revisit the
same track & configuration at an interval of approximately 24 hours. Master control facility is located in
Colorado Springs, Colorado.
10. Spectral reflectance is a measure of the portion of the incident energy that is reflected. A graph of spectral
reflectance of an object as a function of the wavelength is known as spectral reflectance curve.
Spectral Reflectance Curve
11. Aerial photographs give 3D view. Photogrammetry refers to the art & science of obtaining reliable
measurements from photographs. Aerial photographs are of following types: Vertical (less than +3 degree
tilt), Oblique (> +3 tilt – in low oblique horizon does not appear & vice versa), Convergent (low oblique
photograph taken from two cameras such that they form stereopair), Trimetragon (3 cameras – one
vertical & other two at 60 degree from vertical).
12. The point of intersection of the optical axis of the camera with the photo plane & the ground plane are
photo principal point (p) & ground principal point (P) respectively. Point vertically below the perspective
centre (camera lens) on the ground is called the ground nadir point or plumb point (N). The point of
intersection of the bisector of the angle between the camera axis & the vertical with the photoplane is
called as the photo isocentre (i). In case of vertical photograph all these points coincide.
13. Fiducial or collimating marks are located at the corner or in the middle of the edges of a photograph so
that by joining them one can’t locate the principal point. The scale of a photograph is given by the
relationship f/H (f is focal length & H is flying height). Aerial photographs are small scale (< 1: 50,000),
medium scale (1:50,000 to 1:12,0000 & large scale (> 1:12,000).
86
14. Parallax is the apparent change in the positions of stationary objects solely due to change in the point of
observation.
15. Indian Air Force, Air Survey Co of India Ltd., Kolkata, NRSA, Hyderabad are the only authorized
organizations to carry out aerial photography. Normally vertical aerial photography is carried out with 60-
80 % forward overlap & 25-40 % lateral overlap.
16. The first GIS was built by Canada. Most GISs use either a raster (grid cell) or vector (polygon) format to
represent location. A coarse cell size needs less data storage space but is less accurate & vice versa. The
raster data provides a greater computational efficiency particularly in overlay analysis. But the spatial
resolution is limited to the size of the cells comprising the raster. Most commercial programs allow
introversion. Vector data formats have relatively small data volumes. Most of the digital remote sensing
data is collected in raster format.
17. A geostationary satellite remains stationary with respect to earth (36000 km altitude). A sun synchronous
or polar orbit is such that the satellite passes over the same ground track at the same local time each day.
A near polar retrograde orbit with altitude between 300 & 1000 km satisfies this condition. The advantage
is global coverage but disadvantage is missing of diurnal effects. Most of the remote sensing satellites are
sun synchronous.
18. The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta was launched in 1975. Bhaskara I & Bhaskara II in 1979 & 1981
respectively. APPLE was also launched in 1981.
Indian Remote Sensing Satellites
S Year Satellite Launched Sensor
1. 1988 IRS-1A launched. LISS-linear imaging self scanning device. LISS I & LISS II
2. 1991 IRS-1B launched. Carried into space by SLV-3 an Indian LISS I & LISS II
rocket
3. 1995 IRS-1C. WiFS – wide field sensor. LISS III, PAN,
WiFS
4. 1997 IRS-1D using Indian rocket PSLV-C1. LISS III, PAN,
WiFS
5. 1999 Oceansat (IRS-P4). Carries Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) & OCM
a multi-frequency scanning microwave radiometer (MSMR) MSMR
used to measure chlorophyll concentration, turbid water.
6. 2003 Resourcesat-1 LISS IV, AWiFS
7. 2005 Cartosat-1 (IRS-P5). It has stereo-imagery which can be used PAN-F, PAN-A
for digital terrain model (DEM) & digital elevation model.
19. NRSA is the only agency which acquires & archives data for sale & distribution. Management of Indian
resources is under National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS).
20. APPLE was India’s first geostationary satellite used for conducting communication experiments.
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21. LANDSAT-1 was launched in 1972. LANDSAT series have orbits between 705 km & 920 km. The
sensors used are MSS (multispectral scanner), RBV (return beam vidicon), and ETM (Enhanced thematic
mapper).
22. SPOT (France) has HRV (high resolution visible) & VMI (vegetation monitoring instrument) sensor
23. ERS (European remote sensing satellite), JERS (Japanese earth observation satellite), Radarsat (Canadian
remote sensing satellite) are other programmes.
24. Multispectral imaging means simultaneous imaging using more than one wavelength. Light waves are
scattered by particles in the atmosphere whose sizes are similar to the wavelength of light.
25. Theodolite uses a vernier scale for measurement. Geodetic surveys measure large regions of the earth’s
surface & therefore take into consideration the curvature of the earth. They are used for establishing lines
of latitude & longitude.
26. Ergograph shows temperature, humidity, rainfall, acreage of crops & their growing season.
27. Contrast ratio is the ratio between the brightest & the darkest parts of the image.
28. Digital image processing consists of image restoration (removal of data errors, noise etc), image
enhancement (alter the visual impact) & information extraction
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Region Wavelength in centimeters Frequency in Hz

-9
Gamma Rays < 10 > 3 x 1019
X-Rays 10-7 - 10-9 3 x 1017 - 3 x 1019
Ultraviolet 4 x 10-5 - 10-7 7.5 x 1014 - 3 x 1017
Visible 7 x 10-5 - 4 x 10-5 4.3 x 1014 - 7.5 x 1014
Infrared 0.01 - 7 x 10-5 3 x 1012 - 4.3 x 1014
Microwave 10 - 0.01 3 x 109 - 3 x 1012
Radio > 10 < 3 x 109
88
Miscellaneous Geographical Features

1. Cape York Peninsula Northern Australia to the east of Gulf of Carpentra. Weipa (Bauxite)
also lies in the same peninsula on the Carpen
2. Kanto/Kwanto Plain The largest area of flat land in Japan comprising Tokyo & other cities.
3. Ungava Peninsula Canada – East of Hudson Bay & south of Baffin Island.
4. Odessa Leading port of Ukraine in North Black Sea
5. Far East Japan, Korea, China & Taiwan
6. Indo-China India, China, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam &
Laos
7. South East Asia Myanmar, Malaysia, Thialand, Singapore, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos,
Indonesia, Philipinnes.
8. Middle East South west Asia & North Eastern Egypt.
9. Deepest Lake Lake Baikal
10. Largest manmade lake Lake Volga
11. Irrawady river Flows into bay of Bengal
12. Mekong river Drains into South China Sea
13. Red River Gulf of Tonkin
14. Salween River Gulf of Martaban.
15. Macao Administrative region of China, on China’s southeastern coast
16. Isle of Man (U.K.) Midway between the coasts of Northern Ireland and England
17. Harbin Capital of Heilongjiang province
18. Bandung Java (Indonesia).
19. Sapporo Hokkaido
20. Kra Isthmus Narrowest point on the Malay Peninsula, in Thailand
21. Larut Plain Malaysia
22. Bangka Island lying east of Sumatra, Indonesia. Famous for Tin mining &
separated from Sumatra by Bangka strait.
Population by Continents (in millions)

1. Asia 3879
2. Africa 877
3. Europe 727
4. North America 501
5. South America 379
6. Australia 32
World Population Milestones

1. .5 billion 1650
2. 1 billion 1820
3. 2 billion 1927
4. 3 billion 1960
5. 4 billion 1974
6. 5 billion 1987
7. 6 billion 1999
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Tribes
1. Yorubas Nigeria
2. Tauregs Sahara
3. Karen Myanmar
4. Hmong Known in China as Miao and in Southeast Asia as Meo.
5. Arawaks Native people of the Greater Antilles.
Famous Mining Regions

1. Lumbabshi Copper Zaire
2. Wankee Coal Zimbabwe
3. Kasia Diamond Zaire
4. Rustenberg Platinum S.Africa
5. Mt. Tom Price Iron Ore Australia (Hamersley Ranges)
6. Ipswich Coal & Lignite Australia (Near Brisbane)
7. Hubei Coal China
8. Kansu (or Gansu) Bauxite China
9. Daqing Crude Oil China (Heilongjiang province)
10. Dakang Crude Oil China
11. Chauk Crude Oil Burma
Famous Dams/Falls
1. Aswan Dam Nile Egypt
2. Kariba Dam Zambezi Zambia & Zimbabwe
3. Kainji Dam Niger Nigeria
4. Boyoma Dam Zaire Congo
5. Aksombo Dam (Volta Dam) Volta Ghana
6. Victoria Falls Zambezi Zambia & Zimbabwe
7. Owen Falls Lake Alberta (White Nile) Uganda
8. Stanley Falls Zaire Congo
Important Industrial Centres

1. Muroran Iron & Steel Hokaido, Japan
2. Birmingham Iron & Steel U.K.
3. Houston Oil Refinery USA
4. Windsor Automobile Canada (on Detroit river)
5. Westphalia Iron & Steel Germany
6. Shenyang Iron & Steel China (Pittsburg of China)
7. Kyoto Handicrafts & Toys Japan
8. Milan Textile Italy
9. Turin Automobile Italy
10. Leipzig Optical Insruments Germany
11. Sarnia Oil Refinery Canada (East of Michigan)
12. Akron Synthetic Rubber South of Lake Erie (Ohio)
13. Chelyabinsk Iron & Steel North of Magnitogorsk
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14. Nagoya Ship Building Japan
15. Multan Pottery Pakistan (E of Ganganagar)
Important Lakes
1. Lake Tana Ethiopia. Source of Blue Nile. Not formed by rift valley
2. Lake Alberta Border of Uganda, DRC
3. Lake Assal Sudan Ethiopia border. Lowest point of Africa
4. Lake Biwa Japan’s Largest lake near Nagoya
5. Lake Zaysan Kazhakstan
6. Lake Tonle Sab Cambodia
7. Lake Toba Sumatra (Crater)
Mountain Chains
1. Pindhos Mountains Greece
2. Dinaric Alps Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia Herz., Serbia & Montenegro
3. Carpathians Slovakia & Romania
4. Balkan Mountains North of Rhodopi Mountains in Bulgaria
5. Rhodopi Mountains Bulgaria
6. Matopo Hills South western Zimbabwe
Islands & the Controlling Nation

Denmark Bornholm, Faeroe Islands, Greenland
Estonia Hiiuma, Saarema
Finland Aland Islands
France Corsica, Martinique, Reunion, Kerguelen (North of Antactica)
Germany Helgoland
Greece Crete,
Italy Sardinia, Sicily
Norway Svalbard
Portugal Azores, Madeira
Spain Balearic Islands, Canary islands
Sweden Gotland
United Kingdom Isle of Man, Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, Western Isles, South
Sandwich , Falkland Island, Ascension Island, Bermuda.
Rivers & Countries

Nelson Issuing from NE of Lake Winnipeg & flowing to Hudson Bay.
Kolyma N-E Siberia
Olenek Nothern Siberian region
Don Fourth largest in Europe. Rises near Tula & flows to Sea of Azov
Pechora Rises in Urals & flows into Arctic
Liao Liaoning province of China
Fraser British Columbia (Canada).
Loire The longest river in France
Daugava Rises in Russia, Belarus, Latvia & then into Gulf of Riga
Tagus Spain
Neman River Belarus & flows into Baltic Sea
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Ebro Spain
Garonne Spain
James River Virginia, United States
Waikato New Zealands longest river
Merrimack N. E. United States.
Some Important Straits & Gulfs

1. Bass Strait Australia & Tasmania
2. Torres Strait Australia & New Guinea
3. Cook Strait North Island & South Island in New Zealand
4. Dardanelles Strait Aegean Sea & Sea of Marmara
5. Davis Strait North Atlantic Ocean and Baffin Bay, NE Canada
6. Juan de Fuca Strait Washington and southern Vancouver, Canada
7. Kerch Strait Sea of Azov & Black Sea
8. Mackinac Strait Lake Michigan & Lake Huron
9. Magellan Strait South American mainland & island of Tierra del Fuego
10. Makassar Strait Borneo & Sulawesi.
11. Messina Strait Italy & Sicily
12. Sunda Strait Java & Sumatra
13. Bonifacio Strait Corsica Island (France) & Italian island of Sardinia (south).
14. Dover strait England & France. Connecting English Channel & North Sea.
15. Soya Strait Sakhalin to the North & Hokkaido to the south.
16. Tsushima Strait Korea & Kyushu
17. Tsugaru Strait Hokkaido & Honshu
18. Kii Strait Honshu & Shikoku
19. Strait of Otranto Connecting the Adriatic with the Ionian Sea. Italy & Greece.
20. Strait of Hormuz Persian Gulf & Gulf of Oman
21. Strait of Tiran Gulf of Aqaba to the Red Sea.
22. Tsugaru Strait Between Hokkaido & Honshu.
23. Johor Strait Singapore & Malay Peninsula
24. Gulf of Carpentera Cape York Peninsula & Arnhem Land
25. Gulf of Bothnia Arm of Baltic Sea between Finland & Sweden.
26. Gulf of Lion Arm of Mediterranean Sea in Southern France
27. Gulf of Martaban South of Myanmar. Salween flows into it.
28. Gulf of Sidra North of Libya. Inlet of Mediterranean.
29. Gulf of Tonkin South of China & East of Vietnam
30. Gulf of Mannar India & Srilanka. Tambraparni from India & Aruvi Aru from
Srilanka flows into it.
31. Spencer Gulf East of Adeilade.
32. Gulf of Bo Hai West of Korea.
Imaginary Lines & the countries through which they pass

Tropic of Cancer Hawaii, Mexico, Bahamas, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Algeria,
Niger, Libya, Chad (northern most point), Egypt, Saudi Arabia, UAE,
Oman, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Taiwan
Equator Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome & Principe, Gabon, Congo, DR of
Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, and Kiribati.
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Tropic of Capricorn Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, French Polynesia, Australia,
Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa, Botswana, Namibia
Rivers of Africa

Aurgangabad Sambhaji Nagar
Dutch East Indies Indonesia
East Timor Loro Sae
Quilon Kollam
Saigon Ho Chi Minh City
Sandwich Islands Hawaii Islands
Tanjore Thanjavur
Greenland Kalaallit Nanaat
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Sorbiquets
1. Britain of the South New Zealand
2. City of Eternal Springs Quito
3. Great White way Broadway, New York
4. Island of Fire Iceland
5. Land of Marble Italy
6. Land of Morning Calm Korea
7. Land of Perpetual Greenery Natal
8. Never Never Land Prairies of North America
9. Pearl of the Orient Hong Kong
10. Power Keg of Europe Balkans
11. Quaker City Philadelphia, USA
12. Queen of the Adriatic Venice
13. Queen of the Arabian Sea Kochi
14. Venice of the East Alappuzha, India
15. Venice of the North Stockholm
16. White City Belgrade, Yugoslavia
17. White Man’s Grave Guinea Coast
18. World’s Loneliest Island Tristan da Cunha
19. Spice Garden of India Kerala
20. The Sea of Mountains British Columbia
21. The Spice Island of the West Grenada
22. George Cross Island Malta
23. Pillars of Hercules Gibraltar
24. Garden Province of South Africa Natal
Miscellaneous Facts:
1. Congo River is also known as River Zaire.
2. Altai Mountains extend from the headwaters of the Ob’ and Irtysh rivers in southern Siberia in Russia,
into Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China and into Mongolia. The mountain range extending
from northern California to British Columbia is called Cascades. Mt. Rainier near Seattle is its highest
point. The loftiest mountain range in USA is Sierra Nevada. The Cambrian mountains are located in
Wales.
3. Giants Causeway is located on the coast of northern Ireland. It is thought by geologists to have formed
when an ancient lava flow cooled and solidified.
4. The major peninsulas of Russia starting from west to east are Kola peninsula, Kanin peninsula, Yamal
peninsula, Gyda peninsula & Taymyr peninsula.
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5. Buryat Republic lies north of central Monglia. It is the homeland of buryats.
6. The deserts of Western Australia from North to South are Tanami Desert, Great Sandy desert, Gibson
desert & Great Victoria desert. Simpson desert lies in the central region north of L. Eyre.
7. San Diego city lies in the extreme southwest corner of California just above Mexico. Las Vegas lies in
Nevada state & near Mojave Desert. Wellington, Capital of New Zealand comes under West European
type of climate. In New Zealand the southern island is more developed compared to the northern. In china
type of climate precipitation is around 100 cm & well distributed throughout the year. Marine west
European climate experiences rainier winters than summers.
8. The climate of steppes can be summarized by hot summers and cold winters, averaging 30 cm of rain
every year. The world's largest zone of steppes is found in central Russia and neighbouring republics of
Central Asia
9. Langley is a unit equal to one gram calorie per square centimeter of irradiated surface, used to measure
solar radiation
10. Baotou is in inner Mongolia, China & is known for iron & steel complex. Caracas, Capital of Venezuela
comes under monsoon type of climate. Sao Paulo has China type of Climate. Adelaide has Mediterranean
type of climate.
11. Khyber pass in Pakistan is located in the Hindu Kush range. It links Peshawar in Pakistan with Jalalabad
in Afghanistan, where it connects to a route leading to the Afghan capital of Kabul. The route of the Bolan
Pass links Quetta in Baluchistan Province with Kandahar in Afghanistan. Peshawar, Islamabad,
Rawalpindi, Sialkot, Gujranwala & Lahore are from north to south in N. Pakistan.
12. Peurto Rico Trench is the deepest in Atlantic.
13. Liechtenstein, independent principality in central Europe; bounded on the east by Austria, and on the
south, west, and north by Switzerland. Malta is an independent republic, south of Sicily. San Marino,
republic in southern Europe, an enclave in northern Italy
14. Irtish River is the 9th longest in the world & has its source in Altai Mountains Russia.
15. Montego Bay is in Jamaica where the Sea Law Treaty was signed.
16. Rio de la Plata is the estuary formed from the combination of Uruguay River & the Parana River.
17. Andesite line marks the boundary between continental shelf & continental slope. Indian Ocean was
known to the Greeks as Erythraean sea.
18. Zambia is an important producer of Copper & Zimbabwe is known for gold. Qeshm is the only island of
Iran & lies in the strait of Hormuz. It is the biggest island in the Persian Gulf.
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19. A person born in Puerto Rico is a US citizen. Atlantic Ocean is the roughest of all oceans. Its coastline is
larger than those of Pacific & Indian Ocean put together. It receives more fresh water than any other
ocean.
20. Prague is situated on the bank of river Vltava. Madrid (Manzarenes), Dublin (Liffey) & Rotterdam (Rhine,
Maas & Scheldt).
21. Tuaregs are the tribal people of the Sahara. They speak a Berber language called Tamarshak.
22. California (Sunkist), Spain (Seviue), Tangier (Tangerine), China & Japan (Mandarin) are the various
varieties of oranges.
23. Pustaz are temperate grasslands of Hungary. The cattle kept by the Masai are the ‘zebu’ cattle.
24. Big Inch (Gulf of Mexico to NE US), Tap Line (Gulf & Arabian Peninsula to Mediterranean) &
COMECOM (Urals & Volga to East Europe) are some of the important pipelines.
25. Birmingham is the second largest city in Britain. Aztecs & Mayas were flourished both in Mexico &
surrounding regions. Incas were in Peru & the Andes. Polygon of Drought in Brazil is the NE region.
26. Oil is found in Venezuela (Lake Marcaibo), Iraq (kirkuk, Mosul, Basra), S. Arabia (Ghawar, Dharan,
Abaqaiq), Chechnya (Grozny), Russia (Sakhalin), Nigeria (Port Harcourt). Yadavaran is the largest is
Iran’s largest on shore oilfield.
27. Mt. Logan is the highest peak of Canada. Mt. Toubkal is the highest peak of Atlas mountains.
28. Antwerp is the chief port and second largest city of Belgium. Kaohsiung (Southern Taiwan) is among the
top five busiest sea ports of the world.
29. Mexico is the leading producer of silver, sulphur & fluorite. Denver is the capital of Colorado. Hudson
Bay is the world’s largest inland sea.
30. Brazil shares its boundary with all except Chile & Ecuador. The highest active volcano in the world Mt.
Ojas del Salado (Argentina Chile is in the Andes).
31. Trans Andean Railways connect Buenos Aires & Valpariso. European transcontinental railway runs from
Paris to Warsaw. Orient express runs from Paris to Istanbul. The Canadian Pacific railway runs from Saint
John in New Brunswick to Vancouver on the pacific coast. Canadian National Railway runs from
Vancouver to Halifax
32. Blue Nile originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopian Island & White Nile From Lake Victoria. White Nile &
Blue Nile meet at Khartoum, the capital of Sudan.
33. Port Said (Mediterranean) is towards North & Port Suez towards south (Red Sea).
34. The northwest countries of Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia are together called the ‘Maghreb’ which in Arabic
means west. Oil Palm is an important agricultural product of Nigeria.
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35. Botswana is the worlds largest producer of gem quality diamonds (jewellery diamonds).
36. Liberia is the largest producer of coffee & rubber in Africa.
37. Scandinavia applies to Norway, Sweden, Denmark & sometimes Iceland. Baltic states include Estonia,
Latvia & Lithuania. Mont Blanc is situated on the French-Italian border.
38. Bavaria is the largest state of Germany & Munich is its capital. Kalinangrad is a part of Russia but
separated from it by Lithuania.
39. The Baltic is connected with the North Sea by the Nord-Ostsee-Kanal (the Kiel or Kaiser Wilhelm Canal).
Murmansk is the only ice free port along the arctic ocean route to Vladivostok.
40. Two important varieties of Eucalyptus in Australia are Jarrah & Karri.
41. New Zeland generates 7 % of its energy from geysers. The highest peak of the country is Mt. Cook.
42. Amu Darya forms a part of the border between Afghanistan & Turkmenistan. The enormous desert that
covers Turkmenistan is Karakum.
43. The Euphrates originates in Turkey & flows past Syria & Iraq before meeting the Tigris. The joint waters
of Tigris & Euphrates are called Shat-al-Arab. The Tigris also originates from Turkey.
44. Hokkaido is connected to Honshu across Tsugaru strait by an under sea tunnel. Kurile Islands lie to the
NE of Hokkaido & separate the sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific.
45. The top 5 countries in terms of Hydro power potential are China, Brazil, CIS, Canada & India. While the
top 5 in installed capacity are USA, Canada, China, Brazil & Norway.
46. Chimborazo is the highest extinct volcano & lies in Ecuador.
47. Botswana has the highest prevalence rate of AIDs while South Africa has highest absolute number of
AIDS patients followed by India.
48. The great channel separates the Andaman & Nicobar Island from Sumatra.
49. Hammerfest, town in Northern Norway is the northernmost town of Europe. Stromboli is known as “the
light house of the Mediterranean”. Le Havre is a city in Normandy, northern France, on the English
Channel, at the mouth of the Seine.
50. Granite rock is metamorphosed into schist rock.
51. Grand Coulee dam (USA) is on Columbia river & Cobora Basa Dam (Mozambique) is on Oragnbe river.
Hoover Dam (USA) is on Colorado river.
52. Mixed farming refers to sowing two or more crops in mixture in the same field. Multiple cropping means
the planting of two or more different crops on the same acreage for harvest within the same crop year.
53. Liverpool, city in northwestern England, on the Mersey River, near its mouth on the Irish Sea.
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54. The following features are arranged in increasing geological age East African rift, Gulf of Aden, Atlantic
Sea & Mediterranean sea.
55. The Pantanal is the world’s largest freshwater wetland in Brazil. Pripet marshes are large wetlands along
Pripet river in Belarus. The Great Okefenokee Swamp is the largest swamp found in all of North America.
56. The Bie Plateau occupies most of central Angola & the Okavango river rises here. Huila plateau lies to its
south.
57. The top 5 wind power generating countries are Germany, Spain, USA, India & Denmark.
58. A geyser erupts intermittently. Hot springs are more common than geysers & the former are not explosive
in general.
59. Tibet is enclosed between Kunlun to the North & Himalayas to the south. Takla Makan desert, Tarim
basin & Turfan basin all lie between Tien Shan range to the north & Kunlun to the south.
60. Strato Cones (Cotopaxi), Dormant Volcano (Vesuvius), Shield Volcano (Mt. Kilavea, Mt. Etna),
Composite cone. Examples of composite volcanoes include Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount St Helens (USA)
and Mount Pinatubo (Philippines).
61. Cayman Trench, also called Bartlett Deep is a spreading ridge on the floor of the western Caribbean Sea
between Jamaica and the Cayman Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.
62. The Russian cities from NW to SE are St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod (Gorky near Kazan),
Magnitogorsk. Later from west to east Omsk, Novosibirsk, Novokuznetsk, Irkutsk, & Vladivostok.
63. Rostov (Gateway to Caucasus), St. Petersburg (largest port of Russia), Ivanovo (Machester of Russia) &
Nizhny Novgorod (Detroit of Russia).
64. Mt. Rainier, Mt. Hood, Mt. Shasta are from North to South in NW USA. Polland is the world most
polluted country.
65. The Cocos plate lies to the west of Panama in the Pacific north of Nazca plate. Caribbean plate lies east of
Panama in the Carribean region. Scotia plate lies to the south of South America.
66. Dead Sea, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Nyasa are all rift valley lakes but Lake Victoria is not. Mangala dam is
in Pakistan over river Jhelum. Tarelad Dam, the earth’s larges earthern dam is in Pakistan. Columbia
plateau is volcanic in origin. Ozark plateau is domed. Tibetan plateau is intermontane. The Finger Lakes
are glacially formed lakes in upstate New York. Cayuga is the longest of the finger lakes.
67. Azores, Bermuda, Canary Island & Cape Verde Island is the sequence from North to South.
68. White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian sea lie in that order from west to east.
69. In Bangladesh when Tista joins Brahmaputra it is known as Jamuna. When later Ganga joins the
combined river is called Padma first & Meghna further downstream.
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70. The mountain peaks in the Himalayas of Nepal going from west to east is Mt Api (W. Nepal), Mt
Dhaulagiri, Mt Annapurna, Mt Manaslu (Central Nepal) & Mt Gaurishankar, Mt Everest, Mt Makalu &
Mt Kanchenjunga (E. Nepal). Mt Pidurutalagala, the highest point in Sri Lanka.
71. Albania, Macedonia & Bulgaria lie to the North of Greece. Biskra depression is in Algeria.
72. Fremantle Doctor is a cooling afternoon sea breeze which occurs during summer months in coastal areas
of Western Australia. The Guba wind occurs along the Papua coast (South of Papua New Guinea).
73. Forests cover 64 percent of Japan’s land area & it is one of the world’s largest importers of wood. The
most densely populated province of Canada is Prince Edward Island. Klamath mountains are in California.
74. The lakes in Canada from North to south are Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Wollaston, Reindeer &
Winnipeg. The cities of Canada along the St. Lawrence from North to South are Montreal, Ottawa,
Toronto, Hamilton & Windsor. Sudbury lies to the north of Lake Huron.
75. Halifax (Nova Scotia), St. John (New Foundland) & Saint John (New Brunswick) are in Canada. The
centre for steel industry in Canada is Hamilton. The city of Toronto is the largest in Canada followed by
Montreal & Vancouver.
76. Basque people live along the Pyrenees in Spain. The Gap between the Pyrenees & the Central Massif is
called the Belfort gap. The physical feature of France from North to south are Ardennes, Vosges, Jura &
the Alps. Bohemian Forest is a highland region, rising mainly along the border between the Czech
Republic and Germany, and also in Austria.
77. The southernmost of Japanese islands is Ryuku which lies to the south of Kyushu & North of Taiwan.
Nagoya is the Detroit of Japan. Kitakyushu (Northern tip of Kyushu) is a conurbation of five cities. The
most populous province of China is Sichuan.
78. Fushun, Shenyang (Formerly Mukden – Main industrial cluster of Manchuria) & Anshan are in that order
from North to South all in Liaoning province. Lop Nor is famous for nuclear activity. Qaidam basin is to
the north of Tibet plateau & to the south of Kunlun Mountains.
79. The Sea of Galilee is Israel's largest freshwater lake & lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-
lowest lake in the world after the Dead Sea. It is to the north of Dead Sea.
80. Ahaggar Mountains, also Hoggar Mountains, plateau region, southern Algeria, in the center of the Sahara.
The major basin of Africa is El Djouf, now occupied by the Niger River Basin in West Africa. Karoo is a
semidesert plateau regions in southern South Africa. Adamawa Plateau region, west central Africa, is in
central Cameroon, extending into southeastern Nigeria and western Central African Republic. Futa Jallon,
highland region in west central Guinea. Tibesti mountainous region of the central Sahara, in northern
Chad, extending into northeastern Niger and southern Libya.
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Landscape of Africa
Saudi Arabia
Rivers of South America
100
Natural Landscape of South America
China Provinces
101
United States Provinces
Iraq
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Physical Geography
Various Geographical Institutes
1. Hydrographic Biological Commission Scandinavia
2. Marine Biological Association United Kingdom
3. Research Institute of Marine Fisheries Canada
4. Coast & Geodetic Survey United States
Geographers & Contribution

1. Tetrahedral Hypothesis Lowthian Green
2. Pear Shaped earth deformation Jeans & Sollas
3. Concept of succession, climatic climax, mono climax Clements
4. Concept of Poly climax Whittaker
Marine Sediments
S Zone of Ocean Percentage of Total Marine Deposits
1. Continental Shelf 15 %
2. Continental Slopes 41 %
3. Continental Rises 31 %
4. Deep Ocean Floor 13 %
Oceanic Zones & Types of Deposits

1. Continental Margins Organic Matter
2. Shallow Sea Sands, Silts
3. Bathyl Region Blue mud, Green mud
4. Abyssal Plain Ooze
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Deposits & Percentage Area Occupied

1. Littoral & Shallow water Deposit 9%
2. Deep Sea (Terrigenous) deposits 15 %
3. Pelagic Ooze & Red Clay 75 %
Terms used for Deserts

Hamada Bare rock or rock with a thin veneer of pebble (Arabic)
Reg Desert pavement of loose stones (N. Africa)
Serir Desert pavement of loose stones, coarser and older than reg (N. Africa)
Debba Extensive sandy plain (N. Africa)
Erg Vast region deeply covered with sand and topped by sand dunes (N. Africa)
Playa Extremely flat, vegetation free area of silt or clay in the lowest part of a
closed basin
Salina Playa with saline water or kept moist by rising groundwater
Chott Closed basin containing a dry lake or playa (N. African)
Clouds & Characteristics

Cirro Cumulus Mackerel Sky
Cirrus Mare’s Tail (As they resemble horse’s tail)
Cumulus Cauliflower Heads
Altostratus Watery Look
Terms
Megatherms Equatorial and tropical, tropical rain forests
Mesotherms Tropical and sub tropical, tropical deciduous forests
Microtherms Temperate and high altitude
Heskitotherms Arctic and alpine regions
Landforms Classification
First order Oceans, continents
Second order Mountain systems, physiographic. Provinces
Third order Mountain ranges, major valleys
Fourth order Volcanoes, fault blocks, valleys
Fifth order Cinder cones, deltas, playa lakes
Sixth order Sand dunes, terraces
1. The eastern regions of humid subtropical areas receive rainfall throughout the year like equatorial regions.
Isotherms are irregular but closely spaced in Northern Hemishpere.
2. Alpha centauri is also known as Proxima Centauri. Asthenosphere lies above mesosphere. Ox Bow lake is
a characteristic of the river in its old age.
3. Steam fog occurs when cold air blows over warmer waters & Advection fog occurs when moist air blows
over cold surface. The only gas, not uniformly distributed over the entire atmosphere is ozone.
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4. One nautical mile is equal to 1.85 kilometers & one mile is equal to 1.6 kms. Albatross Cordillera is in
Pacific ocean.
5. Prince Edward Crozet ridge & Amsterdam – St. Paul Plateau are located in the Indian ocean.
Lakshadweep-Chagos ridge, St. Paul ridge, Amsterdam-St. Paul plateau divide the Indian ocean into
almost two basins.
6. Emperor Seamount chain is in the Pacific Ocean. The maximum width of the continental shelf is off the
arctic coast of Siberia. The deepest continental shelves surround Antarctica. In most of the areas the
continental shelf is formed by constructive ocean.
7. The evolution of mid-Atlantic ridge can be dated back to Pliocene age.
8. Continental shelf has maximum depth of 200m. Continental slope has a depth of about 3600 m. Abyssal
hills have height of 1000 m & guyots are 1100 m high.
9. Zaire canyon is riverine, Canyons of south California are dendritic, Canyons of Bering Sea are the largest
& Oceanographer canyon is small gorge.
10. Atlantic Ocean has the maximum percentage of continental shelf area followed by Pacific & Indian.
11. Red clay deposit is widely found in Pacific Ocean. Pteropod is found mainly only in the Atlantic ocean.
Radiolarian & Diatom ooze can be found at greater depth than Pteropod & globigerina ooze because
siliceous ooze are less soluble while calcareous oozes are easily soluble.
12. A zone in which the density of water increase with increasing depth is called Pycnocline zone.
13. Silt is smaller in size than sand but larger than clay. Pebble is smaller than cobble.
14. Salinity of ocean is a function of latitude. Gulf of Bothnia records the lowest salinity of less than 2 %.
15. Lower the salinity higher is the freezing point.
16. Kiel Canal shortens the distance between London & Kaliningrad.
17. C horizon is not a part of mineral horizon. The dominant species of an ecosystem are more prone to
climatic changes. Trasnfromation process of pedogenic regime includes humification & mineralization.
Entisols are also highly productive in some regions. Chelating agents are associated with the process of
podzolization.
18. Climate & biotic factors are active soil forming factors whereas time, topography & parent rock are
passive. The transition zone between two ecosystems is called ecotone. Allelopathy is a phenomenon in
which toxins produced by one species inhibit the growth of other.
19. USDA soils & their zonal equivalents are: Vertisols (grumusols), Mollisols (Chernozem), Spodosols
(Podzols) & Alfisols (Degraded chernozems). The loess serves as an ideal parent material for chernozem
soils.
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20. Soils & the vegetation supported are: brown earths (deciduous forests), podzol (heath forest), chernozem
(steppe grasses), grumusol (savanna grasses). Tropical heath forest, also known as Kerangas forest, is a
type of forest found on the island of Borneo, especially in Brunei.
21. The types of humus in terrestrial environment are: mor, moder & mull. Mor is a type of humus, which
occur largely in coniferous forest soils and the moorlands soils. This humus arise under conditions of low-
biological activity in soil. Moder is a transitional form of humus between mull and moder, characteristic
for sod-podzolic soils, loesses and mountain grassland soils. Mull is a type of humus characteristic for
chestnut soils & arises under grassland conditions. Mull is well humified organic matter. The favourable
pH for the growth of cereal crops is 6.5.
22. Climax (community) which is the hypothetical optimal community that would eventually develop under
ideal conditions and without human interference. If climate dictates the nature of this community we
describe this as a climactic climax whereas if the soil conditions limit the type of climax that develops we
speak of an edaphic climax (E.g. Savannah). Where there has been some interference that degrades the
climax we say that secondary succession has occurred and if we now view this secondary community as
on its way back to the climax we can refer to this as a sub-climax.
23. Aestivation refers to the state of inactivity adopted by desert animals during the hottest & driest season.
The oldest animal fossil has been found in Zambia.
24. Devonian period is the age of fishes. Ambhibians & reptiles evolved during carboniferous period.
25. Sun Spots are cooler areas of the sun. The dark lines in corona are called ‘Fraunhofer lines’.
26. For an earthquake at a particular spot the shadow zone of P-waves invariably exist between 103 & 143
degree form the earthquake focus.
27. The variation of wind with elevation through the friction layer is represented by an equi angular spiral
known as the Ekman spiral. Beaufort scale ranges from 0 to 12.
28. Saturn is known as Jewel Planet & Venus as veiled planet.
29. Primary waves can change into secondary waves under certain conditions due to refraction. Surface waves
or long period waves cover the longest distance of all seismic waves. Focus is also known as hypo centre.
Essential Extra Reference:

• How to Calculate the sun’s latitude at solstice for various latitudes.
• World Population Data (K. Siddhartha –Ensemble-Appendix –Geo of India-page 13)
• Isostasy, Map references.
106
Geography of India
Top States by Area & Population
S Area Population
1. Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh
2. Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra
3. Maharashtra Bihar
4. Andhra Pradesh West Bengal
5. Uttar Pradesh Andhra Pradesh
6. J & K
7. Gujarat
8. Karnataka
9. Orissa
10. Chattisgarh
Goa is the smallest state by area & Sikkim is the smallest in Population.
Andamans & Nicobar is the biggest UT by area & Delhi by population.
Lakshwadeep is the smallest UT both in population & area
India’s World Rank in Various Commodities

I rank II rank III rank
1. Banana Oil Seeds Coconuts
2. Buffalo Milk Garlic Tobacco Leaves
3. Castor Beans Cauliflower Potatoes
4. Fresh Fruit Cashew Nuts Cotton seed
5. Ginger Lemons & Lime Rape Seed
6. Goat Milk Rice Sorghum
7. Jute Wheat
8. Lentils Cow Milk
9. Mangoes Fresh Vegetables
10. Tea Sugar Cane
11. Spices Dry Onions
12. Pulses Groundnuts in shell
13. Seaseme Seed
14. Pigeon Peas
Famous Ores of India

1. Kudremukh Iron Ore Karnataka
2. Aliabet Offshore oil field Gulf of Kambhat
3. Bailadila Iron Ore Chattisgarh
4. Gurumahisani Iron Ore Mayubhanj, Orissa
5. Balghat Copper, Manganese M.P (Malanjkhand)
6. Koraput Bauxite Orissa
7. Kolihan Copper Rajasthan
8. Kodarma Mica Jharkhand
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9. Lohardaga Bauxite Jharkhand
10. Gumla Bauxite Jharkhand
Various Geographical Features
1. New Moore Deltaic Island & disputed site between Bangladesh
& India
2. Kacchativu Fishing area leased to Sri Lanka
3. Mandav Hills Gujarat. North of Gir Hills.
4. Rarh Plains West Bengal.
5. Mikir & Rengma Hills Assam
6. Dudma Falls Machkund river, Orissa.
7. Thekkadi Sanctuary Kerala
8. Cambarjua Canal Goa
9. Sirhind Canal Sutlej
10. Upper Bari Doab Canal Ravi
11. Hampi Karnataka
12. Keibul Lamjao Only floating national park in Manipur Loktak lake.
13. Pulicat Lake Barred by long sandpit – Sri Harikota Island.
14. Gohana Lake Situated near Devprayag in Garhwal
15. Wular & Dal Lake Formed by tectonic forces of faulting.
Wetlands of India
Harike Punjab
Ashtamudi Kerala
Bhoj Madhya Pradesh
Kabar Bihar
Kanji Punjab
Kolleru Andhra Pradesh
Nalsarovar Gujarat
Pichola Rajasthan
Renuka Himachal Pradesh
Sasthamkotta Kerala
Sukhana Chandigarh
Ujni Maharashtra
Doabs of India
1. Sind Sagar Doab Indus & Jhelum
2. Jech/Chej Doab Chenab & Jhelum
3. Bari Doab Beas, Ravi & Satluj
4. Rachna Doab Ravi & Chenab
5. Jalandhar/Bist Doab Sutlej & Beas
Famous Beaches of India

1. Gopalpur & Chandipur beach Orissa
2. Bheemunipatnam beach Andhra Pradesh
3. Anjuna, Calangute & Baga beach Goa
4. Ahmedpur Mandvi Beach Gujarat
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5. Karwar, Maple beach Karnataka
Agri-Imports Agri Exports

1. Vegetables Oil 72 % Marine Product 18 %
2. Pulses 14 % Rice 12 %
3. Cashew Nuts 9% Wheat 7%
4. Fruits & Other Nuts 4% Fruits & Vegetables 6%
5. Milk & Cream .6 % Tea 5%
Glaciers
1. Batura glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
2. Hispar glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
3. Skamri glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
4. Biafo glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
5. Baltora glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
6. Siachen glacier Karakoram range (Extreme J & K now in PoK)
7. Sonapani glacier Pirpanjal region
8. Gangotri glacier Kumaon-Garhwal region (Uttaranchal)
9. Milam glacier Uttaranchal
10. Pindari glacier Uttaranchal
11. Rambang glacier Kanchenjunga-Everst region
12. Khumbu glacier Mt. Everest region
13. Zemu glacier Kanchenjunga-Everest region (Sikkim)
Forestry Research Institutions

1. Institute of Rain & Moist Deciduous Forests Jorhat
2. Institute of wood science & Technology Bangalore
3. Tropical Forestry Research Institute Jabalpur
4. Institute of Forest Genetics & Tree Breeding Coimbatore
5. Temperate Forest Research Institute Shimla
6. Centre for Forest Productivity Ranchi
7. Centre for Social Forestry & Environment Allahabad
8. CAZRI Jodhpur
Natural Gas Based Projects

1. Dahej Power Project Gujarat
2. Pata Petrochemical Project U.P.
3. Usar LPG project Maharashtra
4. Lakwa LPG project Assam
1. Largest SC community is chamar. The rainiest period for Tamil Nadu is October-November & not
December-January. Shola is a type of high-altitude stunted evergreen forest found in southern India
mainly in Karnataka, Kerala & Tamil Nadu. India has monopoly in the production of Lac.
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2. Rama's Bridge, Nala's Bridge or Adam's Bridge is a chain of limestone shoals, between the islands of
Mannar, near northwestern Sri Lanka, and Rameswaram, off the southeastern coast of India. The Pamban
Bridge also called Indira Gandhi Bridge lies on the Indian end of the Palk Strait that connects
Rameswaram island to mainland India.
3. Banbasa wild life sanctuary is in U.P. The largest tiger reserve in India is Nagarjuna Sagar – Sri Sailam
tiger reserve.
4. Rivers of East India from North to south are Damodar, Subarnarekha, Brahmani-Baitrani & Mahanadi.
5. The rivers of Peninsular India from North to south are Krishna, Penneru, Palar, Cauvery & Vaigai.
6. The major tribes who inhabit the mountains of Kerala are Kanis, Uralis, Kadar, Kanikkar, Paniyar etc..
They are considered to be the descendants of the Negrito race. Even the Angami Nagas & the Badgis of
the Rajmahal Hills in Bihar belong to the Negrito race.
7. The largest permanent migration of the Indian outside the country in the last century was associated with
the sugarcane plantations.
8. Vishakhapatnam is the deepest port. Kolkata is riverine port. Kandla is tidal port. Mumbai is biggest port.
Nava-Sheva (JLNP) is the busiest port.
9. Kadam project is in Andhra Pradesh & Gurusoppa project in Karnataka.
10. Bheraghat falls (Narmada), Sivasamudram falls (Cauvery) & Hundru falls (Subarnarekha)
11. Tungabhadra water dispute (A.P. & Karnataka), Krishna Water dispute (Maharashtra, Karnataka &
Andhra Pradesh).
12. The major fishing harbours of India are Cochin, Madras & Vishakhapatnam
13. The following steel plants are in order of decreasing capacity: Bhilai, Durgapur & Burnpur.
14. Kerala coast is an example of emergent coast. Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh; Sasthamkotta Lake in
Kerala are important.
15. In 2001 census, the proportion of children population to total population was the least among jains & the
sex ratio was the least among sikhs.
16. The correct sequence of ranges/hills in peninsular plateau region from north to south is Garhjat Hills,
Balaghat range, Palkonda range, Cardamom hills.
17. Valmiki Tiger reserve & Kabar Lake bird sanctary are in Bihar. Ujni wetlands is in Maharashtra & Deeper
Beel wetlands in Assam. Shahpur Kandi irrigation project is in Punjab & Teesta Barrage in West Bengal.
Kanheri National Park (Maharashtra) & Chandaka National Park (Orissa)
18. India is divided into five seismic zones. Zone I is most secure & Zone V being most vulenerable.
Aluminium plants are located near source of power & not near raw material.
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19. Uttar Pradesh has the largest area under ravines. Aliabet is the largest island in the estuary of the
Narmada.
20. Kanthi coastal plain is in West Bengal & Nadhra plain is in Eastern Ghat.
21. Saddle Peak (North Andaman), Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar), Mount Diavolo (Little Nicobar) & Mount
Ford (Rutland Island).
22. Amarkantak plateau has radial drainage pattern. Garland canal project connects the rivers of east & west
India.
23. Assam shares its boundary with seven other Indian states, Mizoram with three states & Tripura with 2
states. Both M.P touches 5 states & Chattisgarh touches 6 states. UP touches 8 states.
24. Total number of India states that form international border with the neighbouring countries is 17. Five
Indian states have common border with Bangladesh.
25. In India the international boundary shared with different countries is Bangladesh (4096 km), Pakistan
(3310 km), Myanmar (1458 Km).
26. Tso-morari is a huge mountain lake in Southeast Ladakh. Kolleru Lake is a large freshwater lake in India's
Andhra Pradesh state. Ashtamudi Lake (Ashtamudi Kayal) is in Kollam district of Kerala state in south
India. Ashtamudi Lake is designated a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
27. Highest point is Singapore is Timah Hill. Lake Wular is the largest freshwater lake of India. Loktak lake
is formed due to faulting. Vembanad Lake due to offshore bar formation in backwaters of Kerala.
28. Brahmaputra River has maximum surface run off while Ganga has maximum catchment area.
29. The name of Pench National Park, M.P. was changed to "Indira Priyadarshini Pench National Park".
Orissa coast is mainly depositional in character.
30. Zojila pass is from Srinagar to Ladakh. Western ghats were uplifted in the Cenozoic period.
31. Tropic of Cancer passes through the following 8 states - Gujarat, Rajasthan, M.P, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura & Mizoram. It does not pass through Orissa.
32. The most prominent India-Bangladesh border issues are the Tin Bigha Corridor, Muhuri Char and New
Moore ( or South Talpatty/ Purbasha island).
33. Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) comprised 16.2 percent and 8.1 percent respectively of
the total population, according to Census of India 2001.
34. Indian board of wildlife is headed by Prime Minister of India. Gulf of Kutchh is a coral reef area.
35. Ragi, Bajra & Jowar are the three most important millets produced in India. Groundnut, rapeseed &
mustard are the most important oil seeds produced in India. India imports 40 % of its oilseeds needed.
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36. U.P, Punjab & Rajasthan are the top 3 milk producing states in India. In terms of sheep population
Rajasthan ranks number one.
37. India is divided into 35 meterological sub divisions. IMD defines normal monsoon year as the rainfall
between june-september is within plus/minus 10 per cent of the normal figure of 88 cm for the whole
country.
38. The Pangong Tso (largest in Himalayas) & Tso Moriri lakes are in J & K region. Gurudogmar in Northern
Sikkim is the highest lake.
39. Port Blair is located on South Andaman. Biggest island on Andaman & Nicobar island is Middel
Andaman. Highest point in the whole island is Saddle Peak on North Andaman Island. Narcondam island
lies to the north of Barren Island, both being to the east of Andamans. Mallamalai hills, Palakonda range
(both in A.P), Javadi Hills & Shevaroy Hills, Panchamalai hills, Sirumalai hills, Varushnad Hills in the
eastern ghats (all 5 in Tamil Nadu) are in that order from north to south. Nilgiris (Extreme west TN),
Annamalai hills & Cardamom hills from north to south in western ghats.
40. Moran river drains into Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar in Uttar Pradesh. Chandor Hills lie to the west of
Ajanta range in Maharasthra. To the south of Ajanta range lies Balaghat. Rajmahal Hills lie in NE
Jharkhand, forming the NE edge of Chhotanagpur plateu. Ramgarh hills lie in North Chhattisgarh &
Bastar plateau in south Chhattisgarh. Dandakranya overlaps Bastar plateau. To the south of Satpura range
lies Mahadeo hills & Gawilgarh hills. Rayalseema uplands lie to the south of Telangana plateau.
41. Pondicherry consists of four small unconnected districts: Pondicherry, Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) and Yanam
(A.P) on the Bay of Bengal and Mahé (Kerala) on the Arabian Sea.
42. Zoji La (J&K) Bara Lacha, Shipki La (H.P) Thag La, Niti & Lipu lekh (Uttaranchal) in that order form
NW to SE.
43. Mountains (11 %), Hilly region (18.6 %), Plateau (27 %) & Plain area (43 %) of total india’s area.
Sectoral Consumption of electricity is Industrial (35%), Agriculture (31%), Domestic (21%) &
Commercial (6%)
44. The east coastal plain is known as Northern Circars between Mahanadi & Krishna & Carnatic between
Krishna & the Cauvery rivers.
45. Rectangular drainage pattern (Kosi & its tributaries), Superimposed pattern (Damodar & Chambal),
Radial pattern (Amarkantak & Kathiawar region).
46. The maximum number of National Parks is in M.P & maximum sanctuaries in Andaman & Nicobar
47. Peaty & organic soils are found in Kottayam & Alappuzha districts of Kerala where they are called Kari.
Tidal or Littoral forests occur around the deltas, estuaries.
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48. Bananas, Mango & Citrus are the top three fruits by production. Potato, tomato, onion & cabbage top in
vegetable production.
49. Tamil Nadu & Gujarat (Lamba, Okha, Mandvi) lead in the production of wind power. A tidal power plant
is located at Durgaduani creek in Sundarbans, West Bengal.
50. The Isobar of 1018 millibars runs through the Indo-Gangetic plains during January & it becomes 1000
millibars in July. Dharwar (Archaean), Cuddapah (Proterozoic) & Vindhyan (Paleozoic) rocks are in that
order from old to new.
51. Some important minor ports of India are: Okha, Porbander, Veraval (from north to south in Gujarat),
Talasseri (Kerala), Naganipattnam (Tamil Nadu), Kakinada & Machilipatnam (N to S in A.P.).
52. In religious communities, Christians have the highest sex ratio (1009) & Sikh the least (893). Sex ratio in
Muslims is (936) higher than that of Hindu (931).
53. Talpatty Island and Purbasha Island is disputed territory between Bangladesh and India. Kalipani region
between India & Nepal. Quatern Island is disputed among India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Sir Creek
between Pakistan & India.
Million Cities of India, 2001

1 Greater Mumbai 19 Ludhiana
2 Kolkata 20 Kochi
3 Delhi 21 Visakhapatnam
4 Chennai 22 Agra
5 Bangalore 23 Varanasi
6 Hyderabad 24 Madurai
7 Ahmadabad 25 Meerut
8 Pune 26 Nashik
9 Surat 27 Jabalpur
10 Kanpur 28 Jamshedpur
11 Jaipur 29 Asansol
12 Lucknow 30 Dhanbad
13 Nagpur 31 Faridabad
14 Patna 32 Allahabad
15 Indore 33 Amritsar
16 Vadodara 34 Vijayawada
17 Bhopal 35 Rajkot
18 Coimbatore
Essential Extra Reference:

1. Map of India for various important cities location important. Just refer political & physical map given at
the beginning of oxford atlas. See Mineral Maps of India too.
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2. Cities in India & their industry (E.g Firozabad glass), Cities situated on river banks.
River Basins of India
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Physical Geography
Geological Period
Cenozoic Holocene 10,000 Cultivated plants
Pleistocene 1.6 million Human beings. Indo-Gangetic plain, Thar desert,
Rann of Kachchh, Karewas of Kashmir
Tertiary Period Pliocene 5 million Horses, Ape like man, Upper Siwaliks
Miocene 24 million Apes developed
Oligocene 38 million Early horses, first Apes & Monkeys. Uplift of
Central Himalayan Axis (First Phase)
Eocene 55 million Grasses
Paleocene 65 million Small Mamals
Mesozoic Cretaceous 138 million Flowering plants increased, Deccan Traps
Jurassic 205 million Birds (Archaeopteryx), flowering plant-angiosperms
first appeared. Named after Jura Mountains
Triassic 240 million Dinosaurs
Paleozoic Permian 290 million Seed Plants, Hercynian Orogeny
Carboniferous 360 million Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish (in order)
Devonian 410 million Corals, First fish, Caledonian Orogeny,
Silurian 435 million First fish with Jaws, First Terrestrial Insects.
Ordovician 500 million Graptolites
Cambrian 570 million Tribolites
Pre-Cambrian Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Dharwar, Archean systems,
Aravallis
Rocks
Intrusive Igneous rocks Diorite, Granite, Gabbro (intrusive basalt) Pegmatite1 & Periodotite.
Extrusive Igneous rocks Andesite, Rhyolite (extrusive granite), Basalt
Felsic rocks Quartz, Feldspar
Metamorphic rocks Hornfels, Greenstone, Greenschist, Amphibolite, Granulite, And Eclogite
Facies, Marble, Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Gneiss
Foliated Metamorphic Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss (Formed by Regional Metamorphism)
Non Foliated Metamorphic Marble, Quartzite, Hornfel (Formed by Contact Metamorphism)
Sedimentary rocks Oolite (type of limestone) Shale, Sandstone, Conglomerate, Ironstone,
Travertine (light-coloured concretionary limestone), Evaporite, Coal
1- Pegmatite has composition of granite & has very large crystals indicating very slow cooling.
2- The most common metamorphic rocks are gneiss & schist.
Metamorphic rocks
Original rock Metamorphic rock
Limestone Marble
Sandstone Quartzite
Shales Schist
Shales or Clay Slate
Granites or conglomerates Gneiss
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Shale Phyllite
Gabro Serpentine
Volcanic Cones
Cinder/Ash Cones Mt. Jorullo & Mt. Paricutin (both in Mexico), Mt. Izalco (San Salvador)
Composite Cones Most of famous volcanoes. Eg Vesuvius, Cotopaxi, Mt. Mayon (S.E Luzon Is.)
Parasite Cone Mt. Etna (Sicily)
Basalt Cone Rangitoto
Effusive Eruption Kilauea (most active volcanic crater, Hawaii)
Explosive Volcano Mt. Pinatubo (Central Luzon, Philippines)
Nue Ardentes is a characteristic feature of Mt. Pelee & Mt. Katmai (valley of ten thousand smokes)
Jet Streams
Westerly Polar Jet Stream Located above the polar fronts between latitudes 30o & 70o N with core
between 6 to 9 Km. Not continuous but found in both hemispheres.
Present throughout the year
Westerly Sub-Tropical Jet Located above subtropical highs between 20 & 50 N with core between 9
& 12 Km.
Easterly Tropical Jet Located above the Asiatic summer monsoon between the equator & the
20o N with core between 14 & 16 Km. Found only in Northern hemisphere
& confined to the Indian Ocean.
Softwoods/Hardwoods
Softwood/Conifers (Gymnosperms) Pines, cedars, spruces, larches, and firs
Hardwood/Broad Leaved (Angiospersm) Oak, maple, beech, walnut, mahogany, teak, and balsa.
Oceans
Ocean Av. Depth Deepest point
Pacific Ocean 4280 m Mariana trench (11000 m)
Atlantic Ocean 3600 m Puerto Rico Trench (8600 m)
Indian Ocean 3900 m Java trench (7700 m)
Arctic Ocean 1300 m
Relief of the Ocean Basins

Feature Depth range Width % area Specific % Area
Continental Shelf 100 fathoms 65 Km 8.6 % Atlantic Ocean (13%), Pacific Ocean (6%)
Or 180 m Indian Ocean (4%)
Continental Slope 200-2000 m 8.5 % Atlantic Ocean (12%), Pacific Ocean (7%)
Indian Ocean (6.5%)
Deep Sea Plains 3000-6000 m 76 % Pacific (80.3%) Indian (80.1%) Atlantic (55%)
• The Arctic continental shelf is widest. The average slope of the continental slope is about 4o.
Physical Geography Terms

Clint Any of the masses of rock left standing between fissures (grikes) in a limestone region
Grike A fissure enlarged by rainwater dissolution between limestone clints.
Fetch Continuous distance that winds blow over a water surface
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Coulee Steep sided valley carved by water from the melting glacier
Bolson Term used for Playas mainly in Mexico & SW USA.
Calving The formation of icebergs from a glacier.
Butte Isolated hill with steep sides and flat top, similar to but narrower than a mesa.
Various Mediterranean Vegetation/Shrub-Lands
Chaparral California
Tomillares Spain
Macchia Mediterranean countries and South Africa
Phrygana Balkans
Brigalow shrub & Mallee Australia
Caatinga Brazil
Maquis Europe
Matorral Chile
Garrigue France
Forests/Biomes & their Species

Desert Climate Saguaro (spectacular cactus tree - Arizona)
Mid latitude broad leaf Elm
Temperate rain forest Redwood (or Sequoia)
Conifers Arborvitae; Cedar; Cypress; Douglas Fir; Fir; Hemlock; Juniper;
Larch; Pine; Sequoia; Spruce; Yew
Tropical Monsoon Teak, Sal
Tropical Savannah Trees with flattened crowns. E.g. Baobab
Mediterranean Cork,
Various Protocols
Vienna Convention Ozone Layer
Montreal Protocol Ozone Depleting Substances
Basel Convention Trans boundary movement of Hazardous Wastes
Kyoto Protocol Global Warming
Rio de Janeiro Convention on climate change & biological diversity
Stockholm Convention Persistent Organic Pollutants
Rotterdam Convention Prior Informed Consent procedure for certain hazardous material
Cartagena Protocol Bio Safety
Mean Elevation of Continents

Antarctica 1830 m
Asia 910 m
North America 610 m
Africa 580 m
South America 550 m
Europe 300 m
Australia 300 m
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Miscellaneous Facts
1. Astronomers estimate that about half of all stars in the sky belong to either a binary or multiple star
system. The planet Mars has a conspicuous river valley. The earth gets heavier each year because it picks
up some dust from space.
2. Longitudes unlike latitudes are not used for measuring distance because the latitudes are almost equally
spaced. Slight flattening at the poles causes the length of a degree of latitude to vary from 110.57 km at
the equator to 111.70 km at the poles. At equator, meridians of longitude 1 degree apart are separated by a
distance of 111.32 km but at the poles, meridians converge reducing the distance drastically.
3. The percentage of land surface in the northern hemisphere is maximum between 40 & 50 degree North.
4. In the Earth the divisions are Crust (30-100 km thick), Upper mantle (100-700 km deep), Lower mantle
(700-2900 km), Outer Core (2900-5150 km) & inner core (5150-6400 Km)
5. The temperature at various depths is 1100o C (100 km), 1900o C (700 km), 3700o C (2900 km) & 4300o C
(5100 Km).
6. The Earths mantle comprises 66 % of its mass & 83% of its volume. The core forms 33 % of the mass &
16 % volume. The asthenosphere is made up of peridotite. The pre Cambrian shields are composed of
granites & gneisses. The Ethiopian plateau is volcanic in origin & is largely composed of basalt.
7. Patagonian Plateau (Piedmont plateau), South African Plateau (Continental plateau) & Bolivian plateau
(Intermontane plateau). Shields are convex in shape.
8. Lake Victoria Basin, Great Basin of Nevada & Tarim Basin are all rimmed by mountains.
9. Feldspars are the most abundant of all minerals and account for nearly half of the volume of the earth's
crust. Soapstone is also known as Steatite & is a massive variety of talc. Clay is porous but is
impermeable. The capacity to transmit water is permeability & not porosity.
10. Gondwanaland, ancient landmass that consisted of the present continents of South America, Africa,
Australia, and Antarctica as well as the Indian subcontinent. Bentley Subglacial Trench is the deepest
point in Antarctic.
11. .Earthquakes with negative Richter scale magnitudes occur every day, but are so small that they are
difficult to detect. The energy released by an earthquake increases 32 fold & the ground motion increases
by 10 times for each increase of one magnitude on the Richter scale. It is estimated that a magnitude 12
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earthquake would release enough energy to split the earth in half. The qualitative assessment of the
damage done by an earthquake is expressed by intensity.
12. Folding cannot occur due to tension. However, faulting though primarily a result of tension may also
occur due to compression.
13. Magnetic materials made of iron compounds lose their magnetic properties if heated beyond a certain
temperature called Curie point. Submarine fans constitute a large part of the continental rises. Outgassing
is the process which probably accounted for the surface waters.
14. An area of vegetation having uniformity of life form is called a biochore. Evergreen trees shed their leaves
but not simultaneously. The succession may begin in an area where some natural disaster has caused
removal of existing vegetation. Such a succession is called secondary succession. Where the succession
starts in an area where the physical conditions required for plant growth are already present is called
allogenic succession. When the succession starts in highly unfavourable conditions & the plants
themselves have to create a suitable physical environment for themselves it is called autogenic succession.
15. Before the climatic climax vegetation evolves there are some stages of short term equilibrium between
plants & the environment called Edaphic Climax. The profile of podzol soils is best developed.
16. An aquiclude is a body of relatively impermeable rock. An aquifer is called confined when it is bounded
above and below by aquicludes or unconfined when there is no aquiclude above it.
17. The blue mud occupies the greatest area among the various types of mud. Green colour of green mud is
because of mineral gluconite. Deep Sea regions are supposed to be more stable than tropical rainforests.
18. Conifers are named after cone shaped fruit bearing seeds.
19. When a succession starts at a dry place it is known as Xerosere; in case of wet place (Hydrosere).
Vegetation succession resulting from man’s interference is called Plagioseres.
20. Trees & their uses: Kapok (or Silk cotton tree – Pillows, Mattresses), Abaca/Manila hemp (ropes),
Toquilla (Hats) & Balata (Marine cables).
21. Earth is a geoid. The period of twilight (diffused light that occurs before sunrise & sunset) increases as
one goes towards the poles. The concept of primordial matter was given by Kant & the concept of
intruding star was given by James & Jeans.
22. Lithosphere is around 65-100 Km thick. The granitic continental curst is lighter than the basaltic oceanic
crust. P waves do reach the antipode & can pass through gas. S waves travel faster than surface waves.
Basalt is one of the finest grained extrusive rocks. Basaltic magma is hotter than silicate magma.
23. Igneous rocks generally do not show layers. Among Igneous rocks crystals in intrusive rocks are larger
than those in extrusive rocks. In some cases, the magma cools so rapidly that crystals have no time to
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form, and the magma hardens in an amorphous glass, such as obsidian. Felsic rocks (more viscous) are
light in colour & mafic rocks are usually dark.
24. In addition to lava flows, basalt is also found in the form of dikes and sills. Columnar jointing, as
exhibited by Devils Tower in Wyoming and the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, is a common feature of these
shallow intrusive bodies.
25. Surface currents in the Oceans are primarily caused by wind action.
26. Deposits of high-grade chromite ore found along the Great Dyke (largest dyke in the world) contribute
significantly to Zimbabwe's reserves of the minerals. Stock is an intrusive mass of plutonic rock with an
outcrop.
27. Anthracite is formed by metamorphism of bituminous coal. Marble is least affected by variations in
temperature. Exfoliation is more pronounced in granite. The process of oxidation is most effective in hot
& humid regions. The main cause of mass movement is gravity.
28. The term cataract, usually designating a series of rapids in a large river, is often applied to waterfalls of
large volume. The term ‘coulee lake’ is associated with glaciers. A lake in the course of a river is termed
as a transient lake. The part of the pediplain reduced in height due to erosion is called pediment.
29. The maximum load of a river moves in suspension. A river erodes its convex slope more than its concave
slope. The presence of salt in the sea plays a vital role in delta formaton. The deposition of silt & sand in
the course of a river is called diaras.
30. A dendritic drainage pattern tends to develop where a whole drainage basin is made up of the same type of
rock (uniform lithology). Annular drainage pattern (Henry mountain), Parallel drainage (Norway coast),
Trellis drainage (Appalachian) & deranged drainage (Canadian shield).
31. Yardangs have been called ‘cockscombe’ by Holmes. The Scottish lands are very close to the stage of
peneplain. The largest number of lakes are in the Scandinavian region.
32. Metamorphic rocks are more compact than the original rocks & are more resistant to weathering.
Lithification is the process of formation of sedimentary rocks through compression & cementation.
33. The largest division of geologic time is called an eon. Eons are divided into eras, which are divided into
periods. An epoch, the next division, is further divided into stages.
34. The degree of inclination of a stream is known as its gradient. A stream gradient usually forms a convex
shaped slope. The study of meteors helped in ascertaining the existence of ionosphere. The value of solar
constant is 2 calories/cm2/minute. The equatorial forests have one of the lowest albedo.
35. The warmest month in the northern hemisphere is july & the highest temperature is recorded at 20o N. The
position of thermal equator is normally at 5o N. The highest annual range of temperature is recorded in the
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Taiga region & the highest diurnal range of temperature is found in hot deserts (hot during day & cold
during night). Strong centrifugal force contributes to the low pressure at equator.
36. The percentage cloud cover at any time in the world is around 50%. The standard air pressure at the sea
level is 1013.25 mb which is equivalent to 760 mm of Hg.
37. The effect of Coriolis force is proportion to the speed of the moving object. Coriolis force causes the
maximum deflection at the poles & decrease toward the equator where there is zero deflection. The wind
blowing parallel to the isobars generally at a height of 600 m is known as geostrophic winds. Carribean
sea experiences one of the strongest land & sea breeze. Stratus clouds create more problems for
aeroplanes.
38. The southern oscillation index (SOI) is the difference in pressure between Tahiti in French Polynesia
representing the pacific ocean & port Darwin in North Australia representing Indian Ocean. Positive SOI
means higher Tahiti’s pressure than Port Darwin pressure. It signifies good monsoon for India.
39. Saffir–Simpson Scale is used to measure hurricane intensity based on wind speed. Tropical cyclones do
not occur in South Atlantic because during the summer season (January) its temperature is always below
25o C between 10o & 20o S. The ideal conditions for the development of tropical cyclone are western
margins of tropical oceans. The correct sequence of clouds in a temperate cyclone would be cirrus, cirro-
stratus, altostratus, altocumulus & nimbostratus.
40. The Atlantic Ocean has an average depth of 3,600 m (11,810 ft). At its deepest point, in the Puerto Rico
Trench, the bottom is 8,605 m (28,231 ft) below the surface. The average depth of the Indian Ocean is
3,900 m (12,800 ft), or slightly greater than that of the Atlantic, and the deepest known point is 7,725 m
(25,344 ft), off the southern coast of the Indonesian island of Java. Its average depth is 4,280 m
41. The passage of the cold front is often accompanied by the heaviest precipitation and the strongest and
gustiest winds. Occasionally, however, a line of thunderstorms may develop, out ahead of a cold front.
This line is called a squall line and it produces heavy rain and strong, gusty winds. Squall refers to a
violent gusty wind which lasts a few minutes usually accompanied by rain or hail & then subsides.
42. Cold front is marked with triangular spikes & warm front by semi-circles. The isobars of a temperate
cyclone are broad, shallow & weak.
43. Territorial waters extend up to 12 miles from shore. The EEZ extends offshore upto a distance of 200
nautical miles. The ocean outside EEZ is called high sea which is about 60 % of total oceans.
44. . Ninety-nine percent of the water in the oceans has a salinity of between 33 and 37 g/kg (Average is 35
gm/Kg). The halocline is the depth at which the salinity changes rapidly; it forms the boundary between
the two layers. From 100 m to approximately 1,000 m the temperature drops rapidly to about 5° C, and
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below this it drops gradually about another 4° to barely above freezing. The region of rapid change is
known as the thermocline or Pycnocline. The highest temperature of oceans is recorded in the West
Pacific ocean north of equator.
45. Spring tides occur twice a month (every 14.6 days) at New Moon & Full Moon when moon & sun are in
conjunction & opposition respectively. Gibbous moon is one when 75 % of the moon is illuminated.
46. The series of moon cycle is New Moon, Crescent, First Quarter, Gibbous, Full Moon, Gibbous, Last
Quarter, Crescent.
47. Seamount, is an undersea volcanic mountain that is at least 1000 m tall. Flat topped seamounts are called
guyots. The Telegraph plateau extends from Ireland to Labrador.
48. The proportion of gases dissolved in water is Nitrogen (46%), Oxygen (36%) & Carbon dioxide (15%).
The primary source of ocean’s dissolved oxygen is its photosynthetic plants. Oxygen & Nitrogen are
abundant near the surface & there is more carbon dioxide in deep water.
49. Quartz is a dominant mineral in ocean deposits. The sea water is slightly alkaline with it pH being 7.8.
50. Prop roots are associated with mangrove forests. The largest & longest algae (Kelps) is found along the
Peru coast. Herbs do not have woody stem but shrubs have woody stem.
51. Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans (temp around 20-21o C). They do not live in deeper waters
(more than 80 m deep). Both sediment water & fresh water is injurious to them. Hence they are not found
near river mouth. Salinity between 27-30 gm/Kg is suitable. Ocean currents & waves are suitable as they
bring food supply for the polyps. El Nino is associated with coral bleaching (coral death). The south
Atlantic has least coral formations.
52. The upper part of a soil profile, in which the soil-forming processes (illuviation & eluviation) mainly
occur is called Solum. The arrangement of soil particles is called soil structure. The size & organization of
particles in the soil in known as soil texture. The cohesion in soil is known as soil consistency.
53. As weathering forms soil in the humid tropics, iron and aluminum oxides filter downward, often resulting
in a well-defined, cementlike layer of ferricrete or plinthite meters below the Earth’s surface. When
overlying sediments are eroded away, these layers form a rock-hard crust.
54. . The northern needle leaf forest is known as boreal forest. Temperate forests have one of the least number
of species (lesser than Mediterranean & Monsoon forests).
55. Almost all known geysers are located in three countries of the world—New Zealand, Iceland, and the
United States. The cause of Iceland having geysers is its situation on mid Atlantic ridge.
56. The number of tributaries decrease downstream & the river widens here. The size of the valley increases
downstream. Ox bow lakes are more in the lower course than the middle course. A Barchan has an
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asymmetrical profile concave on the leeward side & convex on the side of the wind. A Parabolic dune is
opposite with concave side facing the wind.
57. Most of the jet steams blow parallel to latitudes & isobar as they are geostrophic. The wet adiabatic lapse
rate is lower than dry adiabatic rate as condensation releases latent heat. In cirrus clouds water vapour is in
solid form. Africa has the largest Savannah biome. Lateritic soils are porous in structure. Coniferous
forests are evergreen.
58. Bajada is the Spanish world for slope of alluvial material at the foot of the escarpment. Scleractinian
corals are the main contributors to a reef, but other organisms also add to it, such as hydrozoan corals,
calcareous algae, mollusks, and sponges. Hence Corals are not the only participants in coral formation.
59. Over 80 percent of the world’s fisheries are located in the coastal and ocean environment, and nearly 20
percent are found in inland freshwater fisheries. The largest fisheries group is made up of small, pelagic
(open ocean) fishes such as herring, sardine, anchovy, and related species
60. In Fisheries, Japan is the largest importer & Thailand is the largest exporter. USA is both the second
largest importer & exporter as it prefers certain varieties over others.
61. The 0 to 10 degree north receives more rainfall than corresponding southern latitudes due to ITCZ being
more extensive in north. The temperate latitudes of southern hemisphere receive more rainfall than that of
the northern hemisphere due to preponderance of Oceans in the former & deserts in the latter. Hails are
opaque due to trapped air bubbles. Lower pressure on open surface of water leads to higher rate of
evaporation.
62. Point bars develop where stream flow is locally reduced because of friction and reduced water depth. It is
a depositional feature. Deposits of braided stream mainly consists of sand & gravel
63. A cone shaped depression is formed when water is withdrawn faster than it can be replaced. Ozark Upland
(between Missouri & Arkansas) in United States is full of Karst features. Karst landscape is well
developed in Yucatan peninsula.
64. The coastal features are formed in the following order Headland, Cave, Arch & Stack. Carlberg ridge
divides the Arabian Sea into two parts. In northern Pacific Icebergs are rare.
65. Crevasses extend down in glaciers to the zone of plastic flow. Ice scoured plain is the subdued landscape
resulting from erosion by continental glacier. If a glacier has a balanced budget it remains stationary.
66. Longitudinal dunes (called seifs in Egypt) generally occur in areas of limited sand supply. The angle of
repose of dry sand controls the slope of the leeward side of the sand dune.
67. Dixie Alley & Tornado Alley refers to the high frequency areas of tornadoes in USA. Bog burst is term
used in Ireland for flowing of soil downslope.
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68. Lopoliths are saucer-shaped concordant intrusions. Well-known examples are the Bushveld complex in
South Africa and the Muskox intrusion in the Northwest Territories, Canada.
69. Laccoliths have a flat base and a domed ceiling, and are concordant with the neighboring rocks; they are
usually small. The classic area from which they were first described is the Henry Mountains in the state of
Utah.
70. Deep batholiths are often concordant, while shallow batholiths are usually discordant. Deep batholiths can
be extremely large; the Coast Range batholith of North America is 100 to 200 km wide and extends 600
km through Alaska and British Columbia, Canada.
71. The seismograph records first P waves followed by S waves, L waves & R waves in that order because of
differential speeds of these waves. Shallow focus earthquakes are usually the most damaging.
72. Rejuvenation can take place during any stage of river development. The correct sequence of deserts of
Australia in descending order is Great Victoria, Great Sandy, Gibson & Simpson.
73. The longest day at 66.5 degree N/S can be of 24 hours beyond which there is a sharp increase. For eg the
longest day is of 1 month at 67.4 degree & 2 months at 69.8 degree.
74. Tropical cyclones have a warm core. Over polar areas temperature inversion is normal throughout the
year. Wave refraction is the phenomenon of waves bending so that they move nearly parallel to the
shoreline.
75. Two second order stream meet to form a third order stream. The principle of Catastrophism fits the
vastness of the Earth’s age & the complexity of its rocks in a shortened time span (Eg. biblical flood). The
premise that present day processes have operated throughout geological time is called uniformitarianism.
76. The oldest surface rock yet discovered called Acasta Gneiss lies in Northwestern Canada. Barysphere is
the term used for the core of the earth.
77. Marshall Islands, Bermuda & Lakshwadeep are coral in origin.
78. Sounds usually occur along submerged coast. The grasses of temperate grasslands are shorter but more
nutritious than those of tropical grasslands.
79. In Maldives the most populous atolls are Male, the capital and principal commercial center; Suvadiva; and
Tiladummati. Belize has the biggest barrier reef in the Northern Hemisphere.
80. Highest life expectancy is for Andorra (83.5 years) followed by Japan (83.5).
81. The water hemisphere accounts for as much as 80 % of southern hemisphere. The average height of land
on the earth is approximately 900 m. The average depth of all the oceans is about 3800 m.
82. In Newfoundland the chief fish caught is Cod. St. John is the capital of Newfoundland & is the
headquarter of the Grand Banks fishing industry.
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83. In Karstic region the only mineral of importance is Lead. The thin warm layer on the ocean surface is
called Epilimnion. The lower cooler layer of water, below the thermocline is called hypolimnion.
84. Metamorphic facies are formed according to one of three processes: contact metamorphism, subduction-
zone metamorphism, and regional metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are considered generally as more
resistant to erosion than sedimentary & igneous rocks.
85. Regional metamorphism often produces a fabric quality called foliation. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss
are foliated rocks. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism are generally nonfoliated. Quartzite, hornfels
& marble are non foliated.
86. Exfoliation (peeling off) is caused by the release of confining pressure. The point at which the sea wave
breaks is called the plunge line. It is where the depth of water & height of the wave are actually the same.
87. Terra Rossa are formed mainly in Mediterranean region. Lithosol is an azonal soil. Muskegs are bogs &
swamps which have leathery bushes & stunted trees in the Norhtern Coniferous biome.
88. C.F. Marbut’s first level of division of all middle latitude soils is into: Pedocals & Pedalfers. An epipedon
is a horizon that forms the sub soil portion.
89. V.V. Dokuchaiev is considered the pioneer of soil genesis & soil classification. Nuciform soil structure
refers to formless ped. The smalledst distinctive division of the soil of a given are to which the unique
single set of properties apply is called polypedon.
90. An iron pan is a common feature of the Gley type of soil formed in the water logged areas of tundra
region. Gleization is the process of formation of a gley soil by waterlogging and chemical reduction of
iron.
91. In Australia where reg (desert pavement of loose stones) are widespread, they are called Gibber plains.
92. Isotherms on the globe are more tightly packed in winter. Commensalism is an association between two
species in which one benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
93. The correct sequence of distribution of fresh water on earth from maximum to minimum is Glaciers,
Ground water, Inland Seas & Atmosphere.
94. Acid rain is the major problem in Norway & Sweden. Ecologists often call the few common species the
ecological dominants & the rare species as incidentals.
95. Guano forms a significant player of phosphate cycle. A sciophilous plant (called sciophyte) is shade
loving. Thermoperiodism is the rhythmic response of plants to fluctuations in temperature.
96. One of the reasons behind choosing 0 degree meridian at Greenwhich is that the IDL at 180 degree mostly
passes through water thereby least disrupting the timezones in a country. The world is divided into 24 time
zones each with a longitudinal extent of 15 degrees or one hour duration.
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97. Russia has 11 time zones, USA has 7 time zones (including 2 time zones in territorial water), Canada has
5 time zones, Australia has 3 & China has a single time zone.
98. Horizontal movement of air is wind & vertical movement is currents.
99. Factors affecting ocean currents: As a rule water on the Ocean surface would tend to move form low
salinity to high salinity area. The earth’s rotation also affects ocean currents as its rotation form west to
east leads to the current being generated from east to west. Temperature also affects ocean currents as
warm water rises & cold water sinks. Water also moves from low atmospheric pressure areas to high
pressure areas.
Miscellaneous Facts II
1. A polished and frequently striated surface that results from friction along a fault or bedding plane is called
slickensides.
2. Shallow focus earthquakes (<70 Km), Intermediate focus earthquakes (70< 250 km) & deep focus
earthquakes (250-700 Km). John Mitchell was the first to recognize that earthquake spreads in waves &
destruction reduces outwards. The damage is not maximum at the epicenter but around it. Deep focus
earthquakes are found to be practically restricted to the circum pacific belt. Mid oceanic ridges have
shallow focus earthquakes. 90 % of the earthquakes have a focus less than 100 km deep. Areas that are
quiet & overdue for an earthquake are called seismic gaps. It is a place that possesses accumulated stress.
3. Tsunami in Japan means ‘Harbour waves’. Their wavelength runs into hundreds of kilometers.
Seismograph was invented by Fillipo Cecchi.
4. S waves are called shear waves because they move perpendicular to the direction of material through
which they travel producing shear stress in the material. As liquids & gases don’t have shear strength they
cannot pass through them.
5. About 75 % of all volcanoes are on the sea floor. Popa mountains of Burma are extinct volcano.
6. The Giant geyser in Iceland, the old faithful in Yellowstone National Park of USA & the Wiamangu
geyser in New Zealand are famous.
7. If the relative humidity is less than 70 % the air is dry. Between 70-90 % R.H. the air is moist. Cumulus
cloud is a fair weather cloud. It indicates bright, brisk & fair weather.
8. The collision coalescence theory of Simpson & Mason was modified by Longmuer. This theory happens
to be more valid for tropical areas.
9. The saturation vapour pressure is lower over ice crystals as compared to that over liquid droplets (Ice
Crystal theory). Solid carbondioxide (dry ice) & Silver Iodide smoke are used for cloud seeding.
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10. Subsolar point is that point on the earth’s surface where the sun is directly overhead. Sun’s declination is
the latitude of the sub solar point.
11. Peridotite makes up the earth’s mantle. Epeirogentic movements cause Emergence & subsidence.
Orogenetic movements cause folding, mountain building, faulting.
12. The west wind drift is the greatest ocean current of the world. Nappe is a French word meaning table
cover. Competent rocks are those which are very rigid compared to the layers of rock above or below this
layer. They tend to crack rather than distort as they fold. Harmonic folding occurs when the rocks have the
same degree of competence & disharmonic vice versa.
13. On 21st June what is going to be the sun’s rays at a place along
Altitude of Sun at a place = 90o – (distance in latitude of the place from the overhead sun’s place)
a. 10 N : 90 – (23.5 – 10) = 76.5 degrees
b. 23.5 S: 90 – (23.5 + 23.5) = 43 degrees
c. 80 N: 90 – (80 – 23.5) = 33.5
14. To find the antipode in case of latitude just reverse the N/S symbol & in case of Longitude (180 – given
longitude & change sign from E to W or W to E).
15. In general normal faults are steeper than reverse faults. A tear or wrench fault is one in which the blocks
of rocks slip sideways past each other. Bigger wrench faults are called transcurrent faults. A wrench fault
is also called strike-slip fault.
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World & Human Geography

Assorted Miscellaneous Facts
Liberia Fastest growth of population
Sierra Leone Least educated country
Mali Poorest country by GDP
East Timor Lowest rank in HDI
Yamalia Autonomous area in northwestern Siberia, Russia, south of Kara Sea.
Sao Paulo Is not a coastal city. Santos (main port) is very close.
Green Bay An extension of Lake Michingan.
Dallas City in Texas (8th largest in US)
Austin Capital of Texas
San Diego City in South west corner of California (7th largest). Harbor & Ship building
Houston Petroleum Hub of USA. City in southeastern Texas (4th largest city)
Texas Highest producer of oil & natural gas in USA
Minnesota Largest supplier of iron-ore in USA
James Bay Southern extension of Hudson bay.
Waikiki Beach Honolulu, Hawaii
Badwater Death Valley, lowest point in western hemisphere
Seville Hottest place of Europe (Spain).
Khyber Pass Located in the Safed Koh range.
Bolan Pass Located in Brahui range (which lies between Sulaiman (N) & Kirthar range (S)
Golden Triangle Area where Burma, Laos & Thailand meet. 2/3rd of world’s heroin production
Socotra Island, southeastern Yemen (belongs to Yemen)
Adana City in Turkey on Mediterranean Coast
Aceh Special region of Indonesia, located on the northwestern tip of the island of
Sumatra. Capital is Banda Aceh.
Kharg Island Small island of southwestern Iran, in the Persian Gulf (Petroleum reserves)
Kalimantan Region of the Republic of Indonesia, occupying the southern portion of the
island of Borneo Rich in oil & Gas.
Mt. Cotopaxi Ecuador (one of the highest active volcanoes)
Mt. Chimborazo Ecaudor (Inactive Volcano)
River Thames Makes London a port.
Ordos desert Eastern extension of Gobi desert in China through which Hwang Ho flows.
Mt. Goldsworthy Iron ore mine in NW Australia in Pilbara region (near Hamersley ranges)
Sudd Swampy lands of river White Nile in Sudan.
Siciliy Largest Island in Mediterranean Sea.
Flanders Plains of western Belgium
Uluru Or Ayers rock is an inselberg & a sacred place of Aboriginals
Blue Mountains Rugged plateau region on the eastern side of the Great Dividing Range, in the
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state of New South Wales, Australia
Mount St. Helens Active volcano, southwestern Washington, in the Cascade Range
Cairo Largest city in Africa & capital of Egypt.
Koum Term for sandy desert in Turkmenistan.
Teff A highly nutritious crop of Ethiopian Highlands
Pearl Harbour Located in Honolulu, the capital of Hawaii.
Kwajalein Largest atoll in the world (Marshall Island)
Bikni Atoll Major atoll in Marshall Island.
Funafuti atoll In Ellice Island (Tuvalu)
Quebracho Axe-breaker. Found in Gran Chaco. It yields tannin
Balata Produces latex. Abundant in Amazon forest
Naval Stores Trade name of turpentine & rosin.
Chickle Yields gum. Abundant in Central American forest.
Carnuaba Palm Yeilds wax.
Douglas Fir Leading timber of North America.
Sucre Legal Capital of Bolivia
Yerba Mate Tea like beverage extensively used in South America esp. in Brazil
Madeira Largest tributary of Amazon
Kjolen Mountains Run along the Norway Atlantic Coast.
Brooks Range Northern Boundary of Alaska (Continuation of Rockies)
Alaska Range Southern Boundary of Alaska (Mt. McKinley lies here)
Favela Slums in Brazil
Ranchos Slums in Venezuela
Kavettits Slums in Myanmar.
Tahiti Largest island of French Polynesia.
Gold Coast City City in southeastern Queensland. Second largest in Queensland after Brisbane
Brest One of the major fishing port of France
Bergen City & Seaport in Norway
Anchorage City & Seaport in Southern Alaska
Arnhem Land Historical region and Aboriginal reserve in Australia, in the northeastern part of
the Northern Territory
Lagos dos Patos Largest Lagoon in the world in South-East Brazil
Pico da Neblina Highest peak of Brazil in Guiana Highlands
Mount Kinabalu Highest peak of Malaysia.
Puerto Montt One of the principal ports in Chile.
Easter Islands Lie in Pacific & is the farthest South American (Chile) possession (3700 km)
Ogaden Arid Upland desert region in South eastern Ethiopia.
Oporto A leading port of Portugal & a chief economic centre
Betsiboka river Major river of Madagascar.
Tanezroufts Very dry areas in Sahara where no form of life is possible.
Regional Terms for Shifting Cultivation

Konuko Shifting cultivation in Venezuela
Ladang Malaysia
Caingin Philippines
Humah Indonesia
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Chena Sri Lanka
Milpa Central America & Mexico
Taungya Myanmar
Masole Congo
Roka Brazil
Podu Orissa
Penda Chhattisgarh
Deppa M.P.
Ray Laos, Vietnam
Mining Centers
Butte Copper mining centre in Montana (USA).
Itabira Iron ore region of Brazil
Potosi Mining Centre of Bolivia (Tin – major, copper & lead)
Mina-el-Ahmadi Petrochemical complex in Kuwait
Burgan Oil filed of Kuwait
Dhahran Oil filed of Saudi Arabia
Tampico & Tuxpam Oil filed of Mexico
Masjid-e-Sulaiman Oil filed of Iran
Maikop Oil field of Russia
Hassi R’Mel World’s largest natural gas field in Algeria
Groote Eylandt Mineral rich Island near Arnhem Land in Australia’s Northern territory.
Supplies 20 percent of the world's high-grade manganese ore.
Cerro Bolivar Iron ore region in Venezuela
Bor Copper mining region of Yugoslavia
Cerro de Pasco Copper mining region of Peru
Morococha Copper ore area of Peru
Miscellaneous Industrial Centres

Fort Worth Aircraft & Aerospace Industry (Texas)
Hamilton Canada’s Largest producer of steel. Known as ‘Birmingham of Canada’.
Toledo Centre of Glass Industry in USA (Ohio)
Saar Imporant Industrial centre of Germany on Saar river.
Coventry Automobile centre of England. First automobile manufactured here.
Limoges Pottery centre in France
Leipzig Musical & precision Instruments in Germany
Munich Optical Instruments & Lenses (Germany)
Arkangelsk Timber centre & seaport near white sea & Lake Onega in Russia
Important Canals in the Great Lakes Region, USA

Welland Canal Connects Erie & Ontario
Soo Canal Connect Lake Superior & Lake Huron. Also called Sault Sainte Marie Canal
Trent Canal Links Lake Huron with Ontario lake.
Rideau Canal Links lake Ontario with river Ottawa
Ludwig Canal Connects the Danube and Main rivers in Germany
Mittelland Canal Joins Ems, Wiser & Elbe
Types of Languages
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Monosyllabic Words have various meanings depending on the position in sentence
Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai & Tibetan
Agglutinative Words altered by prefixes & suffixes
Malay, Japanese, Swahili & most of the African languages.
Inflexional Flexible, modified to give required meaning
English, French, Hindi, Arabic, Urdu Bengali & other Indo-European language
Top 25 Cities of USA

1. New York City New York
2. Los Angeles California
3. Chicago Illinois
4. Houston Texas
5. Philadelphia Pennsylvania
6. Phoenix Arizona*
7. San Diego California
8. Dallas Texas
9. San Antonio Texas
10. Detroit Michigan
11. San Jose California
12. Indianapolis Indiana*
13. San Francisco California
14. Jacksonville Florida
15. Columbus Ohio*
16. Austin Texas*
17. Baltimore Maryland
18. Memphis Tennesse
19. Milwaukee Wisconsin
20. Boston Massachusetts*
21. Washington Washington DC
22. Nashville Tennesse*
23. El Paso Texas
24. Seattle Washington
25. Denver Colorado*
* - Captial cities of respective states
Some Important Land Locked Countries (Not Exhaustive)

Africa Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Malawi, Swaziland
Asia Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Laos,
Armenia, Azerbaijan
Europe Andorra, Austria, Belarus, Hungary, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein,
Macedonia, Moldova.
South America Bolivia & Paraguay.
Andorra, parliamentary principality, southwestern Europe, situated in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains,
bordered on the north and east by France, and on the south and west by Spain.
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Georgia is not landlocked because it lies on the Black Sea side.
Important Breeds of Cattle

Holstein Friesian Netherlands
Ayrshire/Ireshire Scotland
Jersey Channel Island
Brown Swiss Switzerland
Guernsey Channel Island
Principal Languages of the World

Language Branch
Mandarin Chinese
English Germanic
Russian Slavic
Hindi Indic
Spanish Romance
Arabic Semitic
Bengali Indic
Portuguese Romance/Latino
Malay-Indonesian Austro
Japanese Japanese-Korean
German Germanic
French Romance
Tribes
Tutsi Burundi & Rwanda. Killed in masses by Hutu a rival group
Hutu Rwanda & Burundi
Creole A descendant of European settlers or of Black slaves, in the
W. Indies or Central or S. America
Yoruba Nigeria & Benin
Dinka Native people of Sudan
Twa Original Inhabitants of Burundi
Hazara Central Agfhanistan (Main). Also in Pakistan & Iran
Tehuelche Collective name for the tribe of Patagonia
Aka Another name for Pygmies (Congo)
Pueblo Southwest USA. Known for Adobe buildings
Minhasa Indigenous people of Sulawesi (Celebes)
Filipinos are originally Malay people.
The Great Lakes & Important Cites Around

Lake Superior Duluth
Lake Michigan Milwaukee, Chicago & Gary
Lake Erie Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, Buffalo
Lake Ontario Toronto, Hamilton
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Major Airports of the World
Dulles International Airport Washington D.C.
George Bush International Airport Houston
Hartsfield International Airport Atlanta
John F. Kennedy International Airport New York
O’ Hare International Airport Chicago
Roissy – Charles de Gaulle International Airport France
McCarran International Airport Las Vegas
Gatwick International Airport London
Haneda International Airport Japan
Kimpo International Airport Seoul
Tribal Shelters
Bedouins Khaimas
Masai Kraals
Bushman Scheoms (thatched hut)
Kirghiz Kstau
Lapps Sijda (Sida)

Peltoratsk Ashkabad (Turkmenistan)
Hashemite Kingdom Jordan
Konigsberg Kaliningrad
Lanxang Laos
Andalas Sumatra
Trucial States UAE
Scientific Names of Common Plants

Rice Oriza Sativa Jute Corchorus capsularis
Wheat Triticum Aestivum Mustard Brassica nigra
Maize or Corn Zea Diploperennis Silk Worm Bombyx Mori
Oats Avena Sativa Abaca (Menila Hemp) Musa Textilis
Rubber Hevea Brasiliensis Banana Musa Sapientum
Barley Hordeum Vulgare Oil Palm Elaeis Guineesis
Tea Camellia Sinensis Teak Tectona Grandis
Grapes Vitis vinifera Sal Shorea Robusta
Soyabeans Glycine Max
Important Dams
Oroville Dam Feather river U.S.A.
Grand Coulee Dam Columbia river U.S.A.
Hoover & Boulder Dam Colorado river U.S.A.
Rogun Dam Tajikistan
Owen Falls Dam White Nile Uganda
Itaipu Dam Parana river Brazil/Paraguay
Bratsk Dam Angara river Russia
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Guri Dam Caroni river* Venezuela (Country’s major)
Inga Dam Zaire/Congo river Dem. Republic of Congo
Boyoma/Stanley Falls Zaire Congo
Dnepropetrovsk Dam Dneiper Ukraine
Kitimat Scheme Nechako River British Columbia, Canada
St. Anthony Falls Mississippi USA
Snowy Mountain Scheme Snowy & Eucumbene rivers New South Wales, Australia
Ord River Scheme Ord river Western Australia
* - Angel Falls is located on Rio Churún (Caroni) river.
Extemities
Cape Horn Southernmost tip of S. America
Cape Agulhas Southermost tip of Africa
Ellesmere Island Northernmost part of Canada
Pelee Island Southernmost part of Canada
Key West Southermost town of USA
Cape of Good Hope is erroneously regarded as the extremity of Africa.
Types of Fishes
Salt Water Fish Other Fishes
Pelagic Demersal Fresh Water Fishes Anadromous Fish
Sardines Cod Sturgeon Salmon
Herring Halibut Trout Chinook
Swordfish Hake Perch
Anchovies Haddock Carp
Tuna Pollock
Mackerel Flounder
Pilchards
• Pelagic Fish live near the surface of water & demersal fish near the ocean bottom
• Anadromous fish live in Saline water but return in fresh water to spawn.
• Catadromous fish live in fresh water but breed in Saline water
• Ichthyology is the study of fish
• Anchovies, Capelin & Menhaden are known as trash fish – used for non human consumption
Areas & Largest fish Catch

Coast of Peru Anchovies
Caspian Sea Sturgeon
USA’s East Coast Menhaden
West Coast of Canada Salmon
Key west, Florida Sponges
Chesapeake Bay Oyster
Southern Europe & Mediterranean Sea Sardine & Anchovy
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1. Continents in descending order of area are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica,
Europe and Australia.
2. Calgary is the largest city in the province of Alberta & is also known as the energy capital of the country.
Tar Sands deposits are found in Alberta & Venezuela. Uranium City is on the northern shores of Lake
Athabasca. Canada has the longest coastline (~60,000 miles) of any country in the world.
3. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado river is in northwest Arizona. Allegheny Mountains is a complex of
ranges and uplands of the Appalachian system. The name is usually applied to the ranges west of the Blue
Ridge in Pennsylvania & neighboring states. In the eastern United States a fall line forms the border
between the Piedmont Plateau and the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
4. The mountain ranges of USA from west to East is Coast Mountains, Cascade Range, Sierra Nevada & The
Rockies.
5. The term ‘Antilles’ applies to the whole of West Indies except the ‘Bahamas’. The Greater Antilles
includes Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico.
6. Australian provinces & their capitals are Northern Territory (Darwin), Queensland (Brisbane), New South
Wales (Sydney), Victoria (Melbourne), South Australia (Adelaide), Tasmania (Hobart), West Australia
(Perth).
7. The bottled trees (related to Baobab trees) are found in NW Australia especially in the Kimberley plateau
region. Murrumbidgee, river is the longest tributary of Murray Darling. Freemantle is the outport of Perth.
The most populated province of Australia is New South Wales.
8. The transcontinental Stuart Highway of Australia runs between Adelaide and Alice Springs near
Macdonnell ranges in Northern Territory. Between 1980-90 corals on large scale in the Great Barrier reef
were destroyed by the Crown of Thorns starfish.
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9. Taranaki plains of New Zealand is famous for dairy industry. The biggest city of New Zealand is
Auckland.
10. The Trans Amazon highway connects Rio Branco to Sao Louis
11. The Orentes river rises in Northern Lebanon, flows in a northerly direction parallel to Mediterranean in
Syria & enters Turkey & finally Mediterranean. Zaire is the only river to cross the equator twice.
12. The Grand Canal (Da Yunhe) of China is the world’s largest canal system & connects Yangtze Kiang &
Hwang Ho.
13. European countries in descending order of density are Netherlands, Belgium, U.K., Germany & Italy. In
ascending order the countries are Iceland, Russian Federation, Norway & Finland.
14. The evolution order of humans is Apes – Dyropithecus – Ramapithecus – Australopithecus (Pliocene age)
– Hamo Habilis – Homo Erectus (Fossils of Java Man & Peking man belong to Homo Erectus – appeared
during Pleistocene) – Neanderthal Man – Cro Magnon Man – Homo Sapiens.
15. A progressive age structure is one in which both birth & death rates are high. A regressive age structure is
one in which birth rates are low & declining.
16. A Mega city according to UNO is any city with a population of over 8 millions. In India the population
criteria for mega city is 5 million. A perforated state is one whose territory is completely surrounded by
another. Eg. Lesotho, Swaziland.
17. Trans Arabian Pipeline links the oil fields of Persian Gulf to Saida Lebanon.
18. According to Malthus Preventive (or negative) checks are celibacy and abstinence. Positive checks
included famine, war, disease etc. Zelinsky in his Mobility Transition theory basically incorporated impact
of migration on the Demographic transition theory.
19. Currently 50 % of the world’s fish comes from Pacific Ocean & 25 % are from North Pacific alone.
Horticulture includes pomology (growing of fruits), Olericulture (production of vegetable crops),
floriculture & Ornamental Horticulture (Landscape gardening).
20. In Brazil ‘Sertao’ refers to semi-arid regions. It consists mainly of low uplands that from Brazilian
highlands. Coffee is indigenous to Ethiopia. Potato is native to Andean Highlands.
21. Forward Capital: When a state relocates its capital to a sensitive area, perhaps near a zone of dispute with
an unfriendly neighbour in part to confirm its determination to sustain its position in that zone.
22. Von Thunen model has the following zones central city, market gardening & milk production, Firewood
& lumber production, crop farming without fallow, crop farming – fallow & pasture, three field system &
livestock farming. The margin between two zones of landuse is called margin of transference.
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23. The five stages of Rostow’s Model of Development are the Traditional Society, Preconditions for Take
off, Take off, Drive to Maturity & The Stage of Mass Consumption.
24. The Gatun lake, Panama forms the key to Panama canal system. Mittelland Canal joins the three major
rivers Ems, Weser & Elbe & continues eastwords to Berlin & into Poland. The Ludwig canal links a main
tributary of Rhine to the Danube & allows waterborne traffic from the Black sea to reach Atlantic via the
Rhine.
25. Lardarello, Italy was the first to produce geothermal energy. U.S.A is the largest producer of geothermal
energy. Iceland has highest percentage contribution of geothermal energy.
26. Tidal energy is produced at Rance river in Northwest France & Bay of Fundy in Canada. Bay of Fundy is
a large tidal inlet separating the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
27. The top countries in solar energy production are Japan, USA, Germany & India.
28. Kharkov is the second largest city in Ukraine & Duluth is in N.E Minnesota. Entreport is a port where
goods are stored & deposited for further distribution.
29. The first five zones in Concentric zone, Sector & Multiple Nuclei model are all same:- Zone I – CBD,
Zone II – wholesale (or Transition), Zone III – low income houses, Zone IV – Medium class houses, Zone
V – high class housing (See Models).
30. In Christallers model K=3 (Marketing Principle), K=4 (Transport Principle) & K=7 (Administration). The
rank size rule was first noticed by F. Auerbach in 1913 but developed by G.K. Zipf in 1949 in his book
‘Human Behaviour & Principle of Least Effort’.
31. The age of town scheme in the form of infantile, juvenile, adolescent, early mature & mature was given by
Griffith Taylor. A dynamic explanation of urban development based on centrifugal & centripetal forces is
known as Colby’s Hypothesis.
32. Kibbutz (cooperative farming in Israel), Kung-She (China), Sovkhoz (state owned farms in Russia),
Kolkhoz (collective farms in Russia), Ejido (Communal farm in Mexico) & Volksguter (Germany)
33. Many of Israel’s rural Jews live in two types of cooperative communities, the kibbutz and the moshav. In
a kibbutz, residents own all property collectively and contribute work in exchange for basic necessities. In
a moshav, families own separate farms but cooperate in some aspects.
34. Lewis Mumford classified cities on the basis of technology into Eotechnic, Palaeotechnic, Neotechnic &
Biotechnic. He also divided cities on the basis of cultural rise & fall into Eopolis, Polis, Metropolis,
Megalopolis, Megalopolis, Tyrannopolis & Necropolis (City of the dead).
35. Weight loosing industry (Mineral Smelting), Weight Gaining industry (Bread Manufacturing), Bulk
loosing industry (Cotton Textile), Bulk Gaining Industry (glassware).
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36. The correct sequence of European river from North to South is Elbe, Weser (End in Germany’s Atlantic
region) Rhine, Meuse (Netherlands) Seine, Loire, Dordogne (France) Ebro, Duero, Tagus & Guadiana &
Guadalquivir (Spain).
37. Hebrides or Western Isles is an archipelago of about 500 islands, western Scotland, in the Atlantic Ocean.
New Hebrides is Vanuatu.
38. The correct chronological order of the arrival of various racial groups in India is as follows Negroids,
Palaeomediterraneans, Mediterranean’s & Nordics.
39. In Malaysia & Indonesia an irrigated rice field is known as ‘Sawah’. Rubber plantation is concentrated on
the western coast of Malaysian peninsula. The underground channels slightly inclined used to bring water
for irrigation from aquifers near the base of a mountain to neighbouring lowland areas esp. in Sahara are
called Foggra. Population per unit of cultivable land is known as physiological density. Mongolia is the
least densely populated country & Monaco the most.
40. Hispaniola is the second largest island in West Indies & is divided into the separate countries of Haiti,
which occupies the western third of the island, and the Dominican Republic. Patagonia is a cold desert.
41. The rivers arranged in descending order of discharge volume are Amazon, Congo, Mississippi-Missouri,
Rio de la Plata-Parana, Congo & Ganga. The Parana river is formed by the confluence of Rio Grande and
Paranaíba River. Andes is the longest mountain chain in the world.
42. Norway has virtually no illiteracy. India has longer railway network than Australia & Germany. The
countries in descending order of road networks are U.S.A, India, Brazil & China.
43. The largest islands are Greenland, New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Baffin & Sumatra. The following
four lakes are arranged in descending order Superior, Victoria, Huron & Michigan. The Yangtze river is
the third largest in the world & is longer than Mississippi-Missouri combined. Yenisey-Angara, Ob-Irtysh
& Lena are all longer than Volga. Volga is the longest in Europe.
44. South America has the highest percentage forest area in the world. Large mammals are rare in Brazil as
the dense Amazon forest does not support free movement.
45. Asal lake, a salt lake located in Djibouti is the lowest point in Africa & Valdes peninsula is the lowest
point in S. America. The river by length in Africa are Nile, Zaire (Congo), Niger river & Zambezi. In
Africa most of the cities are primate cities.
46. Lake Nasser (Behind Aswan dam) in Southern Egypt & Northern Sudan is the larges artificial lake in
Africa. The ‘Great Man Made River’, an ambitious irrigation scheme is in Libya. Jabal al Akhdar (Green
Mountains) also lies in Libya.
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47. The people of Madagascar originated from Indonesia. Benguela seaport lies in Angola. Orange Free State
is a part of South Africa. In Africa the heaviest rainfall is recorded in Cameroon.
48. Suez canal (built by French engineer Ferdinand De Lesseps) utilizes three bodies of water—Lake
Manzilah, Lake Tims h, and the Bitter Lakes. It is a sea level canal without locks.
49. Tea plantations in India, China & Sri Lanka are carried out on acidic soils. In New Zealand sheep
outnumber people by 20 is to 1.
50. Bush fallowing is a form of shifting cultivation in West Africa where only the clearings are shifted & the
settlement is permanent.
51. Africa is known as plateau continent & Australia is topographically the lowest continent. Antarctica has
the maximum mean elevation. A series of nearly parallel faults produced by compressional forces when
the crust is horizontally shortened is referred to as Echelon fault.
52. Mount Fujiyama & Mt. Krakatau are dormant. In Philippines, two well-known volcanoes that have been
active in recent years, Mount Pinatubo and Taal Volcano, are each about 80 km from Manila. Solfatara is
small volcano on the outskirts of Naples. It takes it name form the sulphur gases which escape from it.
53. Paricutin Volcano is in Mexico. It is the youngest mountain in the world & was created from an eruption
of lava and ash through a fissure in 1943 growing to more than 400 m in year. Mount Kelut & Tambora
are one of the major volcanoes of Indonesia.
54. Laki & Surtsey volcanic island are major volcanoes of Iceland. Mount Taupo is one of the greatest
volcanoes of New Zealand which created the Taupo crater lake (largest lake of New Zealand).
55. The largest active shield volcano in the world is Mt. Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Kilauea, the most active
volcanic crater in the world, is located on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa.
56. The stretch between the rock of Gibraltar (Spain) & Cape Ceuta (Morocco) is called the Pillar of the
Hercules. The Atlas Mountains are an extension of the Alpine system of Europe. The Tell or Maritime
Atlas are lower slopes of the Atlas Mountains. The coastal belt of Mediterranean climate if referred to as
Tell in Algeria.
57. Alberta is coal & petroleum rich in Canada. Labrador & Newfoundland are iron mining regions of
Canada. Texas, Alaska & Gulf of Mexico are rich in petroleum deposits in USA. California is the most
populous state of USA. Florida is the largest producer of orange. Kansas is the largest producer of wheat.
Badlands of the Dakota are famous in USA.
58. The Hudson river flows between the Taconic range & the Catskill Mountains (both belonging to the
Appalachians).
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59. The US NE region cities from North to South are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore &
Washington DC. The coca cola company is based in Atlanta (Capital of Georgia).
60. The major sources of revenue of Monaco is Casino (mainly in Monte Carlo). The countries/regions with
decreasing number of islands are Oceania (25000), Indonesia (14000), Philippines (7100), Japan (3000).
61. Australia is an exporter of wheat. Australia boasts the world’s largest known recoverable resources of
lead, mineral sands, tantalum, uranium, silver, and zinc. The southwest coast of the south island in New
Zealand is characterized by deep fiords (Fiordland National Park, largest in the country lies here).
62. In Lebanon 90 % of the population is Urban. In Turkey literacy rate is around 87 %. Pyongyang & Seoul
are both coastal cities. Jordan is not land locked because of Gulf of Aqaba.
63. Malaysia is not the leading producer of tin in the world (China & Indonesia lead). Copper is the leading
mineral of Philippines. Iran also has one of the world's largest reserves of copper
64. With a mean elevation of approximately 650 m (2,100 ft) above sea level, Africa is high compared to
other continents.. Gold is Ghana’s principal mineral resource. More than 90 % of Burundi’s population is
rural. River Niger has two deltas—an inland delta in central Mali and a coastal delta along the Gulf of
Guinea
65. South East Asian countries in descending order of population density are Philippines (290), Indonesia
(132) Thailand (125) Malaysia (70) & Brunei (62). Area wise the descending order is Indonesia, Thailand,
Malaysia & Philippines.
66. Europe has longer coastline than North America Rhine is connected to Rhone & hence the Mediterranean.
About 50 % of Netherland’s landmass lies below sea level.
67. The ten highest peaks of USA are in Alaska. The Great Lakes were formed during the ice age. The largest
single cause of the decline in the Amu Darya’s water level is the Garagum Canal, the longest canal in the
former Soviet Union and one of the longest in the world. The Aral Sea is a remnant of Tethys Sea.
68. France has a major tidal power plant on the Rance River in Brittany. France produces more electricity than
it uses and is a major exporter of electricity to neighboring countries, including the United Kingdom, Italy,
and Switzerland.
69. Kuwaiti Oilfields are located at Fao, Burgan, Wafra. The largest lakes of Brazil are are Sobradinho, on the
São Francisco; Tucuruí, on the Tocantins; Balbina, on the Amazon; and Furnas, on the Paraná.
70. The world’s top waterfalls in a descending order of discharge of volume of water are Niagara falls,
Victoria falls, Iguazu falls (On Parana river in Argentina-Brazil border) & Kaieteur Falls (on river Potaro
in Guyana, S. America).
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71. In Africa the leading states for various commodities are: Tea (Kenya), Oil Palm (Nigeria), Cocoa (Ghana),
Coconuts (Tanzania), Cotton (Egypt). S. Africa leads in wheat, maize, fruits & wool.
72. Kalahari means ‘the great thirst’ & a major part of it is in Botswana. Khartoum is located at the
confluence of Blue Nile (Lake Tana) & White Nile (Lake Victoria). White Nile (longer) lies to the west of
Blue Nile & contains sudds (the swampy land). A region of inland drainage in Africa is Lake Chad.
73. South Africa has 3 capitals: Cape Town (legislative capital); Pretoria (Executive/Administrative capital);
and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital.
74. The four most populous countries of Africa are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia & Zaire. Countries comprising
the horn of Africa are Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia & Somalia.
75. River Limpopo forms the boundary between S. Africa & Botswana. River Orange forms the boundary
between S. Africa & Namibia.
76. Ethiopia & Liberia were never colonized. Eritrea was carved out of Ethiopia during 1990s. Djibouti faces
the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. Countries bordering lake Victoria are Tanzania, Kenya & Uganda
77. Panama city is the only capital city of the Central American Country having a coastal location. The cities
on the edges of Panama canal are Balboa (Pacific side) & Colon (Atlantic side). Chagres Locks, Pedro
Miguel Lock & Mira Flores lock are on the Panama Canal.
78. Central American Countries: Puerto Rico is the largest exporter of Chemicals. El Salvador is the only
country on having an Atlantic Coastline. Belize is the only country not having a Pacific coastline. El
Salvador is the smallest in area & has the highest density. Guatemala the most populous in the region.
Trinidad is the only Carribean Island with large oil reserves.
79. Jura (mountains), mountain range, is located along the border between France and Switzerland (& not
Germany). Vosges are in Germany.
80. Rhode Island is the smallest state of USA. California is the most populated state of USA. The confluence
of Mississippi & Missouri is at St. Louis. Niagara falls lie between Lakes Erie & Ontario. ‘Big Apple’
describes the city of New York.
81. The number of provinces & federal territories in Canada is 10 & 3 respectively (total 13). Quebec is the
largest province of Canada & Ontario is the most populous. The capital of various provinces of Canada
are Quebec (Quebec city), Ontario (Toronto), Manitoba (Winnipeg), Saskatchewan (Regina), Alberta
(Edmonton), British Columbia (Victoria).
82. Mahaweli Ganga is the longest river of Sri Lanka. Hawaii is known as crossroads of the Pacific. At Basel,
Rhine River turns north and enters the Rhine rift valley, a flat-floored rift valley lying between the Vosges
on the west and the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) on the east.
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83. Lake Albert, Lake Edward, Lake Kivu, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi is the correct sequence of the
Lakes form north to south in Middle Africa.
84. English is the official language of Nigeria. Copenhagen (Entreport), Honolulu (port of call) are different
types of ports. New York is known as a city that never sleeps. Minnesota is known as land of 10,000
lakes, which is an understatement as it has more than 15000 lakes. Colorado accounts for the largest
production of Uranium in USA. Missouri & Tennessee share borders with the maximum number of other
states in USA (each borders 8 states).
85. Mackinder termed British & Japanese islands as offshore islands. Extensive agriculture is characterized by
high per capita production but poor per acre production.
86. Shannon river is the longest in the British Isles. Guano (mainly Peru) is a source of phosphatic fertilizer.
Nitrate fertilizers are prepared form Caliche (Chile – Chile saltpeter or NaNO3)
87. Shinano river is the longest river of Japan.
88. Belem is the biggest cocoa exporting port of Brazil. Hudson Bay is the world’s largest bay & Davis Strait
is the worlds broadest strait. British Columbia accounts for half of Canada’s timber.
89. The coasts of Canada are highly indented as eustatic changes in the past have led to the submergence of
low lying land.
90. Queensland is the largest producer of Sugarcane & leads in cattle (40% of total) in Australia. Australia is
the world’s largest producer of both gem/near-gem and industrial-grade diamonds, producing about two-
fifths of the global total. Tasmania is the leading producer of apples in Australia.
91. Western Australia is the largest province in terms of Area . Dongara in south west Australia is known for
Natural gas. Whyalla is a city and port in southern Australia near Adeilade & is important for ship
building. Located on the northwest shore of Spencer Gulf, an arm of the Indian Ocean, Whyalla is a center
of heavy industry, with gas refineries and chemical industries.
92. Danube crosses through the maximum countries of the world. The capital cities of Vienna, Budapest,
Bratislava (Slovakia) & Belgrade (Serbia & Montenegro) lie on its bank. Iceland’s economy mainly
depends on exports of fish.
93. Kuwait is the most urbanized Arab State (virtually entire population is urban). Turkey has virtually no
desert & is quite unlike middle east. The Anatolian plateau (Asian Turkey) is bounded by Pontine
mountains to the north & Taurus mountains to the south.
94. Maldives has a density of 1100 persons/sq km. The top four most dense countries of south Asia are
Maldives, Bangladesh, India & Sri Lanka. In Pakistan 33 % of the population is urban & Sri Lanka has 23
% urbanization. Western Sahara is the most urbanized in Africa. Djibouti also has one of the highest
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urbanization (85%). South Africa has 60 percent urbanization. Uruguay is the most urbanized nation in
South America.
95. Ferro-nickel is one of the prominent exports of Dominican Republic.
96. Christchurch is the main urban centre of the Canterbury plains in New Zealand. Kruger National Park, is
in northeastern South Africa, adjacent to the Mozambique border & is among the ten largest national parks
in the world.
97. Texas is known for the maximum number of tornadoes in USA. Greenland is more sparsely populated
than Mongolia. Canada produces the maximum hydroelectricity in the world.
98. The correct sequence of Chinese cities in descending order of population is Shanghai, Beijing, Tianjin &
Nanjing. Within China Chernozem soils are only found in Manchuria.
99. The Chinese cities form North to South are: Fushun, Shenyang, Anshan, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai &
Wuhan. Nanjing is almost at the same latitude as Shanghai & is close to it.
100. The correct decreasing order of population concentration in various Japanese provinces is Honshu,
Kyushu, Hokkaido & Shikoku. The population of following Japanese cities in descending order is Osaka,
Nagoya, Kobe & Kyoto.
Miscellaneous Facts II:

1. Muroran is an important industrial centre in Hokkaido. Chiba is another industrial centre near Tokyo.
2. River Mekong is called the Danube of SE Asia. A fragmented strip of Malaysia (Sarawak) separates
Brunei into two divisions. Brunei is a member of Commonwealth of Nations.
3. Borneo is an ancient stable crust pushed above the sea level by tectonic forces & is not subject to
volcanism. Indonesia is the worlds largest archipelago. The Indonesian Islands in decreasing order of area
is Kalimantan (Borneo Island), Sumatra, Irian Jaya (or Papua), Java & Bali. Java is the most populous
island.
4. Jakarta is the largest city of SE Asia followed by Manila. Borneo is the least developed part of Indonesia.
Indonesia is the largest producer of Liquefied Natural Gas in the world.
5. Palembang (Sumatra), Bogor (Java), Balikpapan (Kalimantan), Manado (Sulawesi) are some of the
principal cities of Indonesia. Makassar is the largest city and chief port of Sulawesi
6. Hmong is a minority ethnic group that lives primarily in China and Southeast Asia. About 2 million
Hmong live in Southeast Asian countries, such as Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. Another 10
million Hmong live in the southern provinces of China.
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7. The correct sequence of cities north to south in SE Asia is Hanoi, Vientiane, Yangon & Bangkok. Ferries
on Bangkok’s extensive system of canals (khlongs) serve thousands of commuters every day. Bangkok
has in the recent years faced the problem of sinking ground due to excessive withdrawal of water. In the
eastern part of Thailand lies the Khorat plateau which comprises of sandstone & is a region of cassava
production.
8. Sjælland, also Zealand, island of eastern Denmark is the largest and most important island of Denmark
9. Pennine chain of Mountains is in England & Pyrenees is in Spain. Cantabrian Mountain chain is also in
Spain lying west from the Pyrenees to the Atlantic Ocean
10. Prut (also Pruth or Prutul river) flows through southwestern Ukraine, western Moldova, and eastern
Romania & is a major tributary of the Danube River. The northern Dvina flows into the White Sea. The
port of Arkhangelsk lies on its bank. The western dvina called Daugava rises in Belarus & flows
northwest through Latvia, emptying into the Gulf of R ga. The Duero river lies in Spain & Portuagal.
11. Russia, Ukraine & France are the top 3 countries in Europe by Area.
12. Australia is the driest & the hottest continent of the world. Gulf of Joseph Bonaparte lies to the west of
Arnhem land in Australia. Sharks Bay lies to the west of Hammersley ranges. Gulf of Spencer is near
Adeliade & Flinders range. Significant petroleum deposits have been exploited in Barrow Island, Bass
Strait and southern Queensland.
13. In Russia the various ports are Murmansk (Barents Sea), Magadan (Sea of Okhotsk), St. Petersburg (Gulf
of Finland) & Arkhangelsk (White Sea). The various cities are Nizhny Novogorod (Central region),
Magnitogorsk (Ural region), Kazan (Volga region) & Novosibirsk (Kuzbas).
14. The largest proportion of world electricity comes from thermal power. The Ruwenzori mountain range in
Africa is a block mountain produced by faulting.
15. In Pakistan Baluchistan lies to the west of Kirthar ranges & Sind lies to the east. Pakistan has higher
percentage of irrigated land than India, Bangladesh & Nepal. Mardan has the largest sugar factory in
Pakistan. Sylhet is the most important teas cultivation area of Bangladesh.
England & Ireland
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Geography of India
Various Geographical regions/terms
Kalakot Coalfields Located in J & K.
Indira Col Northern most point of India
Walong Town Eastern Most point of India in Arunachal Pradesh
Rajheera Creek Western most point of India in Kachhch
Kukrail Project Protection of crocodiles
Goran Ghat Located in Rajasthan.
Char Uplands in the Ganga Delta
Bils/bhils Marshy lands / Ox Bow lakes in Assam
Teris/Theris Coastal sand dunes in Kerala (Malabar Coast)
Bhur Elevated piece of land situated along the bank of Ganga
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Barind Bhangar in deltaic region of Bengal having extensive laterite formations
Pats Lateritic plain (High level)
Chalkas Name for red soils in Telengana district.
Thali Sandy plain
Konda Residual Hillocks on the Telengana Plateau
Pensi La Connects Himachal Pradesh with Kargil
Dahej Centre of Chemical industry in Gujarat
Saharanpur Famous for Paper Industry
Pancham Island Lies near Gujarat
Osam & Barda Volcanic hills in Kathiawar.
Dapha Bum Highest peak in Eastern Himalayas (Mishmi Hills).
Blue Mountain Highest peak of Mizo hills
Barail Range Separates Naga hills from Manipur Hills
Jelep La Connects Kalimpong with Lhasa. Located in Sikkim
Karbi Analong Another name for Mikir Hills (Assam)
Nakki Lake Rajasthan
Mulshi Lake Maharashtra
Important Institutes
Central Soil & Materials Research Station New Delhi
Central Water & Power Research Station Pune
National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee
Wool Research Association Thane
National Ship Design & Research Centre Vishakhapatnam
National Mangrove Genetic Association Orissa
Forest Resource & Human Resource Development Chhindwara
Indian Boundaries
Bangladesh 4096 Km
China 3917 Km
Pakistan 3310 Km
Nepal 1752 Km
Myanmar 1458 Km
Bhutan 578 Km
Important Industrial Centers of India

Guntur Tobacco Andhra Pradesh
Vijaywada Pharmaceuticals & Toy Making Andhra Pradesh
Rajmundhury Paper Mill Andhra Pradesh
Machilipatnam Imitation Jewellery, Hand-woven clothes Andhra Pradesh
Porvorim Computer Floppy Disk
Palem Pig Iron Plant
Mangalore Roofing Tiles Karnataka
Trichur Diamond cutting & Polishing
Punaloor Paper Industry
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Dhuravani India’s First telephone manufacturing facility
Hubli Cotton Textile Bangalore
Karimnagar Silver Filigree Articles Andhra Pradesh
Kurnool Hydrogenated Oil Andhra Pradesh
Warangal Woolen Carpets Andhra Pradesh
Baleshwar Automobiles Tyres & Tubes Orissa
Modinagar Synthetic Fiber U.P.
Patna Aluminium Foils Bihar
Rai Bareli Passenger Car U.P
Greater Noida Telephone U.P
Jind Tannery Haryana
Pithampur Automobile (Scooter) M.P.
Naini Compressors & Pumps
Bhopal Heavy Electric Machinery M.P
Kota Precision Instruments Rajasthan
Ludhiana Bicycle parts Punjab
Saharanpur Sugar Industry U.P.
Panki Automobile
Important Agricultural Districts

Nagpur Orange
Jalgaon Banana
Nasik Onion
Bijapur & Dhule Grapes
Kolar Silk
Alleppey Cotton
Rayapuram Synthetic Fibre.
Geyser/Springs Sites of India

Manikaran Kulu, Himachal Pradesh
Tatapani Shimla, Himachal Pradesh*
Jwalamukhi Kangra, Himachal Pradesh
Rajgir Patna
Puga Valley J&K
Shahastradhara Uttaranchal
Uni Gujarat
Tapovan Bihar
Naraini Rajasthan
Foot Sachu Sikkim
Nimboli Maharashtra
Mineral sites
Koh Dariba Copper Rajasthan (Alwar)
Malanjkhand (Balaghat) Copper M.P.
Aridongri Iron Ore Chhatisgarh
Kendujhar Manganese, Chromite Orissa
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Lota Pahar Copper Rajasthan (South of Khetri)
Kolihan Copper Rajasthan
Jamar Kotra Rock Phosphate Rajasthan
Kalol Oil Gujarat
Naomundi Iron Ore Jharkhand
Ghatsila Copper Bihar
Chalk Hills Magnesite Salem
Nagaur Gypsum Rajasthan
Agnigundala Copper
Babaduan Hills Iron Ore Karnataka
Newly Created States:

Area Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand & Uttaranchal.
Population Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh & Uttaranchal
Population density Jharkhand, Uttaranchal & Chhattisgarh.
Sex Ratio Chattisgarh has highest
Highest Decadal Growth Jharkhand
1. The correct chronological scale of the Indian time scale is Archaean (Dharwar – Early Precambrian),
Purana (covers Cuddapah & Vindhyan systems – Late Pre Cambrian), Dravidian (400-600 million years
ago) & Aryan (400 million till date).
2. The peninsular plateau cover around 70 % of the India’s land area. Most of the peninsular rivers have
reached their base level of erosion.
3. The major syntaxial bends of Himalayas are near Pamir (where the Karakoram meets Hindukush) & in
Arunachal Pradesh where there is a sharp change from East-west to Southerly trend.
4. The Karakoram range & the Laddakh plateau lie to the north of Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone & originally
formed a part of the Eurasian plate.
5. Tectonic earthquakes cause maximum damage. The north-western Himalayas are more prone to
earthquakes than the eastern Himalayas. Dharwar system has the most important mineralized rocks of
India which are the earliest formed sedimentary rocks found today in metamorphic forms. The major
rocks of the Dharwar system include Schist, Quartzite, Slates, Dolomites etc. Vindhyan mountains exhibit
the oldest glaciation. The recent rocks are Aryan rocks. Quartzite & cement grade limestone is obtained
from the Cuddapah System.
6. Awadh plains lie to the east of Rohilkhand plains in U.P. Bhabar (8-16 km wide) extends from Indus to
Teesta & is not suitable for cultivation. Ajodhya hills lie in West Bengal. The Great Boundary Fault lies
along the Aravallis
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7. The length of the regional division of the Himalayas in descending order is: Nepal Himalayas, Assam
Himalayas, Punjab Himalayas & Kumaon Himalayas.
8. The submarine canyons along the Indian coasts are found only in a small portion in Kutch coastal region.
9. The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It rises in the lower slopes of the Himalayas &
forms boundary between Haryana & Punjab & is lost in dry sand near Hanumangarh. Purvanchal hills
have trellis drainage pattern.
10. Reserved forests (54 % of total) are under direct supervision of government. In protected forests local
people are allowed to collect timber. About one percent of India’s forest is ‘Private Forest’.
11. The Sambhar, Degana, Didwana lakes are the proof of the recession of the Arabian Sea. Parts of the
Indian deserts also resulted due to the recession. The western part of Thar has longitudinal dunes &
eastern part is characterized by Barkhans. The 25 cm Isohyet form the limit of Thar desert.
12. Jhelum & Beas are not antecedent but Satluj, Saryu (Kali), Ghagara, Kosi, Teesta & Manas River are
antecedent. River Son, Damodar, Chambal & Banas are fine examples of superimposed drainage. The
following states are arranged in descending order of area: Assam, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal & Himachal
Pradesh. Lakshadweep has the smallest area among UTs. Gujarat has the longest coastline in India
followed by Andhra Pradesh.
13. The south-west monsoons of India represent equatorial westerlies. Mizoram is the least irrigated states of
India. Shivsamudram is the oldest hydro electricity project.
14. Ganga river has the maximum flow in August & September. Jhelum has the maximum flow in May &
June. The Ganga Cauveri link is likely to connect Thanjavur to Patna.
15. In India the top river basins are Ganga (26.2%), Indus (9.8%), Godavari (9.5%), Krishna, Brahmaputra &
Mahanadi. Brahmaputra leads in terms of annual water yield & rate of flow. Storage capacity is highest
for Ganga.
16. Black soils are suitable for citrus & leguminous crops. Red soils are suitable for Tapioca & cashewnuts.
Gangetic soil can be described as azonal. Rock Cover is the most important factor of soil formation.
Fallow land in India is about 10 %. The highest area under maize is in the state of M.P. Highest yield of
wheat is found in Punjab.
17. M.P & U.P are the top two states in number of cattle & U.P & Punjab are top two in milk production.
Cattle density if highest in Manipur.
18. Coal in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Rajasthan, Kerala, J & K & Tamil Nadu
belongs to Tertiary Era. The States with highest coal reserves - Jharkhand, West Bengal Orissa & M.P.
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19. In fish production the top 4 states are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and West Bengal. West Bengal is the
leading producer of inland fish.
20. The states in order of electricity installed capacity are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh & Tamil Nadu.
21. Bauxite is associated with Lateritic soil. The Rourkela plant was built with German collaboration.
22. BARC centers are at Trombay, Kalpakkam, Indore & Thiruvananthapuram. Centre for Wind Power &
Energy is located in Chennai. The Kayathar & Muphandal wind farms are located in Tamil Nadu.
23. Mundas are the most underdeveloped tribe of India. The period 1971-81 recorded the highest growth rate
of population. Agricultural density is highest in West Bengal followed by Kerala & U.P.
24. The widest continental shelf of India is off Mumbai & narrowest off the Godawari Delta. The total
number of river basins in India is 113 (14 major, 44 medium & 55 minor). Of the panchnad rivers Beas
river basin is completely in India.
25. The Bhagirathi originates from Gaumukh glacier & Alaknanda from Satopanth glacier. Shifting
cultivation is known as Podu in Orissa, Penda in Chhattisgarh & Deppa in M.P. Vishnu Prayag is the
confluence of Alaknanda & Dhauli Ganga. Nand Prayag is the confluence of Alaknanda & Mandakni.
26. All INSATs were launched from Kourou French Guyana.
27. The States with descending order of metropolitan cities are U.P (6), Maharashtra & Gujarat (4 each),
Andhra Pradesh, M.P & Tamil Nadu (3 each).
28. Jhingurda (Singrauli-Shahdol) in M.P with 130 m thickness is the thickest coal seam of India.
29. Conifers are found in Himalayas at the altitude of 1500 m to 3500 m. The following states/UTs are
arranged in the descending order of mangrove forests – West Bengal, Gujarat, Andaman & Nicobar and
Andhra Pradesh. The correct sequence of forest cover of India is Dense forest, Open forest & Mangrove.
Mangrove forests are also found in the Krishna Delta.
30. Assam has boundary with 7 states including West Bengal but not with Sikkim.
31. India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world.
32. Rajmahal hills are block mountains & Dalma is volcanic in origin. Laterite soils are the most preferable
for Dryland farming. Salher & Kalsubai are two important peaks located in the western ghats
33. Rihand is a tributary of Son & Banas is the tributary of Chambal. The extension of Aravallis to the city of
Ambala forms the river divide between Ganga & Indus. The Vindhyan range acts as a water divide
between the Ganga system & the river system of South India.
34. The Deccan Traps have been formed by both the fissure eruption (western side) & central eruption
(eastern side). Sal, Teak, Sandalwood & Sheesham are related to tropical moist deciduous forest.
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35. Black soil is found in the Deccan Plateau region. Red soil is found in the periphery of the plateau &
Laterite soil is found on highland plateau.
36. 25 % of the rainfall is received during winter season. About 55 % of the country is vulnerable to
earthquakes. East of Maikal range is the Baghelkhand Plateau made of limestones & sandstones on the
west & granite on the east.
37. Chilka Lake & Keoladeo National Park are protected under the Ramsar convention. The tertiary rocks are
mostly found in the Himalayas. In the Peninsula they occur in the coastal areas of Gujarat, Kerala & Tamil
Nadu. The western slopes of Sahyadris are more steeper than eastern slopes as the western part is highly
faulted
38. Karakoram range has the maximum glaciers. Namcha Barwa is 7750 metres high & Gurla Mandhata 7728
metres. The theories of monsoon generation are thermal concept (Hadley), Dynamic Concept (Flohn) and
Southern Oscillation Theory (Walker).
39. Bhutan touches 4 Sates of Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Nepal touches the
following 5 states - Uttaranchal, U.P. Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim. Bangladesh touches 5 states of
West Bengal Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura & Mizoram.
40. In Assam Brahmaputra has a highly braided course. Purna falls is on Tons river.
41. Vizhingam in Kerala produces wave energy. Muppandal in Tamil Nadu – Wind Energy.
42. The types of Montane forests according to decreasing height are: Alpine (3000-4000 m), Moist Temperate
Forest (2000-3000 m), Pine Forest (1500-1750 m) & Wet Temperate Forest (200-1000 m).
43. Hyundai Motors, Hindustan Motors, Ashok Leyland are all in Chennai.
44. Vishakhapatnam is a landlocked harbour & the ships are protected by the Roass hill in the North &
Dolphin’s Nose to the south. Gujarat will benefit most from the water allocated in Sardar Sarovar Project
& M.P will be the main beneficiary in terms of electricity. The Reliance Petroleum Refinery at Jamnagar
refines imported petroleum.
45. Alang is the leading ship breaking centre of India of the three centres of Alang, Sachna & Mumbai.
46. India imports cashew nut from the countries of East Africa. The processing industries of Cashew Kernels
is concentrated in Quilon. The imported raw cashew nut is processed & exported to other countries.
47. Large part of Deccan plateau is poor in minerals because the Lava has buried the mineral bearing old
rocks baring very few exposures of mineral bearing rocks.
48. Marble is quarried along the western region of Sambhar Lake & Sandstone in Kaimur range. Lac is the
secretion of tiny insect called the lac insect which lives on the sap of trees like Kusan, ghont, palas, khair,
ber etc.
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49. .The coalfields arranged from west to east are Bokaro, Jharia & Raniganj.
50. The States arranged in descending order of cropping intensity are Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh & Mizoram.
51. The utilization of Ground water potential is very high in Punjab area, High in Maharashtra region,
Moderate in Tamil Nadu region & low in NE region.
52. Grount Nut is the principal crop of Rayalsema region.
53. The following Urban agglomerations are arranged in descending order of their population & are the last 5
among the 35 million cities - Faridabad, Allahabad, Amritsar, Vijaywada & Rajkot.
54. The following territories are arranged in descending order of their population size: Delhi, Pondcherry,
Chandigarh, Andaman & Nicobar, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu & Lakshadweep.
55. Uttar Pradesh is the chief producer of vegetables & tanned hides. Cardamom is the leading cash crop of
southern Sikkim & is mainly exported.
56. The shortest National Highway 47A connects Wellingdon Island & Cochin Bypass. The following
features of the Indian Ocean are arranged from North to South Socotra-Chagos Ridge, Carlsberg ridge,
Mascarene basin & Prince Edward Crozet ridge.
57. The largest number of Muslim population in India is in Uttar Pradesh.
58. Banas & its tributaries have carved the Mewar upland into a rolling peneplain. The Mandovi Zuari Creek
in Goa is an important embayment in the coastline. Parasnath Hill is situated in Haraibagh plateau. The
Kaimur hills belong to the Vindhyan range. Dhupgarh (Satpuras), Mahendragiri (Garhjat Hills),
Gorakhnath peak (Girnar Hills), Mulangiri (Baba Budan Hills).
59. Siachen glacier is in Nubra valley. Amarnath cave is situated near Kalahoi glacier.
60. The longest beach of India is in Chennai. Dense forests have a tree canopy cover of more than 40 %. The
true dense cover in India is about 12 % of the total land area. Western Ghats have two different types of
vegetation on its two slopes. The largest portion of India’s wasteland occurs in degraded pastures &
grazing land.
61. The name of forest & corresponding state is: Manas (Assam), Betla (Bihar), Gorumara (West Bengal) &
Madumalai (Tamil Nadu).
62. The centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) programme was launched in the year 1973-
74. Forest conservation Act was passed in 1980. Cyclonic activity in India is a characteristic of the pre &
post monsoon periods. Worlds highest observatory is in Hanle, Laddakh.
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63. The Gangetic plain has been created by both exogenic & endogenic forces. The expression of earliest
volcanic activity is found in India in Dalma hill of Bihar. Soil erosion in India occurs in almost all the
states but it is most serious along the coast of Kerala.
64. Chhattisgarh is the only tine producing state in India.
65. The peninsular India has not undergone marine submergence since Archean times. The Aravalli
Mountains were one of the oldest geosynclines in the world. Shillong plateau is also known as
‘Meghalaya’ meaning ‘abode of clouds’. It was so named by S.P Chatterjee.
66. The cultural gap theory given by Ogburn states that material aspects (money etc) change faster with time
than the non material aspect (like social values) therefore it results in cultural gap.
67. Sunderbans, Simplipal & Manas are the three biosphere reserves which are also tiger reserves. Kaziranga
National Park, Nandadevi, Manas wildlife park are among India’s world heritage site. Corbett National
park (earlier Hailey national park) was the first national park of India & Vedanthagal bird sanctuary is the
first bird sanctuary of India. Longest navigable waterway is in Uttar Pradesh.
68. Midnapore canal is on Kosi river. Gujarat is the leading producer of ‘Beedi Tobacco’ in India. Groundnut
is the leading oilseed in India.
69. Wattle a tanning material used in leather industry is grown in Nilgiri & Palni Hills & from here major
supplies are done for the entire country.
70. The plants & their power source are Bokaro Steel plant (Jharia), Bhilai Steel plant (Korba), Indian Iron &
Steel Co. (DVC power supply) & Visveswaraya Iron & Steel Co (Shravati power project).
71. India’s production of gold has been declining. Raniganj is the oldest coalfield in India. In Karnataka
plateau the hilly region is known as Malnad & the rolling plain as Maidan. Vindhyas form watershed
between the Ganga System & peninsular river system. Cardamom hills is a branch of Annamalai hills.
72. Lakshwadeep (Atoll), Gulf of Kutch (Platform), Palk Bay (Fringing reef) are the types of reef in India.
73. The term ‘Bhabhar’ implies piedmont plain & it is extensive in the west & narrow in the east. Kolleru lake
was formed when marine transgression had taken place forming a lagoon, but at present it is almost a fresh
water lake.
74. Atari is the last Indian railway station before crossing into Pakistan on the Amritsar Lahore line. Leh lies
between Ladakh & Zaskar.
75. Hoggenakkal falls is on Kaveri river as soon as it enters Tamil Nadu. Wular lake is tectonic, Rakas lake is
glacial & Didwana lake is Aeolian.
76. In 2004 a new biosphere reserve was inaugurated in Arunachal Pradesh.
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77. During 1901-2001 the population of India has increased by about 4 times. The sex ratio on a worldwide
scale is 986. The sex ratio of India in 1901 was 972 & the density in 1901 was just 77 persons/km2.
78. The sex ratio of various religious communities/ other communities is Scheduled tribe (978), Scheduled
Caste (936), Jains (940), Sikhs (893).
79. 1921 is taken as the year of demographic divide & 1931 as urbanization divide.
80. Jains have the highest literacy rate (overall, male as well as female) followed by Christians in all the three
categories. Muslims have the highest proportion of children population among their total population. The
census is conducted under the Census Act 1948. The census moment was 00:00 hours of 1st March, 2001.
India has 2.3 % of world‘s area & 16 % of total population. The district having least population density is
Lahul & Spiti (2 person/Km2) & the highest density is in NE Delhi (29400)
81. Sikhs have recorded the lowest decadal growth rate of 16.9 %. Jain population has registered growth rate
of population @ 26 % (highest among all religions) in 1991-2001 compared to 4.6 % during 1981-1991.
Parsi population has shown signs of decline.
82. The sex ratio of India in 1991 was 927 which has improved to 933. The density of India in 1991 was 267
which has increased to 324 per/km2 during 2001 adding 57 persons per square km.
83. The over concentration of urban population in the big urban centers of India is called population
implosion. As per the census a person is deemed as literate if he/she can read & write in any language with
understanding. For the first time since independence there is a decline in the absolute number of illiterates
during a decade.
84. The census 2001 has provided for the first time report on religious data.
85. The correct decreasing order in terms of sex ratio is Kerala (1058), Chhattisgarh (990), Tamil Nadu (986).
Among UTs sex ratio is highest for Pondicherry (1001).
86. The urbanization is highest in Goa (49.7), Mizoram (49.5), Tamil Nadu (43.8) & Maharashtra (42.4). The
least urbanized state in India is Himachal Pradesh (9%) Bihar (10%) & Sikkim (11%). In terms of
absolute number of people living in Urban areas Maharashtra leads followed by UP. U.P has the
maximum number of illiterates in absolute number followed by Bihar.
87. Lakshwadeep has the minimum population & maximum literacy rate (87.5) among UTs. Pondicherry has
the maximum sex ration (1001)
88. The total number of districts in India in 2001 were 593 & total number of towns is 5161. Tamil Nadu has
the maximum number of towns in India. Total number of urban agglomeration in India is 384 (maximum
in M.P). The life expectation at birth in India is 61 years.
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89. The Mediterraneans are considered to be the bearers of earliest form of Hinduism in India. Bulk of the
population among lower caste is also comprised by the Mediterraneans in Northern India.
90. Jains have the minimum gap in literacy levels of male & female in India. Muslims have the lowest literacy
levels.
Geographical Thought
Geographers & their Contribution
Neo Determinism Griffith Taylor
Demographic Transition Model W.S. Thomson & Frank W. Notestein
Mobility Transition Model Zelinsky
Cylindrical Equal Area Projection J. Heinrich Lambert
Polar Zenithal Equal Area Projection J. Heinrich Lambert
Sea Floor Spreading Harry Hess
Geosynclinal Theory of Mountain Building Kober
Optimum Population Theory Sidgwick (Later Dalton, Robbins, Carr Saunders)
Economic Theory of Population Leibenstein
Least Cost Theory Weber
Locational Interdependence Palender
Sub-Optimal Location Smith
Economic Rent Ricardo
Agricultural regions Whitlessey
Natural Regions Herbertson
Five Stages model of Development W.W. Rostov
Growth Pole Francois Perroux
Atmospheric Circulation Model Palmen
Convection Current Hypothesis Arthur Holmes
Theory of Intervening Opportunities S.A. Stouffer
Theory of Intervening Obstacles E.S. Lee
Concept of Urban Village H.J. Hans
Concept of Urban Continuum R.E. Pahl
Concept of Rural Urban Fringe Pryor
Geosophy concept (subjective conceptions) John Wright
Geopacifics Concept Griffith Taylor
Geopolitics Concept K Haushofer
Geonomics Concept G. T Renner
Density-size rule R.H. Best
Demographic Index B.J.L. Berry
Population Potential G Tornqvist
Centrality Index Preston
Origin of rift valley Bullard
Morphometric Analysis Strahler
Panplane concept Crickmay
Primarumpf concept Penck
Panfan concept Lawson.
Concept of Base Level Powell
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Core-Periphery Model Friedmann
Cultural Hearth Sauer
Concept of Sequent Occupance Whittlesey
Mental Map Lynch & Gould
Differential Heating concept of Monsoon Halley
Crop Combinations Theory J.C. Weaver
Line of Compensation Pratt
Etchplain Pugh & Thomas
Gravity Model T. Q. Stewart
Plastic Space Pip Feror
Compage Whittlesey
Density & Fecundity Theory Saddler
Cultural Realms of the World Broek & Webb
Concept of Regional Synthesis Berry
Regional Science Concept Isard
Regional System Concept Tuan
Uniformitarianism Hutton
Mountain Root Theory Airy
Cumulative Causation Theory Gunnar Myrdal
Maximum Revenue Theory A Losch
Concept of Natural Boundary Layer
G Scale (Scale of Natural Values) Hagget & Chorley
Incubator Hypothesis Hoover & Vernon
Time Space Convergence Theory D Janelle
City of Need & City of Death (Concepts) W. Bunge
Treppen Concept Albrecht Penck
Tangent of Average Slope E Raisz & J Henry
Use of Dots A H Robinson
SIAL, SIMA, NIFE classification E. Suess
Identified four basic pedogenic regimes Simonson
Concept of City Region R.E. Dickinson
Concept of ‘Garden City’ Ebenezer Howard
Social Physics Stewart
Human Welfare concept David Harvey
Spatial Organization Smith
Philosophies & Geographers

Behaviouralism Huff, Haggerstand, Cox, Peter Gould, Tobbler
Humanism John wright, Lowenthal, Kirk, Tuan
Universalism Talcot Parsons
Particularism Hoselitz
Idealism Leonard Guelke
Realism John Scott, Gibson
Pragmatism Pierce
Positivism Auguste Comte, BJL Berry, David Harvey, William Bunge
Marxism David Harvey
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Welfare Approach D.M Smith & David Harvey
Radicalism Peet
Probabilism O.H.K. Spate
Works of Geographers
Meterologica Aristotle
Guide to Geography Ptolemy
Quadriparitum (effect of position of celestial bodies on Humans) Ptolemy
On Airs, Water & Places Hippocrates
History of Plants Theophrastus
General Treatise Strabo
Exposition of the World System Laplace
The World & its People H.J Fleure (British)
Prologue to Population Geography W. Zelinsky
Jyotisiddhanta Aryabhatta
The Economics of Location A. Losch
The Earth & its resources Finch, Trewartha & Shearer
Statistical Analysis in Geography L.J.King
Land of Britain – Its use & Misuse Stamp
Editor of Antipode R. Peet
Methods of Regional Analysis Isard
On Geography & its History D. Stoddart
Post Modern Geographies E. Soja
The Major Natural Regions of the World A. J. Herbertson
Comparative Method Carl Ritter
Cosmographic Universalis Sebastian Munster
Nouvelle Geographic Universelle Elisee Reclus
Realm of Nature H Robert Mill
Territorial Production Complex Kellossvosky
Ill Million Marco Polo
Jewahirat Al Biruni
Description of the Earth Al Battani
The History of Geography J N L Baker
Geography as Human Ecology H H Barrows
Theoretical Geography William Bunge
Radical Geography R. Peet
Rural Settlement & Landuse M. Chisolhm
Systematic Geography W. M Davis
Geography as fundamental research discipline E. A. Ackerman
Where is the Research Frontier E. A Ackerman
Approaches to Regional Analysis: A Synthesis B.J. L Berry
Geographic Influences on American History Albert Parry Birmingham
Principles of Geology Charles Lyell (1830)
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City Region & Regionalism R.E. Dickinson
Economic Geography of Britain Smith
Isaiah Bowman The Pioneer Fringe
The spatial organization of Society Morill
Silent Spring Carson
Famous Saying/Quotation/Thought
Earthquakes & Volcanoes are caused by winds Aristotle
Soil Erosion & Land destruction are parts of culture, history & repeated in many places Plato
Our senses can tell us fire is hot but not why it is hot Aristotle
Geography is the science which deals with the art of map making Ptolemy
The best economic programme for a country to follow is determined by nature & it is Stop & Go
geographers duty to interpret this programme Determinism
As body is made of soul, the physical globe is made for mankind Carl Ritter
We must ask the earth itself for its laws Carl Ritter
Geography is the mirror of man; to know the world is to know yourself Yi Fu Tuan
Give me the map of a country & I pledge myself to tell you what the man of the Ratzel
country will be & what part that country will play in history
People of cold climate are physically stron, more courageous, less suspicious & less Montesquiue
cunning than those in the warm climate
The environment in essentially neutral Edward Ullman
Environment taken by itself is a meaningless phrase; without man environment does O.H.K. Spate
not exist
The main obstacle between Hindus & Muslims is the Varna system Al-Biruni
Geography is the Study of partial distribution & space relations on the earth’s surface E. A. Ackerman
Man can never get entirely rid himself of the hold his environment has on him L Febvre
Human environment relationship is dynamic rather than static Semple
Human geography is the study of changing relationship between unresting man & the Semple
unstable earth
Present is the Key to the past James Hutton
I traveled, I sketched, I described Ratzel
Cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group. Culture is Sauer
the agent, the natural area the medium, the cultural landscape the result
Geography is the study of things associated in areas, mutually interacting, Blache
characterizng particular segments on the earth surface.
Who gets what, where & how Welfare Geography
Nature to be commanded must be obeyed (Neo determinism) Fracis Bacon
Regional geographers may be trying to put boundaries that do not exist around areas Kimble
that do not matter
It is the links in the landscape rather than the breaks that impress the scientific mind Kimble
Defined geography as ‘Discovery of predictive patterns’ during quantitative revolution Bunge
Dimension of society are analogous to the physical dimensions & include numbers of Social Physics
people, distance & time
Geography comes through the soles of one’s shoes Grieve
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Classical Geographical Concepts
Lebensrauam Ratzel
Ort Lichkeiten Richthofen
Zusammenhang (Harmonius unity among diverse phenomena on earth) Humboldt
Principle of Activity & Principle of Interaction Jean Brunhes
Concept of World Island Mackinder
Space time concept Kant
Ancient Names
Erythrean Sea Arabian Sea/Indian Ocean Scythia Ukraine
Istre Po Sinus Arabicus Red Sea
Ivernia Iceland Taprabone Sri Lanka
Irene Ireland Rha Volga
Palus Maeotis Sea of Azov Tanais Don
Boresthenes Dneiper Euxine Black Sea
Hyrcanian Caspian Sea Elephantine Cataract Aswan
Sea of Larvey Arabian Sea Sea of Kendrej Gulf of Thailand
Sea of Shelhat Malacca Sea Coniaci Cape Comorin
Arbela Mesopotamia (Iraq) Mother of Euxine Sea of Azov
Nishad Hindukush Mountains Zaradrus Sutlej
Krishnagiri Karakoram Acesipes Chenab
Menkagiri Siwalik Hydratoes Ravi
Kimpurusa Tibetan Plateau Hyphasis Beas
Arbud Aravalli Chyrse Malay Peninsula
Rhapton Tanganyika Arabicus Sinus Red Sea
Aromata Somali Coast
* - Name in Italics are Puranic Names
Miscellaneous Facts
1. The term latitude & longitude were first used by Ptolemy. Ptolemy also developed the polyconic
projection. Ptolemy considered the Indian ocean as an inland sea. The Greek cartography is said to have
attained its culmination (reach zenith) at the hands of Ptolemy.
2. Eratosthenes is considered father of geodesy. Elisee Reclus was an anarchist geographer.
3. The main contribution of Romans was in the field of Historical & regional geography. Anaximander used
the term ‘latitude’ & longitude’ for the first time. Hippocrates was the founder of medical geography (also
father of medicine). The T-O map was developed during the dark ages (Christian parts – 200 to 700 AD)
& was oriented towards east.
4. The main contribution of Al Idrisi was in the field of Cartography & that of Ibn Khaldun in Human
Geography.
5. Varenius ‘General Geography’ was ‘Systematic Geography’ & ‘Special Geography’ was ‘Regional’.
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6. The Prime Meridian of the classical Indian geographers used to be drawn through the city of Ujjain, Lanka
& Mt. Meru (North Pole). The Vedic planets are Buddha (Mercury), Brihaspati (Jupiter), Mangala (Mars)
& Shukra (Venus).
7. Humboldt attempted to formulate general or abstract laws. He believed that all the races of man had a
common origin. Ritter was the first professor of Geography. The “principle of interaction” was introduced
by Brunhes.
8. Strabo is considered the father of Chorology ie ‘regional geography’. Strabo attempted to explain that
slope, relief & climate were all the work of god. Griffith Taylor applied the concept of ‘Zones & Strata’
for the evolution of races of mankind. Kant Freed Geography from its tight bonds with theology.
9. Herodotus was associated with Pythagorean School of philosophy. Hipparachus prepared catalogue of
star. Thales was associated with Ionian School of Philosophy. Archytas measured the total length of the
land & sea. Archimedes deducted that the surface of the sea must be convex.
10. Ruling deity & directions were: Yama (South), Indra (East), Varuna (West), Kuber (North) & Brahma
(Zenith). The first Indian university to establish geography department was Madras University. The first
detailed map of India was prepared by Ptolemy. Bhaskaracharya was the ancient Indian scholar who
divided earth into 360 degrees.
11. The ancient Puranic directions were North West (Vayavya), North East (Isana), South West (Nairitya) &
South East (Agneyay).
12. Hartshorne rejected environmental determinism as it separates nature from man & is thus disruptive of
fundamental unity of the field. Oscal Peschel was the originator of the dualism between Physical &
Human Geography.
13. W.M Davis concept was down wasting & Penck’s Concept was back wasting. The quantitative models
recognize men as passive agents.
14. G.K. Gilbert was the first to establish the relationship between load of a river, its volume, velocity &
gradient. He gave the concept of grade.
15. Thales was the first Greek scholar to be concerned about the measurement & location of things on the
surface of the earth. Thales applied the principles of geometry to measuring land area. Herodotus is often
called the father of ethnography.
16. Plato conceived the world as having been created in perfection but now in the process of decline from
perfection.
17. Aristotle was a teleologist. In fact he is considered the father of teleologist concept as he believed that
everything was changing according to a pre-existing plan. Aristotle founded his own school in Athens
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which he named Lyceum. Aristotle added ‘ether’ to the list of four basic substances (earth, water, fire &
air) comprising all materials on the earth. He considered equatorial regions as uninhabitable.
18. Eratosthenes accepted an invitation from the king of Egypt to become the royal tutor & was also named as
‘Alpha fellow’ at the museum in Alexandria.
19. Pytheas was the first Greek to tell about ocean tides & showed that tides were related to the phases of the
moon. Eudoxus, a contemporary of Plato developed the theory of zones of climate based on increasing
slopes (Klima) away from the sun on a spherical surface.
20. Homer was considered by Strabo as the founder of all geographical knowledge but Strabo considered
Herodotus as a ‘fable monger’ & ‘fiction retailer’. Herodotus described about the “dumb commerce”
practiced by Carthagians with primitive tribes in western Africa.
21. As a result of the voyage of Ibn Haukal to the south of equator the wrong notion about the inhabitability of
the torrid zone came to an end.
22. Al-Masudi said that there is no place on the earth that is always covered with water, nor one that is always
land but a constant revolution takes place. Al Masudi also said that the power of the earth vary in their
influence on man on account of three causes viz water, natural vegetation & topography. Al Masudi
correlated the colour of ocean water & its salinity
23. Al-Biruni referred to the “Mountain of Moon” situated near the equator which was the source of Nile river
& was of the opinion that floods in the Nile occurred because of the heavy rains in the upper reaches of
the Nile.
24. Pferre d’Ally wrote ‘Imagine Mundi’ which influenced Columbus to search a route to Asia moving
westward from the Canary Islands.
25. Varenious in his treatise on regional geography outlined its contents under three sections: Celestial
properties, terrestrial properties & human properties.
26. Kant recognized the importance of commercial geography, theological geography, moral geography &
mathematical geography & saw them heavily influenced by underlying physical geography. Kant believed
that physical geography is the first part of knowledge of the earth.
27. Ritter emphasized that he was teaching a ‘new scientific geography’ in contrast to the traditional lifeless
summary of facts about countries. ‘Erdkunde’ means earth science.
28. The term ‘anthropogeographic’ was coined by Ratzel & was used by him for the Organic theory of society
& state.
29. Sauer established a research group at Berkeley School that focused on the historical – ecological study of
cultural landscapes.
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30. Chisolhm is considered father of economic geography. Mackinder renamed his ‘Pivot Area’ as
‘Heartland’ in his famous book ‘Demographic ideals & reality’.
31. Humanism emphasizes the importance of participant observation, iconography, place & hermeneutics.
The humanistic geography aims at ‘Verstehn’ which means understanding of man in his environment.
32. Behavioural geography did not bring about a revolution away from quantitative geography, it became an
attachment to it. Behavioural geography also adopted positivist approach. Preds work represents an
attempt to incorporate probability into the locational analysis.
33. White had presented the PhD thesis on ‘Human response to floods’. Taylor on the basis of climatic cycles
evolved a theory known as the ‘Migration zone theory of race evolution’ where he assumed that climate
has been a cause of human migrations.
34. O’ Riordian has given forms of environmentalism. ‘Ecocentrism’ & ‘Technocentrism’ are the two major
forms of Environmentalism according to him.
35. The basic dictum of existentialism is ‘Man makes Himself’. To the existentialist for every landscape or
existential geography someone can be held accountable.
36. To the idealist the explanation of an action is complete when the agent’s goal & theoretical understanding
of his situation have been discovered.
37. The American School represents the major tradition of Cultural Geography in the 20th century.
38. Patanjali described the crop regions on the basis of climate & soil. The area drained by Saptasindhu
contained all the rivers of Punjab along with Saraswati & Present Gagghar.
162
Techniques of Geographical Analysis

Various Measuring Instruments
Hydrometer Relative density of a liquid/ Measurement of water flow in currents
Atmometer Rate of Evaporation
Campbell Strokes Recorder Sunshine
Cielometer Height of Clouds
Octas Amount of Cloud cover
Reversing Thermometer Temperature of Ocean Depth
Sundial Duration of Sunshine
Wind Vane Wind Direction only (not windspeed).
Optical Square For short off-sets from chainline to any object close by
Cynometer Blueness of Sky
Analemma Scale drawn on the globe to show daily declination of the sun
Tachometer indicates rotational (angular) speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)
Tacheometer Measurement of horizontal & vertical position of a point
Odometer Measuring distance traveled by a vehicle
Rotameter Measuring length (esp stream lines on map)/ rate of fluid flow
Auxanometer Measuring growth in plants
Udometer A rain guage
Wentworth Scale Classify particles ranging from boulders to colloids
Saffir Simpson scale Measuring Hurricane Intensity
Fujita Scale Measures Relative severity & damage of Tornado
1. Cadastral map can be best reduced by Pantograph & wall maps are generally reduced with the help of
Camera Lucida. A map with diagrammatic statistical information is known as Cartogram. One yard is
equal to 3 feet. 1760 yards make a mile.
2. Gall’s Projection is most suitable for general purpose world map. In Mercator projection the scale along
the Meridians & Parallel is the same & hence it maintains accuracy of shape.
3. Sinusoidal (Sansom Flamsteed) projection is suitable for Africa. For drawing map of small countries like
Nepal, Sri Lanka, France, Portugal the Simple conical projection with one standard parallel is most
suitable. Galls projection is rectangular in shape & is most suitable for General purpose map of the world.
163
4. The Ria coast contours are shown below the sea level. The chorographical maps are drawn on a very small
scale & give more or less highly generalized information.
5. Hypsometer measures the proportion of area of the surface at different elevation above or below the sea
level. Most globes are formed from a series of roughly triangular maps called gores, which are glued on
the outside of a sphere. The earliest known globe is said to have been constructed by a Greek scholar
Crates about 150 BC.
6. The Indian topographical maps have the scale 1’’ = 1 mile. The scale of degree sheets published by the
Survey of India is 1:250,000. Aerial photographs of India are supplied by Survey of India. March to April
& September to October is the best period for aerial photography.
7. Europe (Polyconic projection) Asia (Zenithal Equidistant), General purpose map of India (Bonnes) &
USA (Lambert’s Zenithal Equal Area) Distribution map of world (Cylindrical Equal Area)
8. The Gnomonic Projection is a great circle projection. Transverse Mercator’s projection is also known as
Gauss conformal projection & it never shows pole.
9. LANDSAT orbit allows the imaging of the location about every two & a half weeks.
10. Topographical maps are prepared on a smaller scale than a map of Delhi.
11. Halley prepared the first weather map of the world. In the year 1884 the meridian that passes through the
royal observatory at Greenwich in London was established as the global starting point for measuring
longitudes.
12. Conical map projections were the first map projections developed by ancient Greeks. Pole is represented
by an arc in conical projections. Cardinal points refer to the four main directions on a compass.
13. In Azimuthal projection the direction of one point with respect to the other point is the same as it is on the
globe. In all cylindrical projections, meridians are equispaced. In all cylindrical projections latitudinal
scale is correct only along the equator.
14. Perspective projection is also known as geometrical projection. In Mercators projection, a straight line
drawn is a line of constant bearing (Loxodrome) but it does not give the shortest distance. Still it is
popular among navigators as they project the great circles into smaller loxodromes & then navigate
through Mercators projection.
15. The stereographic projection is suitable for navigational chart. Gnomonic projection is used for air routes
in the higher latitudes. Mercator projection is also referred to as Cylindrical Orthomorphic projection.
16. The counters showing vertical cliff come very close to meet each other but do not intersect each other.
Longitudinal profile would suit to show a waterfall.
164
17. The direction of the hachures is the same as that in which water would flow ie the direction of slope.
Hachures cut contours obliquely. Hill Shading is a modern substitute for hachures. It involves shading the
slopes which are usually shadowed form the sun.
18. The true north is called geographic north.
19. For a map, horizontal equivalent is generally not constant, however the vertical equivalent is constant.
20. The various colours used in making maps are Cultivated area (yellow), Grasslands (light green), Forests
(Dark Green) & Built up area (Brown).
21. The balloon borne instrument used to measure different atmospheric elements & sending information to
the ground is called Radio Sounde.
22. The wet bulb & dry bulb thermometer is used to measure Humidity.
23. Equal area projections are Cylindrical equal area, Bonnes projection, Sinusoidal projection, Stereoscopic
projection & Mollweids projection.
24. The world is divided into 136 million sheets. The million sheets are further divided into 16 parts – A to P.
The reduced bearing equivalent of whole circle bearing 225o is S 45o W.
25. On a topographical map built up areas like village site, towns, roads are shown by brown colour.
26. SPOT was the first satellite to offer a stereoscopic cover. Quick bird is the highest resolution satellite of
the world. At international date line west side of the line is always one day ahead of the east side.
27. The IRS satellite has a polar, sun synchronous orbit. It returns to its original orbit after 22 days. The
satellite takes about 103 minutes for completing one orbit.
28. Daylight Saving, system of setting clocks 1 or 2 hours ahead so that both sunrise and sunset occur at a
later hour, producing an additional period of daylight in the evening. Daylight saving was first proposed
by Benjamin Franklin.
29. China with a longitudinal extent of 50 degrees has only one time zone corresponding to the eastern part of
the country.
30. Africa cannot be shown suitably on Bonnes projection.
31. Ancient period maps: Circular showing Europa north of Asia surrounded by Oceanus on all sides
(Hecataeus), Rectangular having cylindrical projection (Eratosthenes) & Conical shape projection
(Ptolemy), Heart shaped map (Peter Apian), world in two hemispheres (Mercator) – [Refer last 3-4 pages
of S.K Manocha for map].
165

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Ghanshyam Thori Geography Notes

GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

Top 20 Countries by Area

Worlds Most Populous Countries

Contributions of Important Geographers

Minerals & Their Largest Producers

Agricultural Commodities & Their Largest Producer

Highest Peaks In Various Regions/ Mountain Chain

Important Places/Regions & Their Locations

Miscellaneous Data of Various Nations

Tribes of the World

Largest Producers of Fish in the World, 2001

Worst deforestation rate of primary forests, 2000-2005

Highest average annual deforestation of primary forests, 2000-2005 in hectares

Total forest cover in hectares - 2005

Highest total forest cover as a percentage of total land cover, 2005

Minerals & Their Ores

Major Discontinuities within the earth

Important Mining Centers Of The World

Places & Their Importance

Major Natural Regions

Planets & satellites

Hypothesis of the origin of Earth

Percentage Area of various bodies

Major Trenches in the Ocean

Submarine Canyons in various oceans

Basins of the Oceans

Major Ridges & Rises in various Oceans

Types of Climate Under Koppen’s Scheme

Thornthwaite 1948 Classification

Moisture index (Im) = (100S- 60D)/PE

Composition of the Earth

Mountains & Geological Periods

3. Relict Mountains Aravalli, Rajmahal, Nilgiris, Satpuras, Western Ghats.

4. Dome Mountain Henry mountain, USA

Highest Waterfalls of the World

Worlds Largest Lakes

Other Important Lakes

Principal Gases in the atmosphere

Albedo of Some Surfaces

Important Local Winds of the World

Changed Geographical Names

Cities Located on Rivers

Annular Drainage pattern

Essential Extra Reference

Tribal Groups of India

Tribes of the North East & Andaman Nicobar

17. Jarawas Andaman & Nicobar. Negrito

Major Formations & their Periods

Important Ranges of the Himalayas

Major Rock Systems

Forests & Their Species

Various Revolutions in Indian Economy

Rivers: Origin & Length

Various Central Institutes in India

Various Policies & Programmes in India

Energy Resources of India

Mineral Resources of India

Non Metallic Minerals

Multipurpose Projects & Hydro-Electric Projects in India

Thermal Power Projects in India

Soils & Their Properties

Agricultural Crops of India