INTRODUCTION

Diaspora cuts like a double-edged sword. Parents who work overseas may put

more food on the table that makes their children healthy and mentally alert and have

better means to support their education. However, they may deprive their children of

parental tender loving care and guidance essential in their development as citizens with

well-rounded personalities who can confidently take their place in the society.

Parenthood makes it possible for parents to endure the pains of life in order to

raise a family. Parental sacrifice is a necessary virtue in maintaining the stability, unity,

and happiness of the home. Sad to say, according to an independent research by

Cabansag (2005), more than 70 percent of Filipinos are too poor to meet their family’s

basic needs.

Because of this situation, many people decide to go abroad, believing that

overseas employment is the only solution to improve the living condition of the family.

The exodus of Filipino workers abroad has left millions of children to the care of a lone

parent or another relative. Due to the migration of one or both parents, children in OFW

families experience a reconfiguration of gender roles in the family as well as different

ways of maintaining family relationship. The departure of mothers or both parents has

clearly rearranged care giving and provider roles. The children may be wanting for

affection and time. Worse, they may be prone to emotional and psychological distress.

Battistella and Conaco (1998) reported that Filipino children of migrants fared

worse academically than the non-migrants’ children. Both studies had similar findings

relating to children with migrant mothers that is, those with absent mothers have a
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tendency to lag behind children of the other groups. Although migrant mothers remit

more money to invest in their children’s education, their children do not perform

owing to their mother’s absence.

Several studies showed how migration of parents is indeed heart-breaking for

children, making them long for parental care, get confused over gender roles, be

vulnerable to abuse, and even develop consumerist attitudes. In contrast, it has been

assumed that the money brought in by the migrant parents could increase the levels of

educational attainment of their children while opening up more opportunities for their

future.

Nonetheless, students’ excellent performance does not only depend on a single

factor but also on a conglomeration of factors blending together to bring about the desired

outcomes among students. This study examined the factors influencing the academic

performance of OFW children enrolled in the private and public elementary schools in

the division of San Jose City.

Statement of the Problem

The 2003 Children and Families Study conducted by the Scalabrini Migration

Center (SMC) in partnership with the Episcopal Commission on the Pastoral Care of

Migrants and Itinerant People-CBCP/Apostleship of the Sea-Manila, and the Overseas

Filipino Workers Welfare Administration revealed that “parental absence creates

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displacements, disruptions and changes in care-giving arrangements.” However,

“despite the emotional displacements, the children of migrants are not disadvantaged

vis-à-vis the children of non-migrants in many dimensions of well-being. Thus, when the

family is stable, it can withstand the separation imposed by migration.” This stresses the

need for caring families in the development of today’s migrants’ children into worthy

citizens of tomorrow.

The 2003 study also found out that the children of migrants are better off in

terms of the socio-economic variables. However, the study confirmed the findings of the

1996 study which indicated that the children of migrant mothers did not do well in

school as the other children. It claimed further that the improved economic status of

migrant families has produced healthier OFW children, the children of migrant mothers

did not do well in school as the other children. Furthermore, there is reluctance of the

children’s families to seek other agencies or institutions when it comes to non-economic

problems.

The findings of both the 1996 and the 2003 studies pointed to the need for more

concerted action for the benefit of the children of migrant parents. Mass media need to

be more active in providing education and information to OFW families on relevant

topics as child rearing, parenting tips, and changing gender roles, particularly the role of

fathers especially when the mother is the overseas worker.

The important role that the government plays in delivering appropriate

programs to OFW families can never be over-emphasized. Local governments and the
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school can collaborate and mount programs on caregiving, parenting and gender

sensitivity or guarding of migrant children. Teachers, school heads and other personnel,

as part of the support system of OFW children, could be more prepared for this role if

their awareness and understanding of migrant issues is enhanced.

Although inputs to education such as budget, infrastructure, competent teachers

and administrators, and updated curriculum are of primary importance in producing

proximal result, psychological factors or the provision for healthy sense of being are also

indispensable. To complete the picture, it is important to look for factors that might

have potent influences on the performance of pupils in the elementary schools. Despite

the state-of-the art facilities, resources, networking opportunities, curriculum at par

with international standards, and competitive teachers, attainment of the target

academic outcomes might be far from being realized. This is because the active

involvement of the parents and other immediate family members in the concerted

efforts of administrators and teachers is of primary importance in developing a

wholesome person.

Cognizant of these concerns, this study determined the predictors of academic

performance of Overseas Filipino Workers’ children in the private and public elementary

schools in the division of San Jose City. Results of this may be the bases for developing

programs to address the concerns of this group of children.

Objectives of the Study

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The study aimed to determine the factors that influence the academic

performance of Overseas Filipino Workers’ children in the private and public elementary

schools in San Jose City. Specifically, the study achieved the following:

1. Describe the socio-demographic characteristics of a) pupil-respondents in

terms of age, sex, grade level, type of school, ambition/aspiration, number

of siblings, birth order, daily allowance; b) employed parent abroad or OFW’s

age, sex, and years working abroad, c) left behind parent’s age, sex, highest

educational attainment, and occupation or source of income; d) other

support system’s age, sex, and highest educational attainment;

2. Determine the parental involvement in terms of the roles and degree of

performing the school-related needs of the OFW children;

3. Describe the home environment in terms of availability of learning materials

and resources, means, topic and frequency of communication between the

OFW parent and the pupil-respondent, size of household, and child’s study

time at home;

4. Determine the school motivation in terms of facilitating condition, and

engagement and disaffection with learning;

5. Ascertain the personal adjustment of OFW children in terms of anxiety, self-

efficacy, basic psychological need satisfaction, and prosocial behavior;

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6. Describe the academic performance of the OFW children in terms of general

average grades, extra-curricular activities participated-in, and honors/awards

received, and determine the difference in their academic performance; and

7. Identify the factors that predict the OFW children’s academic performance.

Hypotheses of the Study

With reference to the problems and objectives of the study stated earlier, the

following hypotheses were tested:

1. There is no significant relationship between the pupil-respondent’s socio-

demographic characteristics and academic performance.

2. There is no significant relationship between parental involvement and academic

performance of the pupil-respondent.

3. There is no significant relationship between home environment and academic

performance of the pupil-respondent.

4. There is no significant relationship between school motivation and academic

performance of the pupil-respondent.

5. There is no significant relationship between pupil-respondent’s personal

adjustment and academic performance.

6. There is no significant difference in the academic performance of OFW children

before and during the migration of the OFW parent.

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7. Private school participants perform significantly higher than their public school

counterparts.

8. Pupil respondent’s socio-demographic characteristics, parental involvement,

home environment, school motivation, and personal adjustment do not predict

the academic performance of OFW children.

Significance of the Study

The study was conducted with the hope of giving possible significant

contribution in the educational development and progress of OFW children in the

elementary schools in the division of San Jose City. Through the school administrators,

the results of this study may become the basis for designing relevant programs for OFW

children like counseling, tutorials, and the like. For the left-behind parents programs like

trainings/seminars through the Parents Teachers Association (PTA) may be developed to

enlighten their minds of their roles and responsibilities in nurturing their children as this

has a great bearing on their academic performance.

On the part of the teachers, the results may give them insight on the factors that

affect their pupils’ academic performance that may encourage and motivate them to

help these children cope with problems in their academics and others..

To the parents, the result of this study may give and make them be aware on the

factors that affect their children’s academic performance so that they could assist them
 8

in their needs at home. Meanwhile, the local government officials and social workers,

may use the result of this study as guide in identifying and developing tangible projects

to assist OFW families in need.

Finally, future researchers, may use the data of this study as reference for future

researches related to the concerns and issues of the OFW and their families.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study focused on the factors that could predict the academic performance of

the elementary pupils from the upper elementary grade (grades four to six) in the

private and public schools in San Jose City. They were chosen because their mother,

father, or both have been has been Overseas Filipino worker (OFW) for at least two

years during the conduct of this study. Also, they belonged to the 10-12 age group.

According to the 2003 Children and Families Study, if the purpose were to examine how

children are affected by migration, it makes sense to target specific age groups rather

than to cover children of various ages.

The socio-demographic characteristics of the pupil respondents were limited to

their age, sex, type of school, grade level, ambition/aspiration in life, number of siblings,

birth order, daily allowance. Those of the employed parents abroad (OFW’s) were age,

sex, and years working abroad, while those of the other parent and other support

system were age, sex, and educational attainment were looked into.
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Parental involvement was limited to identifying the one who assists the child in

the school-related needs and the roles of the other parent or other support system and

their degree of performance in the roles related to the school needs of the child.

The home environment factors were limited to the availability of learning

materials and resources, frequency of communication between the OFW parent and the

pupil-respondent, number of household members, and child’s study time at home.

School motivation factors were limited to the facilitating condition, and

engagement and disaffection with learning.

Personal adjustment was limited to anxiety, self-efficacy, basic emotional need

satisfaction, and prosocial behavior.

Academic performance of the OFW children was limited to their average grade

for two school years after the migration of the OFW parent, extra-curricular activities

participated in, and awards/honors received.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents studies conducted by researchers and concepts of well-

known educators to give clarifications and support to selected variables or factors

included in the study. These were the references used in the conceptualization of the

study and enrichment of the discussion of the results.

Socio-demographic Characteristics of the OFW Children

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Age

Children of school age who belong to families with an OFW parent are more able

to go to school than to families of ‘similar’ parent characteristics where children are able

to achieve 88 percent of their potential education given their age. Some of these children

are able to achieve 93 percent of their potential education given their age. This, however,

pertains only to quantity of education (Edillon, 2008).

The 2003 Children and Families Survey projected that 91,790 families of

deployed migrant workers have left a child in the 10 to 12 years age group behind.

However, almost 90 percent of the fathers and the mothers migrated when their

children were under 9 years of age according to Scalabrini Migration Center (2004).

Among OFW children, younger students (10-13) tend to perform better in school

than older respondents (Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004).

Sex

Among OFW children, the females had above average to excellent performance

in school. More females than males are perceiving school as extremely important

(Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004). Also, Parrenas (2006) found that children in migrant

households had higher levels of enrolment and lower dropout rates, and girls with

migrant parents were able to improve their school performance.

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Whereas migration does not appear to influence the educational attainment of boys

significantly, it does influence girls in migrant households who appear to complete a

significantly larger number of years of school (Mansuri, 2006). He provided an insightful

disaggregated analysis of the impact of migration with respect to the gender of the de facto

household head, finding no evidence that a female de facto household gives a higher

priority to educational expenditure. He also concluded that there was no protective effect

of migration-induced female headship on schooling outcomes for the girls, and that women

appear to be protecting male siblings.

Ambition/Aspiration

According to the research entitled, Hearts Apart: Migration in the Eyes of Filipino

Children (2004), findings showed that close to half of the children (47.3 percent)

reported that they had entertained thoughts of working abroad someday. Not

surprisingly, more children of migrants said that they had plans of working abroad than

the children from non-migrant families (60.4 percent vs. 47 percent). Among the

children of migrants, those with migrant mothers were the least likely to signify an

intention to go abroad.

A recent survey among adult Filipinos of the 2001 Pulse Asia study recorded a

smaller percentage (20 percent) of respondents wanting to go abroad. The higher

percentage of migration intentions among the children may reflect a lack of awareness

about migration restrictions, among other reasons. Of the intended destinations, close
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to half (48.8 percent of all the children) had set their sights on going to the United

States. Ranked second were East Asian destinations, mentioned by about a quarter of

the children (24.2 percent). Japan took the largest share among the East Asian

destinations. The Middle East, a major region of destination of Filipino workers, also

figured highly (11.3 percent). The remaining regions were mentioned by less than three

percent.

As to their intended occupation abroad, children mentioned occupations known

to be marketable abroad. More than half (52.5 percent) aspired to take up professional

jobs overseas. Under the professional occupations, 30 percent indicated that they

planned to work abroad as doctors, nurses and related medical personnel. Engineers

(7.4 percent) ranked next to medical professionals, followed by some 5.5 percent to

work as entertainers. Overall, sea-based occupations did not figure in the aspirations of

the children, except among the children of seafarers - about a third (32.0 percent) said

they want to work abroad as seafarers, a case of children following in the footsteps of

their parents.

Type of School
Public-private is a general classification of schools which refers to the ownership

of the school institution which can be either government-owned or non-government or

privately owned. Public schools typically operate differently from private schools

(Ornstein and Levine, 2006) in terms of funding, infrastructure, admission of students,

class size, among others.

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Specific to the landscape of Philippine education, admission to public schools in

basic education is easier than admission to private schools that are selective. They are

not obliged to accept every child, and in many private schools, admission is very

competitive. This might be because private schools are empowered to implement

admission criteria in consonance with their vision as educational institutions aside from

the higher school fees involved.

This had lead to the increase in enrolment in public schools. The data showed

that an average of 5,025,924 students enroll in public high schools in the Philippines in

contrast with private high schools with 1,294,105 students (NETRC, DepEd 2006)

accounted for 20.48 percent of the average total enrollees. Teacher-student ratio was

48:1 in the public schools while in private schools, it remained 26:1 (SY 2002-2003 to

2007-2008 DepEd Fact Sheets 2011 from www.deped.com.ph). If one is to subscribe to

the argument that smaller classes lead to higher student achievement (Ornstein and

Levine, 2006), it could be possible that private school students perform better than their

public students counterparts.

In terms of governance, private schools may not be directly subjected to many

government regulations which directly affect public schools. Since private schools are

funded independently, they are not subject to the limitations of the government’s

education budgets and have more freedom in designing curriculum and instruction

(Kennedy, 2009). Though there is dearth of available report on the status of private

schools in the Philippines, it is argued that the general status of the students is far better
 14

than the condition of students who attend public schools. Private schools are generally

committed to providing small classes and individual attention to students and it might

be the reason why a number of parents choose private schools.

With respect to the quality of public and private school, there are not very many

indicators since most of the indicator distinguishes between men and women, but not

by the ownership of the schools. Indicators present the calculation of the

student/teacher ratio separating public and private schools. In elementary schools, the

ratio of public schools is 35:7 while in private schools is 30:1. In the high schools, the

ratio is 35:9 for public schools and 33:6 for private schools. Therefore, it seems that in

terms of the student/teacher ratio, private schools are better equipped to produce high

quality education than public schools.

Another piece of information that may be important in rating public versus

private schools is the level of satisfaction of the users. In a recent report, the World

Bank (2011) asked Filipino families for their level of satisfaction with public and private

schools. Overall the level of satisfaction with public and private schools was very similar

even thought the ratings were higher for the private schools in the quality items and for

public schools in the costs items. The present rating of public schools was 1.49 (past

rating 1.50) while for private schools, it was 1.51 (past rating was 1.71).

The highest satisfaction with public schools was associated with its convenient

location, consequence of the longstanding policy “one-barangay, one public school”.

The rating of public schools was low in class sizes, textbooks and facilities. Class sizes are
 15

larger not because of a simple shortage of teacher but also because of a poor policy of

teacher deployment caused by the restrictive regulation on deployment of teacher in

Philippines. In addition, real student to teacher ratio in public schools is higher than the

number shown by aggregate statistics due to many teachers doing clerical or

administrative functions. Real ratios are close to 45.

In the private schools, the highest degree of satisfaction corresponded to

teachers’ attendance to schools, and availability of books. The lowest satisfaction was

associated with the tuition charged by the private schools.

Number of Siblings

Smaller family size has been linked to higher academic achievement (Eamon,

2005, Majoribanks, 1996). Students with fewer siblings are more likely to receive more

parental attention and have more access to resources than children from larger families.

The attention and support can lead to better school performance.

Musaka (2001) found out that parents today opt for few children whose needs

they can provide. This in turn lessens the academic problems of students because they

can afford to send their children to school, Socially, they are given enough attention at

home which contributes to their social interaction.

In addition, the more children in the family may mean less time and attention

parents give to each child (Mariano, 2005). Likewise Hoffert and Halpen (1987) claimed

that children from small families received both physical and parental attention than

children from large families.

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Birth Order

Popular culture assumes that first born children are most likely to become

leaders. These children are extremely adult oriented because they interact with adults

the most. Children occupying the first or oldest role are often described as possessing a

strong tendency to imitate the parents and take responsibility for younger siblings (Brink

and Matlock, 1982). Often, the oldest child tends to ‘parent’ their younger siblings as

they assume a position of control.

Meanwhile, middle children are believed to experience less interaction and

receive less attention which negatively affects the self-esteem of the child. Lacking the

primacy of the first child and the attention-garnering regency of the youngest child,

children in the middle role may feel ‘squeezed out’ of importance in their family. Often,

middle children have nothing about them that make them feel special and worthy of

their family’s attention (Stewart et al, 2001). These children tend to feel their lives are

overly scrutinized, making them look outside the family for their own autonomy. The

middle child reacts by acting out as ‘rebel’. Middle children are believed to be very

envious and try to escape their roles.

Last-born children are believed to be the most creative, emotional, extraverted,

disobedient, irresponsible and talkative (Herrera, 2003). These children are depicted as

constantly struggling to envy the higher status of the first born child, while also seeking

alternative ways of distinguishing themselves in their parent’s eyes. In accordance to

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the familial niche, the last-born child develops. Often this child’s adult character is

marked by an empathetic interpersonal style, a striving for uniqueness, and political

views that are both egalitarian and authoritarian (Paulhus, Trapnell, and Chen, 1999).

Whereas high intelligence was attributed to first borns, those last borns were believed

to be more creative and artsy.

The only children are associated with being the most academically successful and

diligent, spoiled and least likable among peers (Herrera, 2003). They are in a special

situation because they often spend most of their time in the presence of adults which is

both positive and negative or the child. On the positive side, the only child is rarely

ignored and usually provided with adequate time and support compared to other

children. However, only children are generally more autonomous in terms of personal

control, have higher levels of initiative or personal aspiration or motivation, are more

industrious in terms of educational or occupational achievement, and have stronger

identities (Mellor, 1989).

Daily Allowance

The practice of giving children allowances developed in the early twentieth

century when children's purchases of movie tickets, candy, and toys raised concerns

about their spending habits. During the Progressive Era (1890s–1920s), allowance

advocates recommended giving children a regular but fixed supply of money to

inculcate respect for money, and encourage benevolence and fiscal responsibility.

Progressive-era child-rearing authorities joined a much larger chorus calling for new
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money training regimes in women's magazines and parental advice literature (Whalen

2002). However, despite the benefits gained by the students of having allowance, there

are problems and disadvantages. For example, when a student has poor spending

habits, he/she may tend to think that this is his/her money and can do whatever he/she

wants with it. Students have the tendency to spend their allowances in their

recreational activities such as renting a computer unit for fun and games, buying items

at the shopping mall, and spending money for the peers.

According to the UNICEF study in 2008, most children with parents abroad have

more pocket money than their peers. Some teachers consider that children should not

be given all the money sent by their parents because they might spend it irresponsibly.

Thus, when caregivers provide them with regular, small amounts they can develop their

sense of responsibility.

Age and Sex of OFW and Left Parents

The study of Dungo (2008) reported that more and more Filipino women are

leaving their homes stretching their traditional domestic labor for paid labor in the

capitalist market. In 2008, 2000 to 3000, OFWs who leave the country are 70 percent

women from classes D and E, married, between the ages of 22-34, with child left falling

within the age cluster of 3-6, or below 10 years old.

Majority (86%) of the OFW women have come from the bottom income bracket.

Among the older women, teens are left behind. Both clusters are sensitive ages for
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these are children undergoing the sensitive years of moral formation with the teens

specially searching for their models as they slowly shed-off their being a child to take on

the new adult’s role.

Overall, the ratio of male to female OFWs is almost 1:1. As a point of reference,

in January 2004, only 38 percent of all employed individuals in the country were females.

When only the OFWs who are either household head or the spouse of the household head

are considered, then 2 out of 3 are males. In contrast, among those who are neither heads

of households nor spouses, it was found that 2 out of 3 are females (Edillon, 2008).

The increasing global feminization of labor migration may have a negative effect on

the education of children left behind if asymmetric preferences between males and females

were to persist. Even if women may send a substantial percentage of their income home

(Chant and Radcliffe 1992; Curran and Saguy 2001), husbands left at home may prefer to

direct only a small part of that income towards the education of children. Therefore,

migrant women have to find a way to maintain their roles in deciding how to allocate inter-

household income. Parreñas (2005), for example, found out that migrant Filipino mothers

tend to remit to the eldest child instead of the father, and remain involved in the

expenditure decision by co-managing a bank account not with their husbands, but often

with their eldest daughters.

Some studies describing the remittance behaviors of male and female migrants

found out that women remit more (both overall and as a percentage of their income) than

men do (Richter and Havanon 1995; Phongpaichit 1993). In another case, Vanwey (2005)

tested whether such a difference in remittances behavior was caused by the different
 20

characteristics of male and female migrants using a data set that included the

characteristics both of the migrants and their recipient households. Results showed that the

female migrants seemed to behave more altruistically than male migrants, and they also

react more strongly to the effect of remittances on their dependents in the recipient

household.

Years Working Abroad

The Philippines launched its overseas employment program in 1974. Then, it was

meant to be a stopgap measure to ease the country’s high unemployment and foreign

exchange problems. Experiences in the last 25 years or so have revealed that said

stopgap measure has remained an ongoing concern. The presence of large government

institutions as the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) and the

Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA) and the almost monotonic increase

in the volume of overseas contract workers over the years are indicative of the relative

permanence of this government program. Overseas contract works are ordinarily

engaged in by one or two members in a family or household. Seldom are the cases

where the entire family goes abroad for the purposes of work by one or more members

of the family. This type of short-term geographic or migratory movement causes the

temporary separation of family members – something that is not desirable from the

point of view of family relations.

Worker migration in the Philippines has a relatively long recorded history.

Filipino workers started finding their ways into the sugar and pineapple plantations of
 21

Hawaii in the 1920s. They became fruit pickers in California and even workers in the fish

canneries of Alaska. As the Filipinos enjoyed preferential treatment in the United States,

their number grew to about 70,000 in the mainland by the early 40s.

Filipino contract or overseas workers served the Asian neighbors as barbers,

artists, contract personnel and musicians during the fifties and continuing through the

60s. They have worked in the logging camps of Indonesian Borneo and became

construction workers in Vietnam, Thailand and Guam during the Indo-Chinese Wars. The

70s through the 80s saw the hiring of Filipino engineers and technicians to work in Iran,

Iraq and Saudi Arabia among the other countries in the Middle East. For the period

covering 1984 to 1989, Saudi Arabia alone absorbed more than one million workers.

The profile of Filipino overseas workers has changed over the period. In the 70s,

overseas contract works went largely to blue workers. In those times, construction

workers were, in particular, a large demand. In the 80s, demands shifted to professional,

technical and other related professional service workers as nurses, hotel personnel and

office clerks. Meanwhile, demands for Filipino seafarers continued to grow and remain to

figure prominently in manning international fleets.

In the early days and even through the late 80s, males in both the sea- and land-

based fronts have dominated overseas contract work. In 1987, of the total land-based

deployment, about 53 percent were the share of males. In 1992, the 50.7 percent of the

new hires were women. By the year 2000, this percentage increased to 69.1 percent. This

trend indicated the changes in the landscape of overseas contract work as demands for

domestic helps and entertainers grew steadily since the late eighties (Morada, 2002).
 22

According to the Commission on Filipinos Overseas, as of 2006, there were 8.23

million Filipinos abroad, 3.6 million of whom were permanent migrants, 3.8 million were

temporary migrants and 0.87 million are “irregular.” Also, Edillon (2008) found out that

there is more occupational diversity among OFW fathers than OFW mothers. More than

1 in 5 OFW fathers was employed as seaman. Some were employed in agriculture (13%),

or in unskilled construction work (13%), office work (13%) or other skilled work (13%).

Very few (7%) were employed as professionals. Meanwhile, majority of OFW mothers

work in the service sector, mostly as domestic helpers (86%), caregivers (10%) or

waitresses (1%). The remaining few (3%) were employed as factory workers.

According to the Department of Labor and Employment, about a million workers

leave the Philippines every year for jobs overseas. In 2007, the total reached 7.9 million,

a big portion of which included nurses and other health workers, seamen, domestic

helpers, entertainers and IT professionals.

Migrant fathers had been working abroad for an average of 6.6 years, with

seafarers averaging about eight years. There were also more cases of seafarers (47.10%)

who first left for abroad when the respondent children were less than a year old. Migrant

mothers had been abroad for a shorter period of time compared to the migrant fathers. On

the average, mothers had been working abroad for 4.8 years (almost two years less than

the migrant fathers). More than half of the migrant mothers first left when their children

were a little older, between five to nine years old.

Parent’s Educational Attainment

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Parents’ participation in their children’s education is very important. This seems

to motivate children to aim for excellence in the academic pursuits.

Most studies revealed that parents whose educational attainment were higher

helped their children develop a positive attitude towards learning. The study of Peng-

Ont (1998) revealed that the higher educational attainment of parents is, the higher is

the scholastic achievement of their children. The educated parents are able to transfer

the information and knowledge to their children, which in turn contribute to their

children’s achievement. Children of these parents tend to exert effort in studying their

lessons to please their parents. Also, Saludez (1997) found out those senior students

whose parents had higher educational background performed better than those

students whose parents have lower educational qualifications.

Parents of lower academic background may feel that they lack the skill and

knowledge to fully participate and involve academically in their children’s school

activities and usually end up deferring responsibility to the school. This was shown by

Thiamsakhu (1997) who revealed that educational attainment of parents was

significantly related to students’ academic performance. However, Vicmudo (2001)

showed that parents’ educational attainment was not significantly related to high school

students’ achievement.

When the wife is the OFW, she has a higher educational attainment and leaves a

husband who is not economically active. Thus, there are indications of household

preparedness when the wife participates in the overseas labor market. From this result, it
 24

may be surmised that when a husband leaves for overseas work, he goes with high

educational attainment and leaves a similarly educated wife who is economically active,

more educated household members, more sons and daughters, more single persons and

elderly members. Thus, when a husband joins the overseas labor market, he leaves a

relatively prepared household in terms of a number of socio-demographic measures

(Edillon, 2008).

Left Parent Occupation or Source of Income

Close to 27 percent of the fathers whose wives were working abroad were not

working. This was more than twice the percentage of the non-working fathers (9.8

percent) whose wives were also non-migrants. On the other hand, most non-migrant

mothers (47 percent) whose husbands were also non-migrants were not employed. The

figure is higher among those whose husbands were working overseas. The 68 percent of

the seafarers' wives and 60 percent of the wives of land-based workers were not

working. For non-migrant mothers who engaged in economic activity, regardless of the

migration status of their husbands, most of them were in sales (Scalabrini Migration

Center, 2003).

Other Support System

The impact of the absence of one of the parents on children can be mediated by an

extended family safety net, which is an effective response to economic and social crises. In

many developing countries, assistance among members of extended families is done not

only through inter-household income transfers between rural and urban areas, but also
 25

through sending children to live with relatives as reciprocal arrangement that contributes to

mutually recognized benefits for both families (Pharoah 2004). For this reason, children in

left-behind households do not appear to suffer greater social or economic problems than

their peers in non-remittance-receiving households, with the exception of younger children

(Bryant 2005). However, care by the extended family, or community or institutional care,

often does not provide as much protection from abuse and exploitation as parental care.

When very young infants are left behind, recommended periods for exclusive breastfeeding

may be compromised and malnutrition is exacerbated. Parental absence, however

temporary, can still have a significant impact on children left behind. Among the

consequences are a decrease in cognitive development and a compromising of long-term

human capital accumulation and income-generating potential in the long run.

Parental Involvement

Parental involvement is considered as one mechanism by which academic

achievement can be increased. Research has indicated that active involvement of parents

in the education of their children in general yielded relevant students’ achievement

outcome: learning and success (Fantuzzo et al., 2000; Hill, 2001; Hill and Craft, 2003;

Schunk, 2008; Keith and Lichtman, 1994), cognitive development (Meece, 2002), better

emotional adjustment, better communication, and social skills (Hill and Craft, 2003).

Specifically, Parker, Piotrowski and Peay (1997) discovered that the number of parents’

volunteer hours and the frequency with which parents attend school workshops were
 26

related significantly to parent and teacher ratings of children's academic motivation,

social competence, and school readiness. It was found out that parents’ beliefs in their

children’s general school competence increased their children’s task focused behaviors at

school, while parents’ beliefs in their children’s competence in mathematics was directly

related to the children’s higher mathematical performance.

Aside from academic achievement, parent-school involvement also appears to

improve children’s social behavior and interactions among peers and may be positively

associated with rule compliance and sociability at school for children performance

(Aunola, Nurmi, Lerkkanen, and Rasku-Puttonen, 2003; Hill and Craft, 2003). This claim

was corroborated by Schunk (2008) who asserted that it is possible that achievement

motivation depends strongly on factors in the children’s homes emphasizing that family

factors can influence children’s motivation and learning. It is believed that children’s

achievement motivation is affected when parents show little involvement in children’s

academics (Ratelle, Guay, Larose, & Senecal, 2004).

Roles Performed by the Left-Behind Parents

The effect of parental involvement (in terms of providing a home learning

environment) on achievement and cognitive development has been explored in recent

studies of English pre schoolers (Sylva et al., 1999; Melhuish et al., 2001). As expected,

the person responsible to teach children about good manners, faith, saving, skills, etc.,

depends on who is the parent left behind. Results in the study conducted by Edillon

(2008) revealed that if the father is the OFW, then the roles are shared between the
 27

mother and a relative, usually the grandmother. But if the mother is the OFW, then the

roles are shared between the father and the grandmother.

Concerning schoolwork, the involvement of the relative depends on who is the

OFW. If it is the father, then the relative is involved in only 12 percent of the cases, but if

it is the mother, the relative is involved in 38 percent of the cases. The disparity

becomes more pronounced when the role of teaching household chores is considered, 4

percent vs. 35 percent. A more disturbing result is that about 30 percent said that no

one is able to teach skills like woodwork or electrical repairs to the children. This was 33

percent in families with an OFW father and 27 percent in families with an OFW mother.

Other relatives step in to perform some tasks. The aunt may help in the schoolwork for

children of OFW mothers and the uncle can fix or repair broken things and bring the

children to and from school for children of OFW fathers.

Before either parent first left to work abroad, it was found that in most cases, the

roles were performed by the mother (about 20%) or by both parents (about 50%). The

mother is more involved in helping children with schoolwork (32%) and in training them

to do household chores (about 30%).

While some fathers take on the combined role of being both mother and father to

their children, the new arrangements can disrupt family care and children become

emotionally tense because of felt risks of fathers not being able to provide adequate care

for infants and the critical teenage years. Children welcome the absence of father more
 28

who is associated with tough discipline. They prefer the mother staying behind

(Scalabrini Migration Center, 2004).

The study of Cabansag (2005) revealed that there was a highly significant

relationship between behavior of the children and parental roles such as conducting

review before exams, reading books together with the child, giving encouragement to

study harder, and conferring with the teachers regarding child’s school standing.

Furthermore, among the roles of the left parents, only encouraging the child to

study harder was found to have a significant relationship. However, it was a negative

relationship with children’s academic performance.

Most of the OFW children performed either satisfactorily or needs improvement

is mentioned in relation to their school activities. Correlation analysis in the study of

Vera Cruz (2000) showed that among the five areas of involvement of mothers in school

activities, ‘co-teacher’ was found to have a positive correlation. This result indicated

that mothers perceived themselves as co-teacher of their children both at home and in

coordination with the school.

Home Environment Factors

Availability of Learning Materials and Resources

A study conducted that spending on education of OFW children is almost twice

more, at PhP 15,400 compared to one group of non-OFW schoolchildren of only PhP

8,200. This amount included tuition fees, books and school supplies. Hence, although the
 29

difference in quantity of education may be small, the difference in quality may be quite

substantial. The children of OFW parents probably go to more expensive schools, or if

they go to public schools, they enjoy more school supplies such as books and notebooks.

It would then seem that children of OFW parents are better off, based on availability of

education services (Edillon, 2008).

The availability of home reading materials that aid the students in learning was

proven to affect student’s performance in English. Heneyman and Jameson (1984) found

out that the strongest and most consistently effective influence on students’ achievement

was the access to good textbooks and other reading materials. Also, Heneyman and

Lexley (1987) admitted that greater availability of textbooks and reading materials raise

the quality of learning activities, thus increasing achievement. Likewise, Worancha

(2000) concluded that exposure to educational resources at home is attributed to the

parents’ higher level of education. Similarly, Dollete (2000) stated that if students were

provided with appropriate reading materials, the opportunity to share reading experiences

with others and reading guidance which remains focused on interest, they would develop

positive associations with reading. The pleasure of reading can then include the pleasure

of knowledge and thought. With this, students are more likely to develop lifetime habits

of reading when they find it pleasurable.

Types of learning materials available to the learner are also important. Nishan

(2003) in her study revealed that the most common resources available according to the

students were dictionaries, religious books, textbooks, novels and short story books and

fashion magazines. Of these, the most common were dictionaries since English is a
 30

second language to the students and they need dictionaries to look for the meanings of

words for comprehension. This result was in harmony with the findings of Worancha

(2000) who revealed moderate availability of dictionaries in students’ homes.

Encyclopedia, newspapers and other magazines in English were the least availably

materials in the students’ home. This was attributed to the presence of television in

most homes. It is general observation that people now have the habit of watching

everything instead of reading.

Means, Topic and Frequency of Communication

Migrant workers usually do not tell their problems to their families because they

do not want them to worry about their situations. Likewise, children, oftentimes, do not

tell their parents about their problems because of the same reason. Both parties

communicate but leave out important emotional details of their lives. Oftentimes,

communication between them is reduced to financial matters, toys, and gifts that will be

sent from abroad or what were bought from the money sent home.

The advent of advanced technology, cheaper and faster access to communication

however, does not guarantee that the gap between parents and children can be bridged.

There are people who spend hours talking over the phone about how the remittance

should be spent or nagging children what to do or not to do. It is neither the frequency

nor the length of communication but the quality of communication between parents and

their children that really matters.

Some studies found out that mother-child separation could be eased by constant

communication and by the support of the extended family (Parreñas, 2002). This
 31

confirmed the findings of the Scalabrini Migration Center, which reported a strikingly

high incidence of physical abuse suffered by children. The boys left behind by migrants

parents are particularly vulnerable to this situation. The study showed that more left

behind boys than non-migrant children claimed that they had experienced this problem

(10.4% vs. 9.5%). This was highest among the sons of land-based migrant fathers

(12.4%) and where both parents were abroad (12.7%). Communication between

migrant parents and their children, mainly through cell phones and messaging, was

frequent, although 10 percent of children did not communicate with their parents at all

(Scalibrini Migration Center, 2004:48).

Asis (2006) also found that regular communication between migrant parents and

their children lowers the levels of anxieties and loneliness. In fact, children with both

parents away reported unhappiness (Yeoh, 2007). Parreñas (2005) studied the

transnational relations between Filipino migrant mothers and their young adult children

and concluded that family members are able to maintain close ties despite the distance.

However, not all families have the access to communication. In particular, migrant

families do not have uniform access to the resources needed to maintain intimate

transnational relations.

The most common means of communication is the cellular phone, followed by the

landline telephone (Edillon, 2008). Furthermore, all the respondents in this study claimed

that the OFW parent communicates with the children and adopts the same style with

every child, regardless of age. The modal frequency of calls of the OFW mother was once
 32

a week to more than once a week. For the OFW father, the modal frequency was once a

week to daily. The simple average for both was more than once a day. Letter writing

affords them greater freedom to share their deepest feelings – whether of love, guilt or

hurt. It really is a pity that writing letters seemed to be a lost art. Encouraging it might

benefit both the children and the OFW parent. It provides greater freedom of expression,

and can even be therapeutic. The telephone is still the faster means of communication,

but letter writing brings more depth in the exchange while promoting better bonding.

When the children are asked about communication with their parent OFW, some

responses differed from those of the guardian or parent left behind. Among the 6- to 8-

year-olds, more than half (54.3%) simply did not respond. It would seem that the question

was understood since the others responded. Perhaps the group did not consider the short

phone conversations amounted to communication. Some children in the sample

households said that the mother OFW usually calls to inform them that money is being

sent. Others said this is true for their OFW fathers, but with less regularity. Children are

aware that their fathers could only call when there is a signal, and that communication

even by cell phone is not easy, especially when the OFW is working at sea.

Furthermore, the study showed that frequency of calls by the OFW father to the

children was significantly correlated with the age of the child. This means that the older

child receives calls more often than her or his younger sibling.

Letter writing is an extremely uncommon means of communication among OFWs

and their children. Only 9 out of 127 children mentioned that their OFW parent

communicates with them through letters, or ‘snail mail’. The more preferred means is by
 33

mobile phone. It is not really cheaper, but it is certainly faster. The more important

consideration, however, is whether it is an effective means of communication.

Nineteen children, with ages ranging from 7 to 17, were asked to write a letter to

their OFW parent. The most common content was thanks which was expressed in 63

percent of the letters.

Only five letter writers asked their parents, “Kumusta?” or “How are you?”

Phone conversations usually begin with these niceties. In fact, this was the way letter

writing was practiced and taught by elders. Eight children told their parent(s) to take care,

or not to neglect themselves, or not to worry. Only seven children directly asked for their

parent to come home but two boys said it twice, and a little girl said it three times and it

was the only content of her letter.

Size of Household

The Scalabrini Migration Centre (2004) came up with to the following

conclusions. The children of migrants often live in bigger households, especially when

both parents are living abroad. When mothers migrated, other family member rather

than their husbands took care of their children.

Rearing and nurturing function for the OFW children is not a problem in Asia

with the presence of the extended family who can take over readily in the care of children

being left behind. This is precisely what is happening in the case of Filipino family with

the extended family actively taking over the function. However, since aunties and uncles

are themselves taking care of their own families, the burden of direct day-to-day care of
 34

young children falls on the elderly who willingly takes over, and actually feels the

obligation to help despite prevailing physical and psychological limitations. Age

definitely sets a wide social distance between the young and the elderly, as the young

constantly complains about not being able to relate to “Lola” and “Lola” in turn

complaining of their difficulty in understanding the young.

The number of single persons in the household represents proxy parents or

caregivers to children and the elderly. Their presence in the household somehow

facilitates the mobility of both the head and the spouse as these two seek to provide for

the economic well being of the household or the family. This observation seems to be

supported by the data on households with OFW spouse tending to have larger number of

single persons in the household. There are 1.94 and 2.05 single persons, respectively, in

the male- and female-spouse OFW households (Morada, 2002).

Adults in charge of children often face increased responsibilities without having

the necessary tools to overcome new challenges posed by migration. The absence of a

breadwinner can increase the work burden for the remaining family members and

family separation can have other disruptive effects (Scalabrini Migration Center, 2003).

Yang (2006) examined the Philippine households’ responses to overseas

members’ economic shocks, finding that positive income shocks lead to human capital

accumulation and entrepreneurship in migrants’ origin households. Also, the author

confirmed that children in the migrant households have benefited from improved access

to education and health services because of the OFW parent’s remittances. According to

these view, migration leads to increased school enrolment and attendance. Similarly, a
 35

study by Battistela and Conaco (1998) concluded that relatives may fulfill the role of

parents relatively successfully. They have drawn this when they explored the impact of

migration on the children left behind, through a research conducted among elementary

school children of Filipino migrants.

Overall, the impression is that migration is not necessarily disruptive for the

development of the children left behind, particularly if it is the mother who remains in

the

home. The effect depends mostly on the extent of involvement of the extended family

in complementing the gaps resulting from parental absence.

On the other hand, a UNICEF-PNUD Philippines report (Coronel and Unterreiner,

2005) argued that parents’ absence jeopardizes the positive impacts of remittances on

school enrolment and attendance among Filipino children. Yet Parrenas (2006) found

out that children in migrant households had higher levels of enrolment and lower

dropout rates while girls with migrant parents were able to improve their school

performance.

Study Time

Study habits can be defined as allocating a dedicated scheduled and

uninterrupted time to apply oneself to the task of learning and practice. Study habits are

crucial on the part of the students who can make use of their time efficiently and
 36

deliberately instead of wasting their time with insufficient study accomplishments

(Victorino, 2011).

The same study showed that more than half of the students (58.1 percent) only

spend 1 to 2 hours of their day doing their assignments or reviewing for the exams.

Study time was said to have an effect to the performance of the students in the National

Achievement Test (Victorino, 2011).

School Motivation Factors

Facilitating Conditions

Significant others and social environments in general may facilitate or inhibit

students’ engagement in learning. Research has demonstrated a relationship between

students’ perception of support and caring from parents, teachers and peers and

academic achievement (McInerney et al., 2005). In this study, eight social facilitating

conditions, namely, parental and teacher support, peer help, the intension to leave

school, pride from others, and negative parental and peer influence were included to

examine whether they were related to achievement outcomes and whether there were

differences between groups on the perceived facilitating conditions. Also, it has been

demonstrated that significant others and social environments in general may facilitate or

inhibit students’ engagement in learning. Meanwhile, the relationship between students’

perceptions of support and care from parents, teachers, and peers and academic

achievement was also been identified (McInerney et al., 2005).

 37

Results of the study by Schunk et al. (1989) suggested that in school, children learn

from all types of models, including teachers who are dissimilar in age, competence, and other

characteristics. They also weigh and combine efficacy information from diverse sources. For

example, they may observe peers succeed and receive positive feedback from teachers (e.g.,

"You can do this"), but experience difficulties when they attempt the task themselves. Effort

feedback for prior successes supports students' perceptions of their progress, sustains

motivation, and increases efficacy for learning (Schunk, 1989b). The timing of feedback is

also important. Early successes signal high learning ability and feedback for early successes

can enhance learning efficacy. Effort feedback for early successes should be more credible

when students have to work hard to succeed.

Engagement and Disaffection with Learning

Research has shown that student’s active enthusiastic effortful participation in

learning activities in the classroom could predict their achievement in and completion of

school (Connell et al., 1995; Connell et al., 1994; Pierson and Connell, 1992; Skinner,

Wellborn, and Connell, 1990; Skinner et al., 1998; Fredricks et al., 2004).

Behavioral and Emotional Engagement and Disaffection have two notable features.

These are idea that engagement includes behavioral and emotional participation in the

classroom and the idea that engagement requires a conceptualization of its opposite, hence

the term disaffection (Connell and Wellborn, 1991).

Like other motivational conceptualizations, engaged behaviors include effort exertion

and persistence. In addition, this includes indicators of mental effort such as attention and
 38

concentration. The aspect of engagement has been referred to as on-task behavior, academic

behavior, and class participation. Unlike some conceptualizations of engagement, the theory

of behavioral and emotional engagement and disaffection includes engaged emotions. These

encompass the entire range of positive and negative academic emotions (Meyer and Turner,

2002; Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, and Perry, 2002; Schutz, and DeCuir, 2002; Weiner, 1985).

The opposite of engagement is disengagement. This implies the absence of

engagement including the absence of effort or persistence. Hence, disengagement is typically

operationalized as passivity, lack of initiation, and giving up (Mucrdock, 1999; Vallerand,

1997). This is sometimes accompanied by the emotions of dejection, discouragement, and

apathy (as depicted in theories of learned helplessness). Participation can also be undercut by

coercion (Deci and Ryan, 1985), exclusion (Merton, 1953; Newmann, 1991), or boredom.

A fuller account is especially important in describing disengagement in enterprises

from which an individual cannot voluntarily exit such as school. The normal reaction to

helplessness or exclusion is avoidance. However, when physical withdrawal is prohibited,

forms of participation may develop that reflect mental or emotional withdrawal such as

frustration, disruptive noncompliance, or simply going through the emotions (Finn et al.,

1995).

Disaffected behaviors include the core behaviors of disengagement. These are

passivity, lack of initiation, lack of effort, and giving up. In addition, these include mental

withdrawal and ritualistic participation, such as lack of attention and going through the

motions. Disaffected emotions include those that reflect enervated emotion (tired, sad,

bored), alienated emotion (frustrated, anger) and pressured participation (anxiety).

 39

Personal Adjustment

Anxiety

In the study of Shenoy (1996), it was found out that the greater the number of

problem and emotion- focused responses was as reported by the children of migrants, the

greater was the number of items related to worry endorsed by the children. The

relationship between emotion-focused coping and the negative psychological symptoms has

been borne out in earlier studies. Also, the emotion- focused coping also significantly

predicted endorsement of items related to concentration on the same scale.

This finding of emotion-focused coping being a significant predictor of different

kinds of anxiety (specifically, worry and concentration) pointed to the need to focus on this

variable as a possible target for intervention for children who face difficulties in adjustment.

The results on the factor analysis indicated that children use similar number of

problem-focused responses to deal with differing aspects of moving to a new country.

However, they use different number of emotion-focused responses in dealing with various

issues.

Causey and Dubow (1992) conceptualized two basic kinds of coping - approach

strategies and avoidance strategies. The former was thought to comprise problem-focused

coping and seeking social support, while the latter was thought to consist of externalizing,

distancing, and internalizing. These studies demonstrated that coping strategies may not

comprise two factors, but may encompass a wider range of strategies. This suggests a

need for future studies to use finer distinctions between coping responses.
 40

The 2003 Philippine Study showed that in terms of happiness, Filipino children

from migrant families were little less happy than children of non-migrants, but they

were also allegedly less anxious and lonely. Earlier, Battistella and Conaco’s (1998)

showed that children of migrant parents actually experienced higher anxiety and

loneliness. When probed on the actual emotions, however, more migrants’ children

expressed feelings of anger, confusion and worry the non-migrant children. The

problem appeared to worsen for children with both parents away as well as migrant

mothers’ children who are reportedly unhappier than children of migrant fathers.

Children of migrants revealed that they were less socially adjusted. Children with

the mother abroad tend to be angrier, confused, apathetic and more afraid than other

children. It was also asserted that the absence of the mother could be the most disruptive

in the life of the children. (Battistella and Conaco: 1996 and Migrante-Anak Pamilya

Foundation: 2005). Likewise, children do not want their mother to work overseas. (Cruz,

1987)

Social behavior of children can also be affected by migration of either one or both

parents. In the previous study by Battistella and Conaco (1996), children with absent

mothers showed poorer social adjustment and suffered impeded psychological

development. But in the 2003 Scalabrini study, it showed that children had generally

adjusted socially mainly because of the strong social support from family members and

relatives. Regardless of whether the parents are here or not, children also share some

responsibility in the household chores. Among the common chores are cleaning the

house, setting the table/washing dishes, taking care of the siblings, doing errands,
 41

watering plants, taking care of the animals, etc. Although migrant children reported

experiencing difficulties and longing for their absent parents, they also acknowledge that

they learned to be more independent in the process (Asis, 2000).

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is grounded in a larger theoretical framework known as social

cognitive theory, which postulates that human achievement depends on interactions

between one’s behaviors, personal factors (e.g., thoughts, beliefs), and environmental

conditions (Bandura,1986 and 1997). Learners obtain information to appraise their self-

efficacy from their actual performances, their vicarious experiences, the persuasions

they receive from others, and their physiological reactions. Self-efficacy beliefs influence

task choice, effort, persistence, resilience, and achievement (Bandura, 1997; Schunk,

1995). Compared to students who doubt their learning capabilities, those who feel

efficacious in learning or performing a task participate more readily, work harder, persist

longer when they encounter difficulties, and achieve at a higher level.

High self-efficacy produces competent performances when requisite skills are

lacking. Outcome expectations, or beliefs concerning the probable outcomes of actions are

important because individuals are not motivated to act in ways they believe will result in

negative outcomes. Perceived value of outcomes refers to how much people desire certain

outcomes relative to others. Given adequate skills, positive outcome expectations, and

personally valued outcomes, self-efficacy is hypothesized to influence the choice and

direction of much human behavior (Bandura, 1989).

 42

Schunk (1989) discussed how self-efficacy might operate during academic learning.

At the start of an activity, students differ in their beliefs about their capabilities to acquire

knowledge, perform skills, master the material, and so forth. Initial self-efficacy varies as a

function of aptitude (e.g., abilities and attitudes) and prior experience. Such personal factors

as goal setting and information processing, along with situational factors (e.g., rewards and

teacher feedback), affect students while they are working.

From these factors, students derive cues signaling how well they are learning which

they use to assess efficacy for further learning. Motivation is enhanced when students

perceive they are making progress in learning. In turn, as students work on tasks and

become more skillful, they maintain a sense of self-efficacy for performing well.

Furthermore, Schunk (1989) showed that ability feedback for successes ("You're

good at this") enhances self-efficacy and skill better than effort feedback or ability-effort

feedback. Although these three conditions raised children's motivation equally well,

subjects who received ability-effort feedback judged effort expenditure as greater than

those who received feedback on ability only. Subjects who received ability-effort feedback

may have discounted ability information in favor of effort.

Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction

Though family separation may not necessarily lead to extreme cases of emotional

disturbance and delinquency among children (Scalabrini, 2004; and Asis, 2000), they

have different levels of acceptance and tolerance of the migration depending on their

“cognitive development”. For young children, they see this as an abandonment and not
 43

seeing the other side of the picture. It could, however, have either a positive or negative

effect for the adolescents, they are somewhat happy because of the material benefits but

they cannot hide their sadness (Arellano-Carandang et al., 2007 and Anonuevo, 2002).

However, regardless of the material benefits and possibly the care that these children left

behind receive from their parents from a distance or from their relatives, children of

migrants particularly of migrant mothers still consider migration as a form of

abandonment. Children have much higher expectations for mothers to provide care for

the family even if they are working abroad. Though they recognize the economic benefits

they are gaining, they do not recognize this as a form of care (Parrenas, 2006). This

statement was consistent with what Battistella and Conaco’s (1996) revealed. That is,

parental absence is experienced particularly as a sense of loneliness and abandonment

and that child left behind generally lagged behind their classmates whose parents are both

present.

Prosocial Behavior

The social cost of migration can be very high, particularly due to the lack of parental

care. Children left behind inevitably grow up in single-headed families (if only one parent is

migrating), or with grandparents and other relatives (if both of the parents are migrating),

filling the vacuum left by migrant parents.

Negative effects can be exacerbated if long term migration of one of the parents may

lead to permanent disruption of family unity (Coronel and Unterreiner 2005). Absence of

men can create material and psychological insecurity, leading mothers (or children when both

the parents are migrating) to pressures and negotiations with wider family members.
 44

Migrants may start having “dual families” relationships: one in the country of origin and one

in the country of destination. This situation may actually reduce the amount of remittances

sent home (Nyiri and Saveliev 2002). However it is important to stress the fact that children

left behind are not orphans and most of them do keep some sort of contact with their migrant

parents.

Numerous theories utilize the concept of internalization as a central process in

socialization (Kelman, 1958; Lepper, 1983; Meissner, 1988; Schafer, 1968). Those

provide differing perspectives that range from internalization being something that gets

done to individuals by the socializing environment (Mead, 1934) to something that

represents the individual’s active transformation of external regulations into inner

values (Ryan, 1993; Schafer, 1968).

Academic Performance of OFW Children

Battistella and Conaco (1998) reported that Filipino children of migrants fared worse

academically in relation to non-migrants’ children. Both studies have similar findings

relating to children with migrant mothers – those with absent mothers have a tendency to

lag behind children of the other groups. Although migrant mothers remit more money to

invest in their children’s education, their children often end up not performing as well owing

to their absence. Save the Children (2006) stated that children left behind in rural areas did

better in school but emotionally they felt more lonely and sad owing to the departure of

one or both parents. Edillon (2008) also found out that children of OFW families had a

significantly higher proportion of achievers than those in non-OFW parent families.

 45

Batistella (1998) and Conaco (1996) further investigated the impact of parental absence to

the younger children left behind. They surveyed 709 children (ages 10-12) in Metro Manila,

Bulacan, Rizal and Quezon. comparing four groups of children – children of non-migrants,

children of migrant mothers, children of migrant fathers, and children of bothe parents

working abroad. They found out that children of migrants were adjusted and cared for by

the extended family. The absence of parents however, did not make a difference in the

children’s grades and social adjustment. In particular, the children of migrant mothers had

lower grades and poorer social adjustment compared to the other groups.

Another negative aspect with regard to school attendance may be linked to the risk

that the departure of wage earners from a household disrupts family life. The reduction in

the number of adult role models in the home may increase the child-rearing responsibilities

of resident household members, placing greater demands on older children to assist in

running and supporting the household (Hanson and Woodruff 2003; Acosta 2006), and

making it more difficult for children to remain in school.

The 2003 Children and Families Survey conducted in the Philippines by Scalabrini

Migration Institute, found out that migrant children, who are often enrolled in private

schools, tended to perform better and receive higher grades compared to children of

non-migrants. Furthermore, children of migrants performed well especially during grade

school compared to non-migrant children. However, it was also evident that children of

migrant mothers tended to score lower than the other children. This finding was similar to

the 1996 study of Battistella and Conaco. These findings suggested the importance of

mother’s presence as influencing factor in the academic performance of the children.

 46

On the other hand, in terms of students’ achievement, the study of Jimenez,

Paqueo and de Vera (1988) involving public and private schools in the Philippines

concluded that private school students in the Philippines, on the average, attain higher

grade equivalency than their public school counterparts in tests in mathematics (by 1.4

years, or 317) and in English (by 1.6 years, or 42%). By and large, aside from the physical

and educational inputs that government and private institutions are determined to

provide, part of the discrepant achievement gaps between the performance of public

and private schools may relate to social-cognitive factors (i.e., how learners’

experiences, environments, and behaviors affect how they learn, where these three are

said to be interdependent (Lent, Brown, and Hackett, 2000; Eggen and Kauchak, 2010).

Students’ excellent performance does not only depend a single factor but on a

conglomeration of factors blending together to bring about desired outcomes among

students. Although inputs to education such as budget, infrastructure, competent

teachers and administrators, and updated curriculum are of primary importance in

producing proximal result, psychological factors or the provision for healthy sense of

being are also indispensable. In other words, it is important to look for other factors that

might have potent influences on the performance of students in public and private

schools. Given the state-of-the art facilities, resources, networking opportunities,

curriculum at par with international standards and competitive teachers, but without

the active involvement of the parents and other immediate family members in the

concerted efforts of administrators and teachers, the attainment of target academic

 47

outcomes might be far from being realized. Following this argument, the discrepant

performance between public and private high school students in the Philippines may be

looked into within the lens of social and psychological factors accorded to students by

teachers, peers, and parents. It is likely that the social support provided to these two

groups of students vary substantially. Hence, their motivation in performing academic-

related tasks may also be different as a result of the differential achievement.

In consonance to this, studies have demonstrated that private Catholic schools

are more effective than public schools because of their strong academic climate and the

strong social relationships or social capital among parents and school personnel (Bryk et

al., 1993; Coleman and Hoffer, 1987; Coleman et al., 1982). It was also observed that the

higher performance at private schools is more likely a reflection of the collective

resources and support that parents bring to the school and factors intrinsic of the school

setting (Coleman et al., 1982).

The positive effect on children’s academic performance may reflect specific patterns

of investments migrant parents channel into children’s education. Bryant (2005) argues that

in the Philippines remittances are used to send children to private schools, which were

considered better than public schools. He suggests that children in left behind households

have a higher probability of attending private schools, and that, on the average, they get

better grades than non-migrant children. Finally the extra income a household gains from

remittances may allow children to delay entering the workforce in order to further their

studies, thereby increasing the final level of education (Hanson and Woodruff, 2003).
 48

Yet by contrast, migration of parents can also detrimentally affect school

attendance. For example, McKenzie and Rapoport (2006) detected a significant negative

effect of migration on school attendance and educational attainment of 12 to 18 year old

boys and of 16 to 18 year old girls. They claimed that migration influences educational

decisions via three main channels: the income effect brought about by remittances; the

direct effect of adult migration on the demand for child work; and the impact of the

prospect to migrate upon the incentives to invest in education. The authors argued that the

latter channel most likely drives the estimated negative contribution of migration to

educational attainment.

Extra-Curricular Activities

Variables describing engagement have therefore usually been treated in analyses

as predictors of other schooling outcomes, particularly academic performance.

Engagement is seen as a disposition towards learning, working with others and

functioning in a social institution, which is expressed in students’ feelings that they

belong in school, and in their participation in school activities.

Membership in academic organizations and participation in extra-curricular activities

is more prevalent among the children of OFWs (Edillon, 2008). Based on her study, the top

club memberships were in the Math Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP) training

guild, where children are screened and trained rigorously in math; the Science Club; and such

special interest clubs as choir, drum, Lyre Corps, Banduria and Rondalla Club. Other clubs

mentioned were Boy Scout, Girl Scout, athletic clubs and Pupil Government Organization.
 49

Membership in these clubs, as well as participation in extra-curricular activities,

usually requires some amount of money. This is possibly the reason why children of non-

OFW parents refrain from joining them. Lesser proportion of OFW children are members of

socio-civic organizations (14%). In contrast, 23 percent of the children of non-OFW are

members. This disparity may be explained. During the focus group discussion conducted

among parents left behind, i.e., spouses of OFWs, they admit to being overprotective of their

children. They would not want to be blamed by the OFW for any untoward incident that may

befall the children. Socio-civic organizations are expected to meet outside school and beyond

school hours. In contrast, school activities are performed on school grounds and within

school hours, with an obvious figure of authority. Hence, the latter is preferred over the

former in the case of OFW children (Edillion, 2008).

Miller (1979) stated that the term, extra-curricular activities was difficult to define.

It is the term that best reflects the relationship that exists between the in-class activities

and out-of-class activities. Good (1973) pointed out that extra-curricular activities refers to

the extra class activities and out-of-class activities. Extra class activities are the total

curriculum which includes experiences, camp experiences, clubs, assembly programs,

interscholastic and athletic intramurals; participation in school government and other

activities under the guidance of the school. Out-of-class activities are school connected

activities participated in by the students/teachers apart from work in regular scheduled

classes like participation in athletics, clubs and activities connected with homeroom, music,

publications and councils.

 50

The co-curriculum generally consists of activities in which students participate on a

more or less regular and usually voluntary basis through group, team, or club affiliation.

Kraus (1982) claimed that co-curricular or extra-curricular activity is a recreation activity of

student. It usually takes place after school hours, although in some schools, it may be

scheduled during class hours, and the student may be required to take part in an activity of

their own choice.

Parungao (2003) in her study concluded that students join extra-curricular activities

in search of belongingness and to socialize. Earlier, Holland and Andre (1987) stressed that

participation in extra-curricular activities relates a number of desirable characteristics like

self-esteem, educational aspirations, and feelings of control and lower levels of alienation.

Scalabrini Migration Center (SMC, 2004) documented that OFW children are more

likely to participate in extra-curricular activities such as camping, field trips, academic

contests and so forth. Their exposure to these programs not only broadens their learning,

which may contribute to their overall academic performance. Unlike the 1996 studies of

Battistella (1988) and Conaco (1996) they found out that OFW fared less in academic

performance relative to the non-OFW children. The recent study by SMC found out the

opposite. At least during the elementary years, various school/academic indicators point to

OFW children belonging to higher section, earning higher grades and receiving awards.

However it was consistent with the 1996 study which revealed that the children of migrant

mothers tended to lag somewhat behind compared to the other children.

Effects of Migration to Education

 51

Studies on education revealed contrasting claims. Some are claiming negative effects

of migration on education with mothers being missed as tutors or lacking in parental

supervision or children are missing school rather than taking it more seriously.

However, the study of Ang (2008) contradicted the commonly-held belief that distant

parenting strategy is not working. He asserted that absent parents keep OFW children in high

school. He claimed that women’s migration pushes children to stay in school. He claims. The

absence of the female migrant is a strong incentive to remain in school indicating that OFW

children are studying hard despite the absence of mothers, dispelling fears that they are

worst-off. Absent mothers increase the chance of children completing high school.”

Younger students (10-13) tend to perform better in school than older respondents.

Females rather than males have above average to excellent performance in school. More

females than males are perceiving school as extremely important (Scalabrini Migration

Center, 2004).

Monetary Benefits Enjoyed by the Family Because of Migration

According to Edillon (2008), the primary reason behind the decision to work abroad

is to provide a good education for the children. This is followed closely by the desire to have

a better income. The amount being remitted depends on the gender of the OFW. It also

appears to depend on whether it is a one- or two-parent OFW family. OFW fathers coming

from one-parent OFW families were able to remit an average of PhP 76,500 to their families

while mother OFWs were able to remit PhP 40,300. Father OFWs in two-parent OFW

families were able to remit a lesser amount, almost equal to that remitted by the mother OFW

(also from a two-parent OFW family), PhP 46,375 vs. PhP 45,500.
 52

A new house is the most common form of asset among the sample OFWs.

Interestingly, there are more families with father OFWs (54%) than with mother OFWs

(29%) who were able to build a new house since the OFW began working abroad. Perhaps it

may be due to the higher income being remitted by the father OFW or the better financial

management of the mother who is left behind, or both. Bank savings are a less popular ’store

of wealth’. Less than 20 percent of families with OFW fathers and only 14 percent of families

with OFW mothers have increased savings in the bank.

Investments for the children’s future appear to be the advantage of the OFW children.

Although only 5.8 percent have a bank account under his or her name, this is far from the 0.8

percent among children of non-OFW families with a bank account. There appears to be

substitutes, however, 2.5 percent of OFW children are covered by life insurance, 4.2 percent

by health insurance and 9.2 percent have pre-need plans. Among children of non-OFW

parents, the corresponding figures are: 1.6 percent with life insurance coverage, 0 percemt

with health insurance and 0.8 percent with pre-need plans.

Children of OFW parents enjoy more monetary benefits than those of non-OFW

parents, particularly concerning food (PhP 7,800 vs. PhP 5,400), clothing (PhP 2,100 vs. PhP

1,100), education (PhP 7,500 vs. PhP 4,400) and money deposited in the bank under their

names (PhP 1,500 vs. PhP 100). These children and their families face the same community,

social and cultural conditions and the joint impact of these conditions is usually manifested in

terms of preferences for food, clothing, and even attitude towards education spending and

saving.

Summary of the Review of Literature

 53

Results of previous studies were as multifarious and disparate as there were

researchers. On the pupil respondents’ profile, several studies found out that the following

can influenced their academic performance: age; gender; parents’ educational attainment;

occupation and income. Other findings revealed otherwise. With these, no conclusive

generalization can be made of the pupil factors. The findings could be limited to the pupil-

respondents and their environment as well as genetics.

In some studies, the socio-demographic characteristics of the left parent-

respondents, gender, source of income and age were found to be significantly correlated

with the academic performance of the children. On the other hand, a highly significant

relationship existed between behavior of the children and parental roles. However, one

study revealed that there were no significant difference among the working and non-

working mothers with regard to their extent of involvement in school activities. This showed

that in general, socio-demographic characteristics and extent of involvement of parents in

the education of their children have either positive or negative influence on the

performance of their children.

The review on the literature on left-behind children’s educational outcomes in

developing countries revealed similar mixed patterns. On the one hand, some studies

showed positive effects on schooling and school performance while others found out

that parental absence has negative effect on children’ schooling.

 54

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the research design of the study. It consists of the theoretical

and conceptual frameworks of the study, operational definition of terms, time and locale of

the study, and the research design that included population and samples, instrumentation,

data sources, and techniques used in the data collection. The statistical tools used in

analyzing and interpreting the result of this study are presented and justified

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The determinants of school performance have long been a subject of interest of

educational psychologists and sociologists. Generally, educational psychologists focus on

the student’s personality and parent-child interaction processes as important variables of

school achievement whereas sociologists emphasize the socio-cultural variables in

explaining variation in children’s school achievement. In recent years, studies on the

determinants of children’s school achievement have been extended to another area, the

parents’ work conditions or parental employment.

Relevant to these relationships is the theory on human cultural ecology

(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; 1986; Bronfenbrenner and Crouter, 1983) which proposes that

family, home environment, social and cultural worlds interact with each other in various

levels and in ways which affect the child and family.

 55

Thus, pupils’ academic performance is influenced by many people, processes and

institutions. The parents, the broader family, peer groups, teachers and other bodies (e.g.

churches, clubs) are all implicated in shaping children’s progress towards their self

fulfillment. The children themselves, of course, with their unique abilities, temperaments

and propensities play a central role in forming and reforming their behavior, aspirations and

achievements.

In the face of this complexity, attempts to ascertain the impact of any singular force

in shaping achievement must proceed with some conception of how the many forces and

actors might interact with each other. Figure 1 is an attempt to show some of the processes

and the key players in shaping pupil achievement. These processes were assumed to be

influenced by a wide range of other factors while working through a range of intervening

processes.

The arrow in the diagram indicates presumed directions of influence and the

anticipated direction of causes to effects. Thus, the socio-demographic characteristics of

pupils, parental involvement, home environment factors, school motivation and personal

adjustment were assumed to influence the academic performance of OFW children as

shown in Figure 1.
 56

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLE

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
A. PUPIL-RESPONDENT
Age
Sex
Type of School
Grade Level
Ambition/Aspiration
Number of Siblings
Birth Order
Daily Allowance
B. OFW PARENT
Age
Sex
Years Working Abroad
C. LEFT –BEHIND PARENT
Age
Sex
Highest Educational Attainment
Occupation or Source of Income
D. OTHER SUPPORT SYSTEM
Age
Sex

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
Degree of Performance of School-related Needs ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
of the Pupil-respondent
General Average Grades
Extra-curricular Activities Participated in
Honors/Awards Received
HOME ENVIRONMENT
Availability of Learning Materials and Resources
Frequency of Communication with OFW Parent
Size of Household
Study Time at Home

SCHOOL MOTIVATION
Facilitating Condition
Engagement with Learning
Disaffection with Learning

PERSONAL ADJUSTMENT
Anxiety
Self-efficacy
Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction
Prosocial Behavior
 57

Figure 1. The conceptual model showing the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables of the study
Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms are operationally defined for better understanding of the

presentation, analysis and interpretation of data in this study:

Socio-demographic characteristics are the personal information of the pupil and

OFW parent, left-behind parent and other support system.

Pupil-respondent or OFW children are the grade four to six pupils of selected public

and private elementary schools in San Jose City division. They have parents working abroad

as Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW). Pupil-respondent, child and OFW child/children were

used interchangeably in this study.

Age is the chronological age of the pupil-respondent, OFW parent, left-behind

parent and other support system. This was based on the date of birth which is usually

expressed in years.

Sex refers to being male or female.

Grade level is the particular year levels in the elementary where the pupil-

respondents were enrolled during the time of the study. These were grade four, five and six.

Type of school refers to the type of school whether public or private.

 58

Public elementary schools refer to the elementary schools owned or subsidized by

the Philippine government in San Jose City where the pupil-respondents were the pupil-

respondents were enrolled.

Private elementary schools are schools in San Jose City owned and run by private

individuals or corporations whether sectarian or non-sectarian were the pupil- respondents

were enrolled.

Ambition or aspiration is the career the pupil-respondents want to pursue in the

future. This is categorized into six clusters and weighed as follows: 1-Agricultural; 2-

Service/Sales; 3-Clerical; 4-Production; 5-Professional/Technical; and 6-

Administrative/Managerial.

Number of siblings refers to the total number of brothers or sisters the pupil-

respondents have.

Birth order is the pupil-respondent’s rank position in the family as eldest, middle,

youngest, and only child.

Daily allowance is the amount of money given to the OFW children to buy food and

other provisions while in school.

OFW parent refers to the pupil-respondent’s mother or father who has been

working abroad as Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) for at least 2 years during the conduct

of the study.

Left-behind parent refers to the parent whom the pupil-respondent lives with while

the other parent works abroad.

 59

Other support system refers to other individuals whom the pupil-respondent lives

such as grandparents, other relatives or caregivers.

Highest educational attainment of parents/other support system refers to the

highest level of schooling of the left-behind parents and other support system. These

were categorized as elementary and high school graduate, post-secondary course and

college graduate.

Occupation or source of income refers to the work or job of the left-behind parent

as source of income aside from the remittance from the OFW parents. This was categorized

into six clusters and weighted as follows: 1-Agricultural; 2-Service/Sales; 3-Clerical; 4-

Production; 5-Professional/Technical; and 6-Administrative/Managerial.

Parental involvement refers to the roles and degree of performance of the parent

or support system who assists the child in his/her school-related needs,

Roles and degree of performance on the school-related needs of the child are the

left-behind parent’s tasks and the degree the school-related needs of the child is done.

This was evaluated in terms of a 5-point scale which initially measured the extent in which

specific activities were done by the left-behind parent/support system. Said scores were

later transformed to qualitative terms to describe the performance of these activities.

This was operationalized as follows:

Intervals Scale Description

4.2 – 5.0 5 Very Often (The role was performed five times a week.)
3.4 – 4.19 4 Often (The role was performed four times a week.)
2.6 – 3.39 3 Sometimes (The role was performed three times a week.)
1.8 – 2.59 2 Once (The role was performed once a week.)
1.0 – 1.79 1 Never (The role was never performed within a week.)
 60

Home environment factors refer to the availability of learning materials and

resources, frequency of communication, number of household members, and child’s study

time at home.

Learning materials and resources refer to the number of available instructional

materials and resources in the pupil-respondent’s home such as encyclopedia and other

books, newspapers, magazines, and gadgets used in their studies like television, computer,

internet, etc.

Means of communication are the ways and means used by the children and left-

behind parents/guardians to communicate with their OFW parent/s abroad such as texting,

calling or writing.

Topics of Communication refers to the usual subject of communication between the

pupil respondent and the OFW parent such as health, academics, materials, financial, etc.

Frequency of communication refers to the number of times the OFW parent has

communicated to the pupil-respondent such as daily, twice a week, once a week, etc.

Number of household members pertains to the number of people who live within

the pupil-respondent.

Study time refers to the length of time the pupil-respondent spends in reviewing or

making assignments and home works.

School motivation factors are those things or activities that make the pupils like to

work categorized as sense of self, facilitating condition, behavioral and emotional

engagement and disaffection with learning.

 61

Facilitating conditions refer to significant others and social environment in general

that may facilitate or inhibit pupils’ engagement in learning. These variables included in the

study were support and care from parents, teachers and peers.

Engagement with learning refers to the quality of pupil’s connection or involvement

in school with the people and on goals, values, and place that compose it.

Disaffection with learning refers to the disengagement with learning which implies

lack of engagement, including the absence of effort or persistence. Disaffected behaviors

include the core behaviors of disengagement – passivity, lack of initiative, lack of effort and

giving-up.

Personal adjustment refers to the manner the OFW children cope with the

situations brought about by anxiety, self-efficacy, basic psychological need satisfaction and

prosocial behavior.

Anxiety refers to emotion- focused responses reported by the children of OFWs.

Self-efficacy refers to the feeling positive about oneself which has numerous social

outcomes including academic achievement and intrinsic motivation.

Basic psychological need satisfaction refers to the basic psychological assumed

to be innate and universal. According to the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan,

2000), these needs--the needs for (C) competence, (A) autonomy, and (R) relatedness--

must be on-goingly satisfied for people to develop and function in healthy or optimal

ways. Many of the propositions of SDT derive from the postulate of fundamental

psychological needs, and the concept has proven essential for making meaningful

interpretations of a wide range of empirically isolated phenomena.

 62

Prosocial behavior refers to the children’s way of reasoning on prosocial aspects

of behavior. The scale was developed for children in late elementary and middle school.

Academic performance refers to the general average grades, extra-curricular

activities participated in, and awards or honors received.

General average grades are the OFW children’s average grades for two school

years before (marked A) and during (marked B) labor migration of the parent/s,

However, only the academic performance during labor migration of parents was

considered in the regression analysis of variables. A five-point rating scale which was

adopted form the DepEd Order No. 26, s. 2005 Enclosure No. 2 and DepED Form 138

were used to describe the pupils’ average grade:

General Average

95 – 100 = Excellent
89 – 94 = Very Good
83 – 88 = Good
77 – 82 = Fair
70 – 76 = Poor

Extra-curricular activities participated in are the number of activities that are

outside the pupils’ regular curriculum or program of course in which he or she is

involved. These were grouped into the following: Intellectual – campus journalism, quiz

bee, etc.; Physical – sports and camping activities; and Musical, Literary and Arts –

performing arts theatre, music/choir, dance troupe, etc.

 63

Honors/awards received are the number of academic awards like First Honors,

Second Honors, Best in English, Best in Mathematics, etc. and special distinctions like

Most Honest, Scout of the Year, Leadership Award, Best Actor, Best Performer, etc.

Time and Locale of the Study

This study was conducted in selected private and public elementary schools in San

Jose City, Nueva Ecija from February to April school year 2011 – 2012.

The public schools were the San Jose West Central School, Abar 1st Elementary

School, Sto. Tomas Elementary School from the West District, while from the East District:

San Jose East Central School, Sto. Niño 1st Elementary School and Malasin Elementary

School.

The private elementary schools were the Mount Carmel Montessori Center, Saint

Joseph School, Core Gateway College Grade School, St. John’s Academy, Gracious Shepherd

Christian Academy, and Elim School for Values and Excellence.

These schools (Figure 2) were chosen because of their strategic locations, and that

these were found to have a good number of OFW children enrolled in them. The other

private schools were not included because these have different curriculum and grading

system from the chose ones.

 64

Malasin Elementary School

Sto. Niño 1st Elementary /School

Mount Carmel Montessori Center
St. John’s Academy San Jose East Central School
Elim School for Values and Excellence
Saint Joseph Grade School San Jose West Central School
Abar 1st Elementary School CORE Gateway College
Gracious Shepherd Christian Academy

Sto. Tomas E/S

 65

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
PUBLIC
PRIVATE

Figure 2. Map showing the locale of the study with the names of the school

Research Design

The descriptive research method was used in the study. The data obtained from the

pupil respondents were gathered, tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted.

Population

Table 1 shows that the respondents of the study consisted of elementary pupils

whose parents have been working abroad (OFW) for at least two years. They are the OFW

children who come from the upper elementary grade. This included the grade four, five and

six from the selected public and private elementary schools in San Jose City for school year

2011 – 2012.

Table 1. Total number of respondents by school, grade level, and sex

SCHOOL GRADE FOUR GRADE FIVE GRADE SIX TOTAL

 66

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Toal

PUBLIC SCHOOL
San Jose West Central School 20 12 23 10 25 19 68 41 109
Abar 1st Elementary School 12 7 6 8 6 4 24 19 43
Sto. Tomas Elementary School 4 3 6 5 4 3 14 11 25
San Jose East Central School 5 5 6 8 2 14 13 27 40
Sto. Niño 1st Elementary School 1 2 2 1 2 3 5 6 11
Malasin Elementary School 1 4 4 1 3 3 8 8 16
SUBTOTAL 43 33 47 33 42 46 132 112 244
PRIVATE SCHOOL
St. Joseph School 8 13 8 14 10 11 26 38 64
CORE Gateway College 6 2 4 4 3 2 13 8 21
Gracious Shepherd Christian Academy 4 3 5 4 3 5 12 12 24
Mount Carmel Montessori Center 9 6 6 8 8 6 23 20 43
St. John’s Academy 4 6 7 12 4 8 15 26 41
Elim School for Values and Excellence 5 4 3 5 4 4 12 13 25
SUBTOTAL 36 34 33 47 32 36 101 117 218
GRAND TOTAL 79 67 80 80 74 82 233 229 462

The schools were selected because of their strategic locations, and the good number

of enrolled OFW children. Also, these schools have similar curriculum and grading system

based on the Department of Education Order No. 26, s. 2005.

Purposive sampling was used because the study focused on the elementary pupils in

the selected private and public schools. These have the mother or father as OFW or both

for at least two years. The age group 10 to 12 years was specified because the conditions

of these children are good indicators of the kind of care and attention that they receive

from the family according to the 2003 Children and Families study conducted by the

Scalabrini Migration Center. Stratified sampling was also employed because they were

categorized according to the type of school, sex and grade level.

Instrumentation
 67

In the administration of data gathering procedure, the study employed survey-

questionnaires developed by the researcher although some parts were adopted from other

studies or reliable sources available in the internet. The pupils’ questionnaire (Appendix C)

consisted of six parts namely: socio-demographic characteristics; parental involvement,

home environment factor; school motivation; personal adjustment, and academic

performance.

The first part of the questionnaire was designed to elicit information on pupil-

respondent’s age, sex, type of school, grade level, ambition/aspiration in life, number of

siblings, birth order, daily allowance, OFW parent’s age, sex, years working abroad, other

parent’ and the other support system’s age, sex, highest educational attainment and

occupation or source of income.

Part II (Parental Involvement) elicited the roles and degrees of performance of those

who assisted the pupil in their school related needs, and availability of learning materials.

The roles and degree of performance were rated using a five-point scale as follows:

5 – Very Often. (The role was performed five times a week.)

4 – Often. (The role was performed four times a week.)
3 – Sometimes. (The role was performed three times a week.)
2 – Once. (The role was performed once a week.)
1 – Never. (The role was never performed in a week.)

Part III (Home Environment) described the availability of learning materials and

resources, frequency and means of communication of the OFW parents and their family,

number of household members, and the number of hours alloted for study by the pupils.
 68

Part IV (School Motivation) was adopted from Dennis M. McInerney but was

modified by the researcher to fit to the level of the respondents. This was composed of

three subparts. which were rated using a five-point scale rating operationalized as

follows: 1 – Strongly Agree; 2 – Agree; 3 – Not Sure; 4 – Disagree; and 5 – Strongly

Disagree. School motivation was rated by the respondents with the following rating

scale and description.

Mean Description
4.20 – 5.00 Excellent
3.40 – 4.19 Very Satisfactory
2.60 – 3.39 Satisfactory
1.80 – 2.59 Fair
1.00 – 1.79 Poor

The first subpart (Facilitating Condition Questionnaire) drew out what OFW

children’s parents, teachers and friends tell them about school and its importance. The

questionnaires were set on a five-point scale rating defined and operationalized as

follows: 1 – Strongly Agree; 2 – Agree; 3 – Not Sure; 4 – Disagree; and 5 – Strongly

Disagree. Meanwhile, to further describe the facilitating condition of the respondents,

the following rating scale was employed:

Mean Description
4.20 – 5.00 Excellent
3.40 – 4.19 Very Satisfactory
2.60 – 3.39 Satisfactory
1.80 – 2.59 Fair
1.00 – 1.79 Poor
 69

The Questionnaire on Engagement and Disaffection with Learning developed by

Furrer, C. and E. Skinner (2003) was used to identify the OFW children’s engagement

and disaffection with learning in school. The benchmark statements were rated with a

five-point scale operationalized as follows: 1 – Strongly Agree; 2 – Agree; 3 – Not Sure; 4

– Disagree; and 5 – Strongly Disagree. Furthermore, the engagement and disaffection

with learning of the respondents was rated and described as follows:

Mean Description
4.20 – 5.00 Very High
3.40 – 4.19 High
2.60 – 3.39 Moderate
1.80 – 2.59 Low
1.00 – 1.79 Very Low

Part V (Personal Adjustment) is composed of questionnaire items developed by

educational psychologists, but was modified by the researcher to fit the level of the

respondents. First subpart is the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale devised by

Reynolds and Richmond (1978) for use with 6 to 19 year-old children. The questionnaire

determined the nature of OFW children’s anxiety – psychological, worry, or

concentration. Set with a five-point rating scale, this was operationalized as follows: 1 –

Strongly Agree; 2 – Agree; 3 – Not Sure; 4 – Disagree; and 5 – Strongly Disagree.

Meanwhile, to further describe the manifest anxiety of the respondents, was rated and

described as follows:

Mean Description
4.20 – 5.00 Very High
3.40 – 4.19 High
 70

2.60 – 3.39 Moderate

1.80 – 2.59 Low
1.00 – 1.79 Very Low

The second subpart (General and Social Self-Efficacy Scale) was used to draw the

OFW children’s personal attitudes and traits through their personal beliefs. This

questionnaire was set on a five-point scale rating, defined, and operationalized as

follows: 1 – Strongly Agree; 2 – Agree; 3 – Not Sure; 4 – Disagree; and 5 – Strongly

Disagree. The self-efficacy of the respondents was drawn using the following rating

scale:

Mean Description
4.20 – 5.00 Very High
3.40 – 4.19 High
2.60 – 3.39 Moderate
1.80 – 2.59 Low
1.00 – 1.79 Very Low

The third subpart (Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale) was developed by

Deci and Ryan (2000). Composed of 21 items, these addressed basic psychological need

satisfaction in three domains – competence, autonomy and relatedness. The

questionnaire was modified to suit the level of the respondents. The questionnaire was

set on a five-point scale rating, defined and operationalized as follows: 1 – Strongly

Agree; 2 – Agree; 3 – Not Sure; 4 – Disagree; and 5 – Strongly Disagree. The

 71

psychological need satisfaction of the respondents, was further described using the

following rating scale:

Mean Description
4.20 – 5.00 Excellent
3.40 – 4.19 Very Satisfactory
2.60 – 3.39 Satisfactory
1.80 – 2.59 Fair
1.00 – 1.79 Poor

Lastly, the Prosocial Behavior Scale, developed by Deci and Ryan (2000) for

children in the late elementary and middle school, was used to determine the reasons

why children engage in various prosocial behaviors. The response rating was set on a

five-point scale rating, defined, and operationalized as follows: 1 – Not at all True; 2 –

Not Very True; 3 – Not Sure; 4 – Sort of True; and 5 – Very True. Analysis on pro-social

behavior of the respondents used the following rating scale:

Mean Description
4.20 – 5.00 Excellent
3.40 – 4.19 Very Satisfactory
2.60 – 3.39 Satisfactory
1.80 – 2.59 Fair
1.00 – 1.79 Poor

The last part of the questionnaire (Academic Performance) determined the total

number of extra-curricular activities participated in and the awards or honors received

by the pupil-respondents for school years 2008 to 2012.

Reliability of the Research Instrument

 72

Pre-test was conducted on 29 OFW children from the Tondod Elementary School

and Theophilus Academic School for Values and Excellence. This test was made to

determine the reliability of the questionnaires used in gathering the data on parental

involvement, home environment, school motivation and personal adjustment. Internal

consistency method was utilized through the Cronbach’s Alpha using SPSS version 14.

The alpha coefficient was 0.987 suggesting that the 170 items have relatively high

internal consistency.

The pretest score for the Parental Involvement scale had a coefficient of 0.78 for

the 10 items. The first subpart of School Motivation (Facilitating Condition

Questionnaire) obtained a coefficient of 0.973 for the 21 items. For the second subpart,

Engagement and Disaffection with Learning, the coefficient value for the 20 items was

0.952.

The first subpart under Personal Adjustment, the Revised Children’s Manifest

Anxiety Scale obtained a coefficient of 0.983 for the 37. However, items like “I get

nervous when things do not go the right way for me” and “I worry a lot of the time,”

were inversely coded during the treatment of data.

The second subpart on the Self-efficacy Scale garnered a coefficient of 0.873 for

the 23 items. Items like “I give up easily” and I avoid facing difficulties” were inversely

coded during the treatment of data.

The third subpart (Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale) obtained a

coefficient of 0.779 for the 21. The items like “I feel pressured in my life” and “The
 73

people I interact with regularly do not seem to like me much” were inversely coded.

Meanwhile, the Prosocial Behavior Scale had a coefficient of 0.855 for the 25 items.

The other primary data were taken from the school like the OFW children’s

academic performance. These were based on the DepEd Form 137 and 138

respectively.

Data Gathering Procedure

Permission was secured from the schools division superintendent, district

supervisors and school heads to conduct the study in the schools. Letters to the

teachers concerned were given asking permission for the conduct of the study in their

respective classes (Appendices A and B).

Secondary data like the pupils’ general average grades (Form 137) for the four

school years was requested from authorities. Meanwhile, a focus group discussion (FGD)

with the pupil respondents was also done to gather more qualitative data (Appendix D).

It was held on a separate schedule in the second week of March 2012, a week after the

retrieval of the questionnaires. On the average, eight to ten pupil-respondents per

grade level were invited to join the FGD. A total of 89 pupils participated in the said

FGD. A digital camera was used to document the activity, and the verbatim response of

the pupil-respondents were transcribed and quoted in the discussion of the study.

St. Joseph Grade

 74

Malasin Elementary

Figure 3. Focus group discussion with pupil-respondents from the St. Joseph Grade School
and the Malasin Elementary School

Methods of Data Analysis

Based on the objectives and hypotheses of the study, the data were

analyzed by assessing the following statistical methods using the Statistical Package for

Social Science (SPSS) Software version 14.

1. Descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, percentages, means and standard

deviations and ranking were used to describe the socio-demographic characteristics of

the children-respondents, parental involvement, home environment, school motivation

and academic performance.

2. The difference in the academic performance of OFW children was determined

using t-test for independent and paired samples and chi square were used respectively.

3. Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to identify the relationship

between the independent and dependent variables, while linear regression was performed

to identify which of these variables studied could predict the OFW children’s academic

performance.
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study ascertained the factors that could influence the academic

performance of Overseas Filipino Workers’ (OFW) children enrolled in the public and

private elementary schools in the division of San Jose City. The presentation and

discussion of the findings were based on the objectives and hypotheses set for the

study.

Socio-demographic Characteristics

The pupil data gathered were age, sex, type of school, grade level,

ambition/aspiration in life, number of siblings, birth order, and daily allowance. OFW

parent’s age, sex, and years working abroad were determined. Also obtained were the

left-behind parents and other support system’s age, sex, highest educational attainment

and occupation or source of income

Pupil-respondents

Age and Sex

The mean age was 10.91 years with a range of 9 to 13. The respondents were

mostly eleven years (31.80%) and ten years (31.60%) followed by age 12 (25.80%) as

shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Socio-demographic characteristics of pupil-respondents

FREQUENCY
VARIABLE PERCENT
(n = 462)

PUPIL-RESPONDENT

Age
9 29 6.30
10 146 31.60
11 147 31.80
12 119 25.80
13 21 4.50
Mean 10.91
SD 1.00

Sex
Male 236 51.10
Female 226 48.90

Grade Level
Grade 4 146 31.60
Grade 5 160 34.63
Grade 6 156 33.77

Type of School
Private 218 47.19
Public 244 52.81

Ambition/Aspiration
Sales/Service 25 5.41
Production 5 1.08
Professional and Technical 428 92.64
Administrative and Managerial 4 0.87

* Considered going abroad someday 358 77.49

Do not want to go abroad 104 22.51
Table 2 continued…

FREQUENCY
VARIABLE PERCENT
(N = 462)

Number of Siblings
None 45 9.70
1 98 21.30
2 70 15.20
3 95 20.60
4 80 17.30
5 61 13.20
6 11 2.40
7 2 0.40
Mean 2.66
SD 1.65

Birth Order
Eldest 166 35.93
Middle 134 29.00
Youngest 100 21.65
Only Child 62 13.42

Daily Allowance
28 6.06
Below P 20.00
337 72.94
P 20.00 - P 50.00
34 7.36
P 51.00 - P 80.00
57 12.34
P 81.00 - P110.00
6 1.30
Above P 110.00

Mean P 45.00
SD 31.08
Table 2 continued…

FREQUENCY
VARIABLE PERCENT
(N = 462)

OFW PARENT

Age (Years)
Young Adulthood (19 – 30) 37 8.01
Middle Adulthood (31 – 50) 386 83.55
Maturity (51 onwards) 39 8.44

Mean 38.83 years

SD 7.19
Range 25 – 59 years
Sex
Male 233 50.40
Female 229 49.60

Years Working Abroad

5 and Below 290 62.80
6 – 10 148 32.00
11 – 15 24 5.20
Mean 5 years
SD 2.72
Range 2 – 15 years

Place of Work
Male OFW
America 18 7.73
East Asia 18 7.73
Middle East 123 52.70
South Asia 9 3.86
South-East Asia 37 15.88
South-East Europe 12 5.15
Western Europe 16 6.87
Table 2 continued…

FREQUENCY
VARIABLE PERCENT
(N = 462)

Female OFW
America 18 7.86
East Asia 112 48.91
Middle East 48 20.96
South-East Asia 14 6.11
South-East Europe 16 6.99
Western Europe 21 9.17

Work Abroad

Male OFW
Agriculture 23 9.87
Clerical/Office Worker 16 6.87
Construction Worker 44 18.88
Factory Worker 14 6.01
Plant and Equipment Operator 15 6.44
Professional 18 7.73
Seaman 87 37.34
Skilled Worker 16 6.87

Female OFW
Caregiver 43 18.78
Domestic Helper 152 66.38
Factory Worker 25 10.92
Waitress 9 3.93

LEFT PARENT

Age
Young Adulthood (19 – 30) 40 8.66
Middle Adulthood (31 – 50) 402 87.01
Maturity (51 onwards) 18 3.90
No data 2 0.43
Mean 38.30 years
SD 6.71
Range 25 – 68 years
Table 2 continued…

FREQUENCY
VARIABLE PERCENT
(N = 462)

Sex
Male 229 49.60
Female 233 50.40

Highest Educational Attainment

Elementary Graduate 57 12.30
High School Graduate 215 46.50
Vocational Graduate 18 3.90
College Graduate 172 37.20

Occupation and Source of Income

None 109 23.59
Agricultural 22 4.76
Sales/ Service 85 18.40
Clerical 12 2.60
Production 19 4.11
Professional and Technical 214 46.32
Administrative 1 0.22

OTHER SUPPORT SYSTEM

Age
Below 25 11 41.18
25 – 50 58 22.05
51 – 75 181 68.82
Above 76 13 4.94
Mean 56.34 years
SD 14.68
 Range: 17 – 86 years
Sex
Male 23 8.75
Female 240 91.25

Highest Educational Attainment

Elementary Graduate 39 14.83
High School Graduate 120 45.63
Vocational Graduate 15 5.70
College Graduate 89 33.84

The age range of the pupil-respondents showed that most of them belonged to

the school age years according to www.healthychildren.org. However, the ages of the

pupils were a year more than the official school age for grades four, five and six. This

was prescribed by the DepED based on the Fact Sheet for Basic Education Statistics

released on November 2011. Results also indicated that children of school age who

belong to families with an OFW parent are more able to go to school.

This finding confirmed the 2003 Children and Families Survey projection. It

claimed that 91,790 families of deployed migrant workers have left behind a child in the

10 to 12 years age group. Moreover, a pediatrician association at

www.healthychildren.org asserted that children at this age learn to listen to get the

information they need and learn to identify the difference between needs and wants.

They check out the family rules and learn the consequences of breaking them. They test

the family values and learn that there can be both disagreement and love in the family.

They will also learn about different boundaries and expectations outside the family as in

school and clubs. They begin to identify strongly with their own gender and learn about

personal responsibility and self control.

 As regards to sex, result revealed more male children (51.10%) than female

children (48.90%) of OFW parents. This means that transition rate moving to the next

level of education was higher among male OFW children

According to Hurlock (1982), in terms of sex, boys expect higher grades in school

than girls; to go further in their educational career than girls, and girls are generally

underachievers. Girls, as a rule, surpass boys in skills involving finer muscles, such as

painting, sewing, and weaving, while boys are superior to girls in skills involving the

grosser muscles such as throwing basketball and doing broad jumps.

Type of School

The type of school the OFW children attended showed a slight difference. Less

than half (47.19%) of them were in the private schools. The rest, (52.81%) were in the

public schools. The pupils in the private schools were distributed (Table 1) in the

following grade levels: 47.90 percent were in Grade 4; 50.00 percent in Grade 5; and

44.20 percent in Grade 6. In the public schools, distribution was as follows: 52.10

percent were in Grade 4; 50.00 percent in Grade 5; and 55.80 percent in Grade 6.

Contrary to the general belief and presumptions that children of OFW parents

are better off and could probably go to more expensive schools, the results showed that

more than half of the OFW children attended the public school. One reason could be is

the open and free admission in the public schools. Private schools are selective, and

they are not obliged to accept every child. Also in many private schools, admission is

very competitive. This might be because private schools are empowered to implement
admission criteria in consonance with their vision as educational institutions. Aside from

that, private schools collect higher school fees.

Consequently, there was an odyssey of enrollees from the private schools

thereby increasing the enrolment in the public schools. Based from the 2011 factsheet

(public school = 13,019,145 vs. private school = 1,224,173), an increase of .24 percent

was observed in the school year 2010-2011. Another reason could be the change in the

delivery of education in the public schools since San Jose City has become a separate

division.

Ambition/Aspiration

Most (92.64%) OFW children indicated that they want to become a professional

like being teachers, engineers, doctors, or nurses. Very few (5.41%) wanted to get

involved in sales or service-related works while fewer still would go into production

(1.08%) and administrative and managerial (0.87%).

Result also showed that more than 75 percent wanted to work abroad as

domestic helpers, seafarers or factory worker following the footsteps of their parents.

Nearly 25 percent of them did not consider going abroad someday.

Most occupations preferred by the OFW children are known to be marketable

abroad. This finding implies that more of the children of migrants have plans of working

abroad. This confirmed the result of Hearts Apart: Migration in the Eyes of Filipino

Children (2004). The high percentage of migration intentions among the respondent

children reflects their lack of awareness about migration restrictions, among other

reasons.
 On the other hand, the small percentage of children who did not consider going

abroad concurred with the 2001 Pulse Asia study which recorded a smaller percentage

of respondents wanting to go abroad. Those with migrant mothers were the least likely

to signify an intention to go abroad according to Hearts Apart: Migration in the Eyes of

Filipino Children (2004) survey. The lower percentage of migration intentions among

the OFW children reflects their awareness about migration.

In the FGD with the respondents of this study, their reasons for not wanting to

work abroad were: “I want my children grow with my presence.” ” I will give them

brighter future without leaving them.” “I don’t want my children to suffer what I went

through when my father left us.” Meanwhile, the reasons why they want to work

abroad were: “I want to provide a good education for my children.” “I want to give my

family a better life.” “I want to have income or savings for my family.”

Number of Siblings

The overall mean of siblings was 2.66 with the standard deviation of 1.65 and a

range of 0-7. More than (21.30%) of the respondents have one sibling only, three

siblings (20.60%) and more. Only 0.40 percent of them had seven siblings. Result also

showed that 9.70 percent of the pupil respondents had no siblings. This small number

of children may be attributed to the distance between the parents.

These results also confirmed the findings of Musaka (2001) who concluded that

parents today opt for few children whose needs they can provide. This in turn lessens

their problems because they can afford to send their children to school. Socially, they

are also given enough attention at home which contributes to their social interaction.
 In contrast, more children in the family means less time and attention are given

by parents to each child (Mariano, 2005). Earlier, Hoffert and Halpen (1987) claimed

that children from small families received both physical and parental attention than

children from large families.

Birth Order

The eldest children (35.70 %) comprised the biggest group among the pupil-

respondents. This was followed by youngest children (21.90 %). The rest were second

children (16.20 %) and only child (13.20 %).

Result showed that the dominant birth order among the OFW children was the

eldest who are more likely to “parent” their younger siblings. Popular culture assumes

that the first born children are the most likely to become leaders. These children are

extremely adult oriented because they interact with adults the most. Children

occupying the first or oldest role are often described as possessing a strong tendency to

imitate the parents and take responsibility for the younger siblings (Brink and Matlock,

1982). Often the oldest child tends to ‘parent’ their younger siblings as they assume a

position of control.

Meanwhile, the youngest children are believed to be the most creative, emotional,

extraverted, disobedient, irresponsible and talkative according to Herrera, et. al. (2003).

Furthermore, these children are depicted as constantly struggling against the higher

status of the first born child, while seeking alternative ways of distinguishing themselves

in their parent’s eyes. In accordance with the familial niche the last-born child develops,
often this child’s adult character is marked by an empathetic interpersonal style, striving

for uniqueness, and political views that are both egalitarian and authoritarian (Paulhus,

Trapnell, and Chen, 1999).

The only children according to Herrera (2003) could be associated with being the

most academically successful and diligent, spoiled, and least likable among peers. They

are in a special situation because they often spend most of their time in the presence of

adults which is both positive and negative for the child. On the positive side, the only

child is rarely ignored and usually provided with adequate time and support compared

to other children. However, Mellor (1989) claimed that the only child is generally more

autonomous in terms of personal control, has higher levels of initiative or personal

aspiration or motivation, is more industrious in terms of educational or occupational

achievement, and has stronger identities.

Daily Allowance

The OFW children indicated they received an average of P 45.00 as daily

allowance. However, majority (72.94 %) of the respondents have P20.00 to P50.00 daily

allowance while only 1.30 percent given a daily allowance above P 110.00. This findingt

showed that OFW children have enough money to buy their provisions in school which

is in accordance to the 2008 UNICEF study that most children with parents abroad have

more pocket money than their peers.

Despite the benefits gained by the students of having monetary allowance, there

are problems and disadvantages of this.. For example, when student have poor

spending habits, they may think that this is their money and they can do whatever they
want with it. Students have the tendency to spend their allowances on mostly

recreational activities such as renting a computer unit for fun and games, buying items

at the shopping mall, and spending money for their peers. Some teachers consider that

children should not be given all the money sent by their parents because they might

spend it irresponsibly. Thus, caregivers must provide their wards with regular, but small

amounts, so they can develop their sense of responsibility.

OFW Parent

Age

Most (83.55%) of the OFW parents were categorized is in the middle adulthood

(31 – 50 years old). Very few (8.44 %) belonged to the age bracket 51 onwards. The

findings showed that the OFW parent were mostly middle-aged adult with the mean age

of 38.83 years that had age range of 25-59 years. People at this age according to Tischler

(1996) have sense of productivity and creativity from work and parenting activities

which was evident with the type of work as well as parenting activities. These were in

the type of work they have abroad as seamen and domestic helpers.

Sex

Half (50.40 %) of the parents working abroad was male (fathers). This means

there was an almost equal distribution of the OFW by gender. Hence, as far as influence

on children are concerned, very little about the gender of the parent seemed to be

distinctly important. The characteristics of the father as a parent rather than the

characteristics of the father as a man appeared to be most significant, although it was

not possible to determine whether the father’s masculine characteristics are of

significance. Yet, some scholars continue to underscore the crucial importance of

distinctive maternal and paternal roles (Biller, 1994; Biller and Kimpton, 1997), Also,

these themes are central to the claims of social commentators like Blankenhorn (1995)

and Popenoe (1996).

Researchers and theorists first sought to explain the effects of father’s absence on boys by noting

the absence of male sex-role models in single-parent families. In the absence of a male parental model, it

was assumed that boys could not acquire strong masculine identities or sex roles and would not have

models of achievement with which to identify (Biller, 1974, 1993). The validity of this interpretation has

been weakened by the fact that many boys without fathers seem to develop quite normally so far as sex

role development and achievement are concerned. Clearly, some factors other than the absence of a

male sex-role model may be at least as important as the availability of a sex-role model in mediating the

effects of father absence on child development.

This suggests that the father’s absence may be harmful not necessarily because a sex-role model

is absent but because many paternal roles—economic, social, emotional—go unfilled or inappropriately

filled in these families. Once again, the evidence suggests that recognition of the father’s multiple roles as

breadwinner, parent, and emotional partner is essential in understanding how fathers influence children’s

development.

The findings were confirmed by the FGD responses among the OFW children on

their preference as to who should work abroad. The father was identifiedto work

abroad because of reasons like “Unlike mother, our father can’t understand our

emotional problem,” “Mother is more caring, mother knows best,” “Mother is needed

more by her children,” “The mother can take the role of the father, but the father

cannot take the role of the mother,” “Our mother takes good care of us, unlike our
father who let the maid do everything.” “It’s hard for me to grow up without a mother

by my side,” “The father is the head of the family, so he is the one who should work.”

Years Working Abroad

Table 2 shows that majority (62.80%) of the pupil respondents’ OFW parents

have been working abroad for two to five years. Some (32%) have been working for six

to ten years while few (5.20%) of these OFW parents have been working for 11-15 years.

Even if migration of parents is often planned as a temporary measure to save

enough money and to come home for good the soonest possible time to be with their

children, the initial plan to work abroad for three to five years had to be extended due

to lack of financial planning and goal setting of the whole family, The data showed that

the OFW parents have been away since their children were in the primary level.

Place and Work Abroad

The top destination of the OFW fathers as data showed was the Middle East

(52.79%) while the mothers mostly went to East Asia (48.91%). More occupational

diversity was found among the OFW fathers than OFW mothers. Thirty-seven percent of

the OFW fathers was employed as seaman. The rest were distributed in agriculture

(9.87%), construction work (18.88%), office work (6.87%) and others in skilled work

(6.87%). Few (4.29%) were professionals and few (3.43%) were supervisory. Meantime,

majority of the OFW mothers worked in the service sector, mostly as domestic helpers
(66.38%), caregivers (18.78%) and waitresses (3.93%). The rest 10.92%) were factory

workers.

Left –behind Parent

Age

The mean age was 38.30 years, and majority (87.01 %) of the left-behind

parents were in the middle adulthood (31 – 50 years old). Very few (8.66) were young

adults while fewer (3.90%) still 51 years old onwards.

The spouse whether OFW or not were almost of the same age. The wife of the

OFW was about 38.83 years old while the husband of the female OFWs is about 38.83

years old. People at this age according to Tischler (1996) have a sense of productivity

and creativity from work and parenting activities. The 46.32 percent of these left-behind

parents work as professional or in technical work while 23.59 percent of them serve as

fulltime parents to their children.

Sex

Half (50.40%) of the left-behind parents were female (mothers) while 49.60

percent are male (fathers). The data showed an almost equal gender distribution of the

left-behind parents.

Parrenas (2005) argues that in the Philippines, the absence of migrating men

does not transform traditional gender structures but on the contrary entrenches

traditional relations. Furthermore, the families of migrant men, a slight shift in the

gender division of labor occurs as women left behind in the Philippines must adjust to
the absence of men and expand the definitions of mothering to include those typically

relegated to men such as disciplining of children.

Concerning changes in traditional gender roles and women’s empowerment, the

evidence is still limited for arriving to general conclusions. Case studies in countries

where women have limited access to work outside their homes showed that migration

by itself does not change prevailing power relations. However, there are also examples

of increased independence of these women. Migration can set off the process of

women’s empowerment, but this outcome is influenced by the characteristics of the

community of

origin, of the women themselves, and of the migration process itself (Hugo, 1994).

The left-behind men do not always replace women in domestic tasks. Rather,

evidences indicating that husbands of migrant women instead of increasing their

domestic workload seek the support of the extended family.

Left-behind Parent’s Highest Educational Attainment

More (46.50%) of the left parent were high school graduates than any other

educational level The others were college graduates (37.20%). This result showed that

majority of them had formal education until the college level.

Education of parents could be critical in their children’s motivation for formal

learning. Most studies revealed that parents whose educational attainment were higher

helped their children develop a positive attitude towards learning. Similarly, Peng-Ont

(1998) revealed that the higher educational attainment of parents is, the higher also is
the scholastic achievement of their children. The educated parents are able to transfer

the information and knowledge to their children, which in turn contribute to their

children’s achievement. Some children tend to exert more effort in studying their

lessons to please their parents.

On the other hand, parents of lower academic background may feel that they

lack the skill and knowledge to fully participate and involve academically in their

children’s school activities usually ending up putting this responsibility to the schools.

This was shown by Thiamsakhu (1997) who revealed that educational attainment of

parents was significantly related to students’ academic performance. In contrast,

Vicmudo (2001) found out that parents’ educational attainment was not significantly

related to students’ achievement.

Left behind Parent’s Occupation or Source of Income

Close to half (46.32%) of left-behind parents work as professional and they are in

the technical fields. This follows since majority of the parents had formal education and

a good number finished college. Considering the study site is classified as a third class

city, other occupations involved were in sales or service (18.40%), agriculture (4.76%),

production (4.11%), clerical (2.60%), and administrative (0.22%).

Meanwhile, some (23.59%) of the left-behind parents were unemployed.

According to the pupil-respondents their left-behind parents depend on the remittances

of the OFW parent. Most of them who are mothers perform all the household chores

for the family.

 Other Support System

Age and Sex

The overall mean age of the other support system was 56.34 while the age

ranges was 17-86. Majority (68.82%) of the guardian were categorized under age 51 to

75 years old. Some (22.05%) were 25-50 years old while others were above 75 years

(4.94%) and below 25 (4.18%) respectively.

As regard sex, 91.25 percent of this support system was female, and 8.75

percent was male. This was expected because when the OFW is female, the left-behind

parent (male) usually seek the help of female relative to take on the role of the OFW

mother; hence this result.

Results indicated that other than the left parent in the household, there were

relatives or other people generally female who were aged 56 years whom the OFW

children live with.

Relationship to the Pupil Respondent

More than half (56.90%) of the OFW children have other support system aside

from their left-behind parents. Almost 75 percent was grandmother, while the rest were

either aunt (13.70%); grandfather (6.46%); caregivers (2.66 5); and uncles (2.28%). This

finding manifests the Filipino culture of extended family system providing the OFW

children with care and socialization.

Highest Educational Attainment

 Nearly half (45.63%) of the other support system finished high school. Some

(33.84%) finished college while others were elementary graduates (14.83%), and

vocational course graduates (5.70%). These data suggested that majority of the other

support system had formal education even reaching college level.

Parental Involvement

Parental involvement studied was limited to who assists the OFW children in

their school-related needs and the degree of performance in these school-related

activities of the child.

Performer of School-related Roles for the Pupil-respondent

Table 3 shows that 70 percent of the roles are performed by left-behind parents.

These included preparing the children’s food before they go to school (49.70%); checking

on their hygiene before they go to school (50.87%); reading books, magazines and other

educational materials with them (60.39%), encouraging them to study harder (60.17%),

attending school programs and activities (57.790%), Confering about their school

standing (65.80%), and providing them the school things (81.39%) through the OFW

remittances.

Table 3. Performer of the school-related roles for the pupil-respondent

NO RESPONSE LEFT PARENT OTHER SUPPORT

 SCHOOL-RELATED SYSTEM
NEEDS f % f % f %

1. Prepares food
before going to 7 1.52 230 49.78 225 48.70
school
2. Checks child’s
personal hygiene
11 2.38 235 50.87 216 46.75
before going to
school
3. Prepares school
17 3.68 184 39.83 261 56.49
clothes/uniform
4. Helps child in
48 10.39 173 37.45 241 52.16
doing homework
5. Helps child
review lessons
51 11.04 178 38.53 233 50.43
before
examinations
6. Reads
educational 38 8.23 279 60.39 145 31.39
materials with child
7. Encourages you
0 0.00 278 60.17 184 39.83
to study harder
8. Attends school
15 3.25 267 57.79 180 38.96
programs/activities
9. Confers about
5 1.08 304 65.80 153 33.12
school standing

10. Provides / buys

13 2.81 376 81.39 73 15.80
school things

Meanwhile, 30 percent of the roles was done by the other support system. These

roles included preparing their school clothes/uniforms (56.49%); helping them with their

homework (52.16%); Helps them review their lessons before examinations (50.43%).

These findings showed that left-behind parents and other support system p erform

the school-related roles for the pupil-respondent. Similar findings were obtained earlier
by Edillion (2008) who claimed that when the father is the OFW, then the roles are

shared between the mother and a relative, usually the grandmother. If the mother is the

OFW, then the roles are shared between the father and the grandmother. Other

relatives step in to perform some tasks. For example, an aunt may help in the

schoolwork for children of OFW mothers; the uncle to fix or repair broken things, and

bring the children to and from school for children of OFW fathers.

While some fathers can take on the combined role of being both mother and father

to their children, new arrangements can disrupt family care. The children can become

emotionally tense over the risks of fathers not being able to provide adequate care for

infants and the critical teenage years. Children welcome the absence of the father who is

more associated with tough discipline. They prefer mother staying behind (Scalabrini

Migration Center, 2004).

Roles and Degree of Performance of School-related Needs of the Pupil-respondent

Table 4 shows three out of the ten roles were marked “Very Often” with an over

all mean rating of 3.67 (Often). The highest rating was on the preparation of food before

the child goes to school (x=4.70) , encouraging the child you to study harder” (x=4.47) ,

and providing or buying school needs” (x=4.30) . The lowest rating was on reading

educational materials with the child (x=2.38) .

Table 4. Roles and degrees of the performance in school-related needs of the pupil-
respondent
DESCRIPTIVE
ROLES MEAN SD
RATING
1. Prepares food before their children go to school 4.70 0.80 Very Often
2. Looks after children’s personal hygiene before
4.19 1.20 Often
going to school
3. Prepares school clothes/uniform 3.34 1.75 Often
4. Helps children with their homework 3.13 1.70 Sometimes
5. Helps children review lessons before examinations 3.03 1.70 Sometimes
6. Reads educational materials with children 2.38 1.54 Once
7. Encourages children to study harder 4.47 1.12 Very Often
8. Attends school programs/activities 3.89 1.38 Often
9. Confers about children’s school standing 3.33 1.60 Often
10. Provides/Buys their school things 4.30 1.18 Very Often

Overall 3.67 1.40 Often

The results revealed that the OFW children were sufficiently provided with their

needs physiologically and financially by the left-behind parent and other support

system. This was similar to the findings of Cabansag (2005). It revealed that one of the

parental roles well-performed by parents was giving encouragement to study harder.

The role having no time to read educational materials for their OFW children rated

lowest contradicted the findings of Vera Cruz (2000) which revealed that among the five

areas of involvement of the mothers in the school activities is being a ‘co-teacher’. It

may surmised that pupils in the Grades 4, 5 and 6 could read on their own; without the

supervision of their left-behind parents.

Home Environment
 The availability of learning materials, means, frequency and topic of communication

between OFW parent and pupil-respondent, size of household, and child’s study time at

home were evaluated.

Availability of Learning Materials

The availability of learning materials like books, newspapers, magazines,

television set and computer among the OFW children had range from 1 to 12. Most

(90.50%) of the pupil respondents have books at home basically composed of dictionary

(f=304), story books (f=222), and encyclopedia (f=98) (Table 5). Only 35.90 percent

claimed that they read newspaper at home. The Manila Bulletin (f=51), Philippine Star

(f=41) and Philippine Daily Inquirer (f=34) were the widely read periodicals. Close to 47

percent have sports (f=83), entertainment (f=67) and science and technology (f=62)

magazines at home.

Table 5. Home environment factors

 FREQUENCY
VARIABLE PERCENT
(N = 462)
Books
With 418 90.50
Without 44 9.50

Books Available*
Dictionary 304 65.80
Encyclopedia 98 21.21
Textbooks 28 6.06
Storybooks 222 48.06
Religious Books 55 11.90

Newspaper
With 166 35.90
Without 296 64.10

Types of Newspaper*
Philippine Daily Inquirer 34 7.36
Philippine Star 41 8.87
Manila Bulletin 51 11.04
Abante 11 2.38
Balita 24 5.19
Bulgar 9 1.95

Magazines
With 216 46.80
Without 246 53.20
Types of Magazine*
Entertainment 67 14.50
Beauty and Lifestyle 45 9.74
Sports 83 17.97
News and Info 6 1.30
Religion 29 6.28
Science and Technology 62 13.42
Travel and Leisure 9 1.95

* Multiple responses

Table 5 continued…
 FREQUENCY
VARIABLE PERCENT
(n = 462)
Other Learning Resources*
Television Set 101 21.86
Television Set (Cable Network) 147 31.82
VHS/CD/DVD Player 88 19.05
Computer 283 61.26
Internet 267 57.79
Radio/Cassette/Karaoke 10 2.16
Means of Communication
Landline 34 7.40
Internet/E-mail/Chat 292 63.80
Cellular phone 346 75.20
Frequency of Communication
Everyday 108 23.40
Every other Day 68 14.70
Monthly 53 11.50
Twice a Week 29 6.30
Weekly 192 41.60
Every other Week 12 2.50
Topic of Communication
Family 51 11.00
Financial 29 6.30
Health 44 9.50
School Performance 243 52.60
Materials 95 20.60
Size of Household Members
2 3 0.60
3 96 20.80
4 166 35.90
5 122 26.40
6 75 16.20
Mean 4.38 households
SD 1.03
Study Time at Home
With Study Time 218 47.20
No Time 244 52.80

* Multiple responses
 Similar results were earlier found by Nishan (2003) in her study. It was revealed

that the most common resources available according to the students were dictionaries,

religious books, textbooks, novels and story books and fashion magazines. Of these, the

most common were dictionaries since English is a second language to the students. They

need dictionaries to look for the meanings of words for comprehension. Also, the

findings of Worancha (2000) revealed moderate availability of dictionaries in students’

homes while encyclopedia, newspapers and other magazines were the least available

materials at home. It is a general observation that people now have the habit of

watching everything instead of reading due to the presence of television in most homes.

Furthermore, Woranchaca (2000) claimed that exposure to educational

resources at home is attributed to the parents’ higher level of education. In addition,

Dollete (2000) stated that if students were provided with appropriate reading materials,

the opportunity to share reading experiences with others and guidance in reading

which remain focused on interest, they would develop positive associations with

reading. The pleasure of reading can then include the pleasure of knowledge and

thought. Students are more likely to develop lifetime habits of reading when they find it

pleasurable.

Table 5 also shows that majority (96.30%) of the pupil-respondents have other

available learning resources which they believed enhanced their school performance.

Computer unit (f=283) is the most available, followed by computer with internet

connection (f=267), television set with cable (f=101) and the least is the
radio/cassette/karaoke (f=10). This implies that the respondents are exposed to

different media which was believed to have influenced learning.

Means, Frequency and Topics of Communication with OFW Parent

Communication between the OFW parent and the pupil-respondent was done

weekly (41.60%) using cellular phone (75.20%) with school performance (52.60%) as the

number one topic of conversation. This suggest that OFW parents and children left

behind are in constant connection due to advancement and availability of

communication technology.

Similar result was revealed earlier by Edillon (2008) found out that the most

common means of communication is the cellular phone. Furthermore, the modal

frequency of calls of the OFW mother is once a week to more than once a week. For the

OFW father, the modal frequency is once a week to daily. The simple average for both is

more than once a day.

Migrant workers usually do not tell their problems to their families because they

do not want them to worry about their situations. Likewise, children, oftentimes, do not

tell their parents about their problems because of the same reason. Both parties

communicate but leave out important emotional details of their lives. Oftentimes,

communication between them is reduced to financial matters, toys, and gifts that will be

sent from abroad or bought from the money sent home.

Size of Household

The mean size of household of families with OFW parents was 4.38. Household

members had a range of 2-7 which was 35.90 percent of the pupil-respondents. Some
(26.40%) have five household members, three households (20.80%), six households

(14.70%), seven household (1.50%) and two households (0.60%).

It appeared that the presence of elderly members (grandparents) were more

common. The parents of either of the spouses was reason enough for some household

heads and spouses to work abroad to support the elderly members living with them.

Morada (2002) also noted that the number of single persons in the household

represents proxy parents or caregivers to the children and the elderly. Their presence in

the household somehow facilitates the mobility of both the head and the spouse as

these two seek to provide for the economic well being of the household or the family.

Study Time at Home

Table 5 shows that more than half (52.80%) of the pupil-respondents had no

specific study time at home. Some (47.20%) claimed one to two hours is for studying

daily. This implies that majority of the OFW children have poor study habit

These results confirmed the findings of Victorino (2011) who claimed that

students only spend 1 to 2 hours of their day doing their assignments or reviewing for

the exams. Study habits are crucial on the part of the students so that they can make

use of their time efficiently and deliberately instead of wasting their time with

insufficient study accomplishments.

 School Motivation

School motivation was assessed through those parameters: Facilitating condition,

behavioral and emotional engagement and disaffection with learning of OFW children.

These were rated by the pupils.

Facilitating Condition

Table 6 shows that facilitating condition had an overall mean of 3.48 described as

very satisfactory. This finding on facilitating condition was excellent in terms of mother

support in their schoolwork (x=4.70) ; teachers are positive to them in school ( x=4.47¿ ; it is

important for their mother to be proud of their schoolwork ( x=4.35¿ ; their father helps

them with schoolwork ( x=4.29¿ ; and teachers help them with their school work (

x=4.27¿ . This result means that despite the absence of one parent, the left-behind parents
and teachers could facilitate or inhibit OFW children’s engagement in learning. One can

speculate that the benefits obtained by children with highly involved parents is largely

attributable to the fact that high levels of paternal involvement created family contexts

in which the children feel secured and good about their family. Thus, they were

motivated to perform well in school.

 Regarding teacher support, Ashton and Webb (1986) found out that teachers higher

self-efficacy were more likely to have a positive classroom environment, to support

students' ideas, and meet the needs of all students.

Table 6. Means and standard deviation of OFW children’s school motivation

DESCRIPTIVE
FACILITATING CONDITION MEAN SD RATING
Parent Support
1. My mother helps me with my schoolwork. 4.70 0.80 Excellent
2. My father helps me with my schoolwork. 4.29 1.20 Excellent
3. It’s important to me to have my mother’s help with my Very
3.35 1.75
schoolwork. Satisfactory
4. It’s important to me to have my father’s help with my
3.14 1.70 Satisfactory
schoolwork.
5. My father helps me to work hard at school. 3.03 1.70 Satisfactory
6. My mother helps me to work hard at school. 3.38 1.54 Satisfactory
Very
Subscale Mean 3.65 1.45
Satisfactory
Teacher Support
1. Teachers are positive to me at school. 4.47 1.12 Excellent
2. I get encouragement from some of my teachers to do well in Very
3.88 1.39
school. Satisfactory
3. Teachers encourage me to go on to college or university. 3.31 1.61 Satisfactory
4. My teachers help me with my school work. 4.27 1.22 Excellent
5. It’s important to me to get my teacher’s help with schoolwork. 3.23 1.72 Satisfactory
Very
6. My teachers help me to work hard at school. 3.98 1.70
Satisfactory
Very
Subscale Mean 3.85 1.46
Satisfactory
Peer Support
1. Some of my friends
help me with my 3.45 1.68 Very Satisfactory
schoolwork.
2. My friends help me
3.00 1.75 Satisfactory
with my schoolwork.
3. It’s important to me
to have my friends help 2.87 1.79 Satisfactory
with schoolwork.
4. Working with my
friends at school
2.69 1.85 Satisfactory
improves my
schoolwork.
5. My friends help me
3.41 2.10 Very Satisfactory
to work hard at school.
Subscale Mean 3.08 1.83 Satisfactory
Pride from Others
1. It’s important for my
father to be proud of 2.58 1.73 Fair
my schoolwork.
2. It’s important for my
mother to be proud of 4.35 0.83 Excellent
my schoolwork.
3. It’s important for my
teachers to be proud of 4.15 0.86 Very Satisfactory
my school work.
4. It’s important for my
friends to be proud of 3.71 1.29 Very Satisfactory
my school work.
Subscale Mean 3.70 1.18 Very Satisfactory

Overall 3.48 1.49 Very Satisfactory

Table 6 continued…

DESCRIPTIVE
ENGAGEMENT WITH LEARNING MEAN SD
RATING
1. I try hard to do well in school. 4.35 0.15 Very High
2. In class, I work as hard as I can . 4.08 0.22 High
3. When in class, I participate in class discussions. 4.28 0.14 Very High
4. I pay attention in class. 4.25 0.05 Very High
5. When I’m in class, I listen very carefully. 4.07 0.23 High
6. When in class, I feel good. 4.14 0.50 High
7. When we work on something in class, I feel interested. 4.50 0.35 Very High
8. Class is fun. 4.46 0.30 Very High
9. I enjoy learning new things in class. 4.45 0.38 Very High
10. When we work on something in class, I get involved. 3.80 0.11 High
Overall 4.23 0.24 Very High
DESCRIPTIVE
DISAFFECTION WITH LEARNING MEAN SD
RATING
1. When I’m in class, I just act like I’m working. 2.63 0.24 Moderate
2. I don’t try very hard at school. 2.10 0.34 Low
3. In class, I do just enough to get by. 2.76 0.14 Moderate
4. When I’m in class, I think about other things. 2.49 0.19 Low
5. When I’m ion class, my mind wanders. 2.25 0.41 Low
6. When we work on something in class, I feel bored. 1.48 0.47 Very Low
7. When I’m doing work in class, I feel bored. 1.59 0.15 Very Low
8. When my teacher first explains new material, I feel bored. 2.05 0.39 Low
9. When I’m in class, I feel worried. 2.71 0.49 Moderate
10. When we start something new in class, I feel nervous. 2.80 0.49 Moderate
Overall 2.29 0.33 Low

High teaching efficacy was positively associated with use of praise (and negatively

associated with criticism), as individual attention given to students. These motivational

effects enhance student learning and substantiate teachers' efficacy by conveying that they

can help students learn. The result suggests the importance of parents and teachers in

helping the OFW children cope with their studies. Generally, students will show some

self-motivation if they know what is expected of them, they think the effort is

worthwhile, and they feel the benefit through effective performance.

On the other hand, the respondents had very satisfactory facilitating condition

through these items: they are proud of their schoolwork for teachers ( x=4.15¿ and

friends ( x=3.71¿ ; encouragement they get from some of their teachers ( x=3.88¿; and the

help they get from their friends ( x=3.45¿. This result implies that significant others like

friends and teachers greatly motivate the OFW children to work well in school. Having

positive relationship with people around does not only give the OFW children a venue to

express their thoughts and ideas, but more importantly, they develop self-confidence

and be able to trust themselves and their capabilities.

Engagement and Disaffection with Learning

 OFW children’s engagement with learning had an overall mean of 4.23 described as

very high. This very high engagement in learning was rated in terms of the following: feeling

interested while working in class ( x=4.50¿ ; class is fun ( x=4.46¿; enjoying learning new

things in class ( x=4.45¿; and trying hard to do well in school ( x=4.35) ; This means that

despite the absence of a parent, OFW children have active enthusiastic effortful

participation in the learning activities in the classroom.

Like other motivational conceptualizations, engaged behaviors include effort

exertion and persistence. In addition, this could include indicators of mental effort, such as

attention and concentration. In fact they also got very high engagement in learning in terms

of participation in class discussion ( x=4.28) and paying attention in class ( x=4.25) . Student

engagement measures according to Fredricks, et. al (2004) have been shown to correlate

positively with achievement and negatively with the likelihood of dropping out of school.

Furthermore, they claimed that engaged students are more likely to earn better grades and

perform well on standardized tests.

On the other hand, the respondents had low disaffection to learning with an overall

mean of 2.29 (Table 8). They got very low in terms of feeling bored when working on

something as whole in class ( x=1.48) and when working individually in class ( x=1.59) . This

low rating on disaffection to learning implies that the OFW children have feelings of

belongingness they enjoy, and are attached to learning.

 However, respondents had moderate disaffection to learning in terms of feeling

nervous when starting something new in class ( x=2.80) ; doing just enough to get by in class

( x=2.76) ; and feeling worried when in class ( x=2.71). This result implies that the OFW

children have the tendency to express disaffected behavior which include enervated

emotion (tired, sad, bored), alienated emotion (frustrated, anger) and pressured participation

(anxiety) which are humanly normal.

Disaffected behaviors include the core behaviors of disengagement- namely,

passivity, lack of initiation, lack of effort, and giving up. These also include mental

withdrawal and ritualistic participation, such as lack of attention and going with the motions.

Personal Adjustment

Anxiety

The OFW children manifested a moderate anxiety with an overall mean of 3.12 as

shown in Table 7. The respondents were marked high in terms of wiggling a lot in their seats

( x=3.73) ; worrying a lot of the time ( x=3.54 ) ; often feeling sick in their stomach ( x=3.49 ) ;

having trouble making up their mind ( x=3.47) ; and easily getting mad ( x=3.44 ) . This means that

the OFW children experienced physiological anxiety, worry, and could not concentrate

well in class. Similar, the findings of Battistella (1998) and Conaco (1996) showed that

children of migrant parents actually experienced higher anxiety and loneliness. When

probed on the actual emotions, more migrants’ children expressed feelings of anger,
confusion and worries than non-migrants’ children. When respondents were asked

during the FGD session about their feelings when they learned that their father/mother

was leaving, children with migrant mothers (f =59) were reportedly unhappier than the

children of the migrant fathers (f =39).

Table 7. Means and standard deviation of OFW children’s manifested anxiety

DESCRIPTIVE
MEAN SD
RATING
PHYSIOLOGICAL
1. I have trouble making up my mind. 3.47 1.49 High
2. I like everyone I know. 2.63 0.41 Moderate
3. Often I have trouble getting my breath. 3.27 0.36 Moderate
4. It is hard for me to get sleep at night. 3.06 1.02 Moderate
5. Often I feel sick in my stomach. 3.49 1.01 High
6. My feeling get hurt easily. 3.28 1.10 Moderate
7. My hands feel sweaty. 2.76 1.33 Moderate
8. I had bad dreams. 2.97 1.46 Moderate
9. My feelings get hurt easily when I am fussed at. 3.12 1.49 Moderate
10. I never get angry. 3.30 0.86 Moderate
11. I wake up scared some of the time. 3.23 1.29 Moderate
12. I worry when I go to bed at night. 3.30 1.49 Moderate
13. I wiggle in my seat a lot. 3.73 0.82 High
Subscale Mean 3.20 1.09 Moderate

Table 7 continued…

Descriptive
MEAN SD
Rating
WORRY
1. Others seem to do things easier than I can. 3.13 0.47 High
2. I worry a lot of the time. 3.54 1.51 Moderate
3. I am afraid of a lot thing. 3.01 1.67 Moderate

4. I worry about what my parents will say to me. 3.18 1.36 Moderate

5. I feel alone even when there are people with me. 2.63 0.93 High

6. It is hard for me to keep my mind on my school work. 3.13 2.01 Moderate

7. I am nervous. 3.10 1.45 Moderate
8. A lot of people are against me. 2.84 1.21 Moderate
9. I often worry about something bad happening to me. 3.08 1.64 Moderate
10. I am tired a lot. 2.68 1.37 Moderate
11. I worry about what is going to happen. 3.15 1.39 Moderate
12. Other children are happier than I. 3.15 1.45 Moderate
Subscale Mean 3.05 1.37 High
CONCENTRATION
1. I never lie. 3.13 1.58 Moderate

2. I never say things I shouldn’t. 3.18 1.56 Moderate

3. I feel someone will tell me I do things the wrong way. 3.15 0.83 Moderate

4. I tell the truth every single time. 2.96 1.41 Moderate

5. I am always nice to everyone. 2.51 1.86 Low

6. I am always kind. 3.10 1.29 Moderate

7. I get mad easily. 3.44 1.26 High

8. I feel others do not like the way I do things. 3.27 1.17 Moderate

9. I always have good manners. 3.19 1.00 Moderate

11. I worry about what other people will think of me. 3.04 1.09 Moderate

11. I am always good. 3.24 0.86 Moderate

12. I get nervous when things do not go the right way for me. 3.03 1.70 Moderate
Subscale Mean 3.10 1.30 Moderate

Overall 3.12 1.25 Moderate

Although migrant children reported experiencing difficulties and longing for their

absent parents, they also acknowledge that they learned to be more independent in the

process. Similar findings of the 2003 Scalabrini study showed that the children have

generally adjusted because of the strong social support from family members and

relatives.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is concerned with judgments about capabilities. Table 8 shows that the

respondents’ self-efficacy had an overall mean of 3.48 described as high. This means that
despite the absence of a parent, the OFW children were confident in their abilities and skills

because they were encouraged and motivated to study well. This was supported by the

FGD in which majority (f =52) of them said that doing well in school was one of the things

they could do to repay the sacrifices of their parents working abroad.

Schunk (1989) discussed how self-efficacy might operate during academic learning.

At the start of an activity, students differ in their beliefs about their capabilities to acquire

knowledge, perform skills, master the material, and so forth. Initial self-efficacy varies as a

function of aptitude (e.g., abilities and attitudes) and prior experience. Such personal

factors as goal setting and information processing, along with situational factors (e.g.

rewards and teacher feedback) can affect students while they are working. From these

factors students derive cues signaling how well they are learning, which they use to assess

efficacy for further learning. Motivation is enhanced when students perceive they are

making progress in learning. In turn, as students work on tasks and become more skillful,

they maintain a sense of self-efficacy for performing well.

Table 8. Means and standard deviation of OFW children’s self-efficacy

Descriptive
MEAN SD
Rating
1. I get down to do school work when I should. 3.43 1.29 High
2. When I set important goals for myself, I achieve them. 3.32 1.22 High
3. I don’t give up on things before completing them. 3.74 1.16 Moderate
4. I face difficulties. 3.94 1.23 Moderate
5. If something looks to complicated, I try it. 3.80 1.22 Moderate
6. When trying to learn something new, I don’t give up if I
am not initially successful. 3.44 1.19 High

7. When unexpected problems occur, I handle them well. 3.12 1.09 Moderate
8. I am trying to learn new things when they look too
3.33 0.99 Moderate
difficult to me.
9. I feel proud about my ability to do things. 3.37 1.09 Moderate
10. I don’t give up easily. 3.79 1.25 High
11. I am capable of dealing with most problems that come
3.67 1.35 High
up in my life.
12. It is easy for me to make new friends. 3.30 1.53 Moderate
13. If I meet someone interesting who is hard to make
friends with, I’ll keep trying to make friends with that 3.26 1.44 Moderate
person.
14. I handle myself well in social gatherings. 3.40 1.26 High
15. When I make plans, I am certain I can make them work. 3.30 1.11 Moderate
16. If I can’t do a job the first time, I keep trying until I can. 3.50 0.87 High
17. When I decide to do something, I go right to work on it. 3.55 0.94 High
18. When I decide to do something, I go right to work on it. 3.38 1.02 Moderate
19. Failure just make me try harder. 3.43 1.11 High
20. I am self-reliant person 3.49 1.08 High
21. If I see someone I would like to meet, I go to that person
instead of waiting for him/her to come to me. 3.56 1.01 High

22. When I’m trying to become friends with someone who

seems uninterested at first, I don’t give up easily. 3.45 1.22 High
23. I have acquired my friends through my personal abilities
at making friends. 3.45 1.13 High

Overall 3.48 1.16 High

The finding of Pintrich and Schunk (1996) revealed that self-efficacy tend to decline

as students advance through school. This was attributed to various factors, including

greater competition, more norm-referenced grading, less teacher attention to individual

student progress, and stresses associated with school transitions.

These and other school practices can weaken academic self-efficacy, especially

among students who are less academically prepared to cope with increasingly challenging

academic tasks.

Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction

Central to self-determination theory is the concept of basic psychological needs

that are assumed to be innate and universal. According to the theory, these needs--the

needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness--must be continuously satisfied for

people to develop and function in healthy or optimal ways (Deci and Ryan, 2000).
 Table 9 shows that OFW children’s basic psychological needs had and overall

mean of 3.49 described as very satisfactory. This result implies that the pupil-

respondents basic psychological needs are provided very well through the affectional

bond between OFW children and primary caregivers – either the left-behind parents or

guardians and other people like teachers and peers. Similar findings were revealed by

Scalabrin (2004) and Asis (2000) who claimed that family separation may not necessarily

lead to extreme cases of emotional disturbance and delinquency among children.

Furthermore, studies of Arellano-Carandang, et al (2007) and Anonuevo (2002) revealed

that children have different levels of acceptance and tolerance of the migration depending

on their “cognitive development”.

Table 9. Means and standard deviation satisfaction of OFW children’s basic

psychological need

DESCRIPTIVE
MEAN SD
RATING
AUTONOMY/SELF-WORTH
1. I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life. 3.43 1.26 Very Satisfactory
2. I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions. 3.32 1.26 Satisfactory
3. People I interact with on a daily basis tend to make my
3.74 1.95 Very Satisfactory
feelings into consideration.
4. I feel like I can pretty much be myself in my daily
3.94 1.17 Very Satisfactory
situations.
5. I feel pressured in my life. 3.26 1.14 Satisfactory
6. In my daily life, I frequently have to do what I am told. 3.40 1.01 Very Satisfactory
7. There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself
3.30 1.24 Satisfactory
how to do things in my daily life.
Subscale Mean 3.48 1.29 Very Satisfactory
COMPETENCE
1. People I know tell me I am good at what I do. 3.80 1.19 Very Satisfactory
2. I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently. 3.44 1.21 Very Satisfactory
3. Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do. 3.12 1.34 Satisfactory
4. Often, I do not feel very competent. 3.50 1.40 Very Satisfactory
5. In my life, I do not get much of a chance to show how
3.55 1.19 Very Satisfactory
capable I am.
6. I often do not feel very capable. 3.38 1.24 Satisfactory
Subscale Mean 3.47 1.26 Very Satisfactory
RELATEDNESS/TRUST
1. I really like the people I interact with. 3.33 1.19 Satisfactory
2. I get along with people I come into contact with. 3.37 1.24 Satisfactory
3. I consider the people I regularly interact with to be my
3.79 1.23 Very Satisfactory
friends.
4. People in my life care about me. 3.67 0.93 Very Satisfactory
5. People are generally friendly towards me. 3.30 1.05 Satisfactory
6. I pretty much keep to myself and don’t have a lot of social
3.43 1.13 Very Satisfactory
contacts.
7. There are not many people that I am close to. 3.49 1.14 Very Satisfactory
8. The people I interact with regularly do not seem to like me
3.56 1.14 Very Satisfactory
much.
Subscale Mean 3.49 1.13 Very Satisfactory

Overall 3.48 1.22 Very Satisfactory

For young children, they see this as abandonment and not seeing the other side of

the picture. However, it could have either a positive or negative effect – somewhat happy

because of the material benefits but the painful thinking is they cannot hide their sadness.

According to psychologists, the child’s attachment and interaction with the people and

the environment will help in shaping the kinds of experiences a child has through

development. For example, if one expects the world to be cold and rejecting based on

prior experiences, the individual may project an unfriendly and defensive behavior.

Children with secure attachment histories are more likely to develop internal

representations of others as supportive, helpful, and positive and to view themselves as

competent and worthy of respect, according to Jacobsen and Hofmann (1997).

Moreover, securely attached children relate more positively to both peers and adults,

demonstrate greater ego-resiliency, engage in more complex play than children

classified as insecure (Howes, Matheson, and Hamilton 1994).

 They also have been found to exhibit more flexible and socially appropriate

emotional expression and control, show more focused attention and participation in

class, and earn higher grades (Jacobsen and Hofmann, 1997). Securely attached children

also demonstrate better functioning goal-corrected partnerships, characterized by more

mature perspective-taking, mutual communication of affect, and joint planning

(Crittenden, 1992) than insecure or disorganized– disoriented peers.

Prosocial Behavior

Table 10 shows that the prosocial behavior of the respondents had an overall mean

of 3.73 described as very satisfactory. This was revealed by the respondents’ prosocial

behavior which were high in terms of being helpful because they want people to like

them ( x=4.52) ; because it satisfying to help others ( x=4.48) ; and self-control ( x=4.29) . This

result confirmed the 2003 Philippine study which revealed that OFW children were

generally adjusted well socially, have strong social support and can get along well with

other. However, it contrasted the findings of Battistella (2008) and Conaco (1996) who

claimed that OFW children showed poorer social and emotional adjustment and suffered

impeded psychological development.

Table 10. Means and standard deviation of OFW children’s manifest prosocial behavior

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR MEAN SD DESCRIPTIVE RATING

Sincerity
1. So my friends will like me. 3.55 1.29 High
2. I’d feel like a bad person if I didn’t. 3.22 1.33 Moderate
3. My friends will get mad at me if I don’t. 3.26 1.47 Moderate
4. I think it’s important to keep promises. 3.46 1.47 High
5. I don’t like breaking promises. 3.18 1.60 Moderate
Subscale Mean 3.33 1.43 Moderate
Respect for others
1. If I don’t, I’ll get into trouble. 3.37 1.59 Moderate
2. I think it’s important to be nice to others. 3.46 1.46 High
3. I’d feel ashamed of myself after I did it. 3.68 1.48 High
4. Other kids won’t like me if I do that. 3.85 1.38 High
5. I don’t like to be mean. 3.60 1.65 High
Subscale Mean 3.59 1.51 High
Self-control
1. I’ll get into trouble if I do. 3.82 1.50 High
2. I want other kids to like me. 3.91 1.51 High
3. I don’t like to hit others. 4.29 1.12 Very High
4. I wouldn’t want to hurt anyone. 4.13 1.28 High
5. I’d feel bad about myself if I did. 3.87 1.42 High
Subscale Mean 4.00 1.37 High

Table 10 continued…

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR MEAN SD DESCRIPTIVE RATING

Camaraderie
1. If I don’t, other kids won’t like me. 3.76 1.31 High
2. I’ll get into trouble if I don’t. 3.92 1.27 High
3. I think it’s important to be a nice person. 4.05 1.18 High
4. I will feel bad about myself if I don’t. 4.13 1.17 High
5. I don’t like being mean. 4.03 1.14 High
Subscale Mean 3.98 1.21 High
Helpfulness
1. I think it’s important to give help when it’s needed. 3.87 1.46 Moderate
2. I could get into trouble if I didn’t. 4.09 1.35 Moderate
3. I’d feel bad about myself if I didn’t. 3.93 1.37 Moderate
4. I want people to like me. 4.52 0.98 Very High
5. It is satisfying to help others. 4.48 1.01 Very High
Subscale Mean 4.18 1.23 High

Overall 3.73 1.39 High

The results on prosocial behavior have important implications. The pupil-

respondents relate well with others while recognizing the importance of others. The
internalization and integration of values and regulations could be a natural

developmental tendency among OFW children. According to, Chandler and Connell

(1987) as children grow older, they internalized regulation of behaviors that are

originally externally compelled. Yet internalization, like other natural processes such as

intrinsic motivation, requires nutriments to function effectively; in other words,

internalization did not happen automatically.

Academic Performance of OFW Children

The mean grade (83.04) for two school years before the OFW parent went

abroad showed that the pupil respondents’ academic performance was good. The mean

grade for the two school years while the OFW parent was abroad was 83.18, statistically

the same with their grade before their parent worked abroad. This implies that the

pupils’ academic performance may not be affected when one parent is working abroad.

Results further revealed that two more pupils became excellent and five improved their

grades from poor to higher grade level. However, additional 18 students were graded

fair than before. There was a decrease in number of students with grades of Very Good

and Good, but an increase in the number who got Fair.

Table 11. Average grade of pupil-respondents

A B
PARAMETER
f % f %
 General Average Grade (A)
95 – 100 = Excellent 6 1.30 8 1.70
89 – 94 = Very Good 48 10.40 37 8.00
83 – 88 = Good 172 37.20 168 36.40
77 – 82 = Fair 225 48.70 243 52.60
70 – 76 = Poor 11 2.40 6 1.30

Mean 83.15 (Good) 83.05 (Good)

SD 4.34 4.15

Legend:
(A) Before migration
(B) During migration

Result further revealed that pupil-respondents from private schools had higher

general average grades than their counterpart in the public schools, 84.66 vs 81.81. This

means that OFW children from private schools performed better than those in the

public schools. This conformed to the 2003 Children and Families Survey conducted in

the Philippines (Scalabrini Migration Institute) that OFW children in private schools, tend

to perform better and receive higher grades compared to children of non-migrants.

The result contradicted earlier findings. Battistella and Conaco (1998) reported

that Filipino children of migrants fared poorly in their academics when compared to

non-migrants’ children. Both studies have similar findings relating to children with

migrant mothers – those with absent mothers have a tendency to lag behind children of

the other groups.

Table 12. Paired samples test on the general average of OFW children before and during
migration

MEAN SD t df P
 Before Migration 83.0468 4.347

During Migration 83.1800 4.157

Paired difference -0.138 1.92 -1.549 461 0.120

This means that the academic performance in terms of the average grade of

OFW children was not affected by the absence of one parent. However, excellent

academic performance is not only caused by a single factor but from a conglomeration of

factors that blend together to bring about desired outcomes among students. Although

inputs to education such as budget, infrastructure, competent teachers and administrators,

and updated curriculum are of primary importance in producing proximal result,

psychological factors or the provision for healthy sense of being provided by significant

others especially a mother or a father could not be taken lightly.

Female pupil-respondents x=83.75 ) performed better (Appendix Table 2) than the

¿

male counterparts (x=82.63) . This finding had similar result with other studies in terms of

academic achievement and sex showing that girls seemed to be higher academically

than boys. The studies of Vicmudo (2001) and Costales (2006) revealed that sex was

correlated to the students’ academic performance with female performing better than

males. Furthermore, Llamanna and Riedman, (1994) stated that in terms of ability,

males are believed to be superior to females; however, males are not generally superior

than females on intelligence tests because girls are superior in verbal ability. They

scored higher than the boys on test that demand an understanding of complex
language, creative writing, analogies, fluency and spelling. Boys, on the other hand,

have better spatial and quantitative ability, with higher scores in Mathematics tests and

in tests that require visual and spatial perceptions.

Finding in terms of the general average grades received by OFW children before

and during migration accepted the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference

in the academic performance of OFW children before the migration and during the

migration of OFW parent.

Extra-Curricular Activities Participated-in

Among the extra-curricular activities participated in by OFW children were academic

competitions like quiz bees, sporting events, campus journalism, scouting, theater arts and

arts club, drum and lyre band, dance, singing, and literary (Table 13). Results show that

many among the OFW children participated in academic related competitions and fewer in

musical-related activities. Academic competitions had the most number of participations

before (f=287) and during (f=203) parents’ migration while scouting (f=32) and literary

(f=42) were the least participated in by the OFW children before and during migration

respectively.

Table 13. Frequencies of the extra-curricular activities participated in by OFW children

PARAMETER FREQUENCY PERCENT

Extra Curricular Activities (A)* N=318
Academic contests 287 90.25
Sports 164 51.57
 Campus Journalism 124 38.99
Scouting 32 10.06
Arts 54 16.98
Musical 85 26.73
Literary 44 13.84
Extra-Curricular Activities (B)* N=307
Academic contests 203 66.12
Sports 182 59.28
Campus Journalism 95 30.94
Scouting 43 14.01
Arts 39 12.70
Musical 97 31.60
Literary 42 13.68

� = 55.55 df = 6 p = 0.000

* multiple responses
(A) Before migration
(B) During migration
This implied that these children had good academic standing in their classes because

they were chosen to compete or represent their respective schools to different inter-school

activities and competitions. This asserts the findings of Edillon (2008) that membership in

academic organizations and participation in extra-curricular activities is more prevalent

among children of OFWs. Based on her study, the top club memberships are in the Math

Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP) training guild, where children are screened

and trained rigorously in math; the Science Club; and such special interest clubs as choir,

drum, Lyre Corps, Banduria and Rondalla Club. Other clubs mentioned were Boy Scout, Girl

Scout, athletic clubs and Pupil Government Organization (PGO).

Result further showed that participation to extra-curricular activities among

OFW children decreased by 7.20 percent after parents worked abroad (Appendix Table
 2

4). The chi-square result (� = 55.55) showed a significant difference in the involvement of

OFW children in the different extra-curricular activities. There was decrease in the total

number of involvement to extra-curricular activities.

This means that OFW children became less participative in school activities after

their OFW parents left. This may be due to the moderate physiological anxiety due to

separation from a parent which they experienced as shown in Table 9 because in order

to participate to extra-curricular activities, a child must have a sound mind and healthy

body.

During the focus group discussion conducted among the pupil-respondents who did

not join any extra-curricular activities, they admitted that their parents were overprotective,

so they would not want to be blamed by the OFW for any untoward incident that may befall

on them. Some claimed they were not interested to join any activity.

On the other hand, Parungao (2003) in her study concluded that students join extra-

curricular activities in search of belongingness and of socialization. Furthermore, Holland

and Andre (1987) stressed that participation in extra-curricular activities relates a number of

desirable characteristics like self-esteem, educational aspirations, and feelings of control

and lower levels of alienation. However, membership in these clubs, as well as participation

in extra-curricular activities require some amount of money. This is possibly the reason why

some OFW children refrain from joining them because they have other priorities or more

urgent need.
 With these findings on academic performance in terms of the extra-curricular

participated in and by OFW children, the null hypothesis that there is no significant

difference in the academic performance of OFW children before the migration and

during the migration of OFW parent was rejected.

Honors/Awards Received

Table 14 shows that 194 OFW children (42%) had honors or awards before a

parent left, and 279 OFW children (60%) received honors or awards after a parent left.

The number of OFW children who received awards after their parents worked abroad

increased by 30 percent. Most of these awards are non-academic like Most Honest,

Athlete of the Year, Boy Scout of the Year, etc. This implies that OFW children

performed well even in the absence of a parent as indicated by the awards they

received.

Specifically, more than 34 percent of the OFW children from private schools and

more than 48 percent from public schools received awards before OFW parents left

(Appendix Table 4). A number of awards from private and public schools were noted.

After the parents left to work abroad, awards received by OFW children in private

schools increased by 45.66%. Also, the increase of 15.61% in the awards received by

OFW children in public schools was a good indication of positive effect of parents’

migration.

Table 14. Frequencies of the honors/awards received by OFW children

PARAMETER FREQUENCY PERCENT

 Honors/Awards Received (A)* N=194
Academic Honors 123 63.40
Non-academic/Special Awards 163 84.02

Honors/Awards Received (B)* N=279

Academic Honors 185 66.31
Non-academic/Special Awards 255 91.40

� = 53.97, df = 1 p = 0.000

* multiple responses
(A) Before migration
(B) During migration

Chi square (� = 53.97) result showed a significant difference in the number of

honors/awards received by OFW children before and during parent’s migration. There

was increase in the honors/awards received by OFW children after a parent left to work

abroad. Result showed that OFW children despite the absence of a parent could still

have awards as proof of their good academic standing in their respective schools. This

finding agreed with Edillon (2008) who showed that in the aspect of achievement, OFW

children are achievers and receiving academic awards as compared to non-OFW

children.

With these findings, the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in

the honors or awards received before and during migration of OFW parent was rejected.
 The Determinants of Academic Performance

The independent and dependent variables were correlated to identify significant

relationships. These were regressed using the stepwise method to screen, remove and

retain data that best estimate academic performance in terms of the OFW children’s

general average, extra-curricular activities and honors or awards received.

The magnitude of the effectiveness of these variables is reflected in the values of

R and R2 (adjusted) which demonstrated that the variance in the academic performance

of OFW children was accounted for by the linear combination of the thirteen variables.

The result was further strengthened by the values of F-ratio. Result implies that the

capacity of these variables to predict academic performance of OFW children could not

have happened by chance. This finding was in consonance with the work of other

researchers (Costales, 2006; Eamon, 2005; Herrera, 2003; Musaka, 2001; Majoribanks,

199;, Hoffert and Halpen 1987).

However, to really identify which among the independent variables were

predictors of OFW children’s academic performance; those having r values of 0.1++

were utilized in the regression run.

Regression Analyses on Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variables that could predict better academic performance of OFW

children are the following: age, sex, type of school, ambition/aspiration, number of

siblings, daily allowance; OFW sex and years working abroad, left parent’s sex, age and

highest educational attainment and source of income; parental involvement like helping
their children in their home work, encouraging their children to study harder, and

attending to school programs and activities, and conferring about their children’s school

standing; home factors like availability of learning materials and resources, and study

time at home; school motivation like parent support; personal adjustment like

concentration, self-efficacy and sincerity.

The magnitude of the effectiveness of these variables was reflected in the values

of R and R2 (adjusted) which demonstrated that the variance in the academic

performance of OFW children was accounted for by the linear combination of the 22

variables. The result was further strengthened by the values of F-ratio. Results imply

that the capacity of these variables to predict academic performance of OFW children

could not have happened by chance. This finding was in consonance with the results of

other researchers Costales (2006), Eamon (2005), Herrera (2003), Musaka (2001),

Majoribanks (1996), Hoffert and Halpen (1987).

Socio-demographic Characteristics as Determinants of Academic Performance

There are three socio-demographic characteristics that show significant effects on

the pupils’ general average grade, two have positive coefficients. The significance of the

variable sex indicates that female children had higher general average than male. This

conformed to the explanation of Scalabrini Migration Center (2004) that among OFW

children, females rather than males has above average to excellent performance in school.

More females than males are perceiving school as extremely important.

Table 15. Regression analyses to show the effect of independent variables to the
dependent variables
 EXTRA-
GEN. AVERAGE HONORS/AWARDS
CURRICULAR
GRADE RECEIVED
VARIABLES PREDICTORS ACTIVITIES

β t β t β t
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

Pupil-respondent
Age -0.044 -0.25ns -0.111 -2.377* -- --
Sex 0.223 3.07** -- -- -- --
Type of
0.256 6.181** 0.136 2.876** 0.159 1.363*
School
Ambition/Aspiration 0.698 2.947** -- -- -- --
Number of Siblings -0.146 -3.655** -0.069 -1.809* -- --
Daily Allowance -- -- 0.005 3.160** -- --
OFW Parent
Years Working Abroad 0.141 2.154* -- -- -- --
Left Parent
Age -- -- 0.020 3.040** -- --
Sex 0.772 2.216* -- -- 0.091 0.408ns
Highest Educational Attainment -- -- 0.107 2.250* -- --
Occupation/Source of Income 0.229 2.757* -- -- 0.082 3.071**

Table 15 continued…

EXTRA-
GEN. AVERAGE HONORS/AWARDS
VARIABLES PREDICTORS CURRICULAR
GRADE RECEIVED
ACTIVITIES

β t β t β t
PARENTAL
INVOLVEME
NT
Prepares
your school
-- -- 0.018 0.479 -- --
clothes/unif
orm
 Helps you
with your 0.282 2.892** -- -- 0.108 2.865**
homework
Encourages
child to
0.653 5.367** 0.121 2.967** -- --
study
harder
Attends
school
-- -- 0.059 1.782* 0.126 3.020**
programs/a
ctivities
Confers
about your
-- -- -- -- 0.063 1.728*
school
standing
HOME
ENVIRONM
ENT
Availability
of Learning
Materials 0.542 6.377** 0.179 8.034** 0.154 5.681**
and
Resources
Availability
of Learning
Materials 0.542 6.377** 0.179 8.034** 0.154 5.681**
and
Resources

Study Time
1.892 5.646** -- -- 0.897 7.886**
at Home

SCHOOL
FACTOR
Parent
0.508 2.481** -- -- 0.151 2.183*
Support
PERSONAL
ADJUSTME
NT
Concentrati
-- -- -- -- -0.313 -1.895*
on Anxiety
Self-efficacy -- -- 0.178 1.988* -- --
R 2
0.33013149 0.27641344 0.54229
Adjusted
0.30442548 0.25707482 0.29408361
R2

(17,443) = (12,449) =
F 12.843 14.293
(11,449) = 17.005

* significant (p <.05) ns
not significant
** highly significant (p <.01) -- not included in the regression model based on correlation analysis
 Also, Parrenas (2006) found that girls with migrant parents were able to improve

their school performance. OFW children’s ambition/aspiration is also a determinant of

general average grade. Pupils’ with higher ambition have higher general average grade.

Similarly, those who have aspirations of becoming professionals someday tend to have

higher grades.

The number of siblings is also a significant predictor of general average grade.

The negative ß coefficient implies that pupils with more number of siblings tend to have

lower general average grade and lesser participation to curricular activities. Result is

similar to other studies which linked smaller family size with higher academic

achievement (Eamon, 2005; Majoribanks, 1996).

The second regression model indicates that age determines participation to

extra-curricular activities. The negative ß coefficient explains that more extra-curricular

activities were participated-in by younger OFW children. There is a cut-off age of 12

years in participating in the district, provincial, and Central Luzon Regional Athletics

Association (CLRAA) meet, and the Palarong Pambansa, hence the pupils aged 12 are

unable to participate in these activities.

There is a significant difference in the performance of the pupils studying in

private and public schools. OFW children studying in private schools have higher

general average grades, more involvement in extra-curricular activities and more

honors/awards received. Since OFW children are better-off with regard to financial

resources than other children, they have more chance to enroll to private or exclusive
schools they want to. Bryant (2005) argued that in the Philippines remittances are used

to send children to private schools, which are considered better than public schools.

Furthermore, he disclosed that children in left behind households have a higher

probability of attending private schools, and on average they got better grades than

non-migrant children. The 2003 Children and Families Survey conducted in the

Philippines by Scalabrini Migration Institute found that migrant children, who are often

enrolled in private schools, tend to perform better and receive higher grades than

children of non-migrants. The study concluded that children of migrants performed well

especially during grade school compared to non migrant children.

Daily allowance is also significant variable for extra-curricular involvement of

OFW children. Those pupils who have higher daily allowance have higher participation

because they have the resources to finance participation. According to the UNICEF

study in 2008, most children with parents abroad have more pocket money than their

peers. When pupils are financially stable; they can buy what they want, they can

concentrate on the development of their skills and abilities, and they will not worry

about their financial needs.

OFW parent’s years of working abroad has positive coefficient to general

average grades of children. This result implies that children whose parents have been

working longer abroad have higher general average grade. Results validated the

findings of Batistella (1998) and Conaco (1996) that children of migrants have adjusted, and

the absence of their parents does not make a difference in the children’s grades and social

adjustment.
 Parents who are left behind with the children play important roles in the pupils’

performance in school. Those pupils whose left parent’s are the mothers perform better

at school as indicated by higher general average grade and increased number of awards.

The finding also suggests the importance of mother’s presence at home to increase the

pupils’ performance. Moreover, their occupation or source of income is a significant

variable for general average grade and honors/awards received. This implies that the

higher the level of left parent’s work, the higher would be the general average grade

and more number of honors/awards received by OFW children. This may be due to the

nature of the left parent’s work which is more on the professional aspects. They can

assist their children in their studies better.

Moreover, those pupils whose parents are older have higher participation to

extra-curricular activities. This finding contradicts the finding of Edillion (2008) that

spouses of OFWs admitted to being overprotective of their children. They would not want

to be blamed by the OFW for any untoward incident that may befall the children when they

participate to curricular activities. Whereas, Parungao (2003) in her study concluded that

students join extra-curricular activities in search of belongingness and to socialize.

Furthermore, Holland and Andre (1987) stressed that participation in extra-curricular

activities relates a number of desirable characteristics like self-esteem, educational

aspirations, and feelings of control and lower levels of alienation. Scalabrini Migration

Center (SMC, 2004) documented that OFW children are more likely to participate in extra-

curricular activities such as camping, field trips, academic contests and so forth. Their

exposure to these programs not only broadens their learning, which may contribute to their

overall academic performance.

Parental Involvement on Academic Performance

Table 15 shows that four roles performed by left parents have effects on

performance. Of which two roles such as helping their children with their home work

and providing encouragement to study harder were significant for general grade

average. Whereas, attending school programs or activities have positive effects on

participation to extra-curricular activities. Three of these supports were also found to

have positive effects on the number of honors and awards the pupils receive.

Helping OFW children in doing their home works often would result to high

general average and more awards received. Encouraging these children to study harder

would increase their general average grade and performance to extra-curricular

activities because they could feel the moral support given by the left behind parent. In

the same way, attending school programs predicts extra-curricular activities and awards

received. If the children would see their parents watch them perform, they would be

inspired to hone their skills and abilities, and they would reap more awards later on.

Conferring with teachers about the school standing of the OFW children could also

improve performance. Children who are monitored by left parents never neglect their

school work and tend to behave well at school. As a result, these pupils receive honors

or awards.

Home Environment on Academic Performance

Among the home environment factors, learning materials and resources are

predictors of average grade, extra-curricular activities and awards received by OFW

children. Those pupils with more learning materials and resources at home have

higher general average grades, more involvement to extra-curricular activities and

more awards. The availability of gadgets like computer and the internet help the pupil-

respondents in learning. The finding suggests that the economic benefits of migration

somehow translate into better outcomes for OFW children. Heneyman and Jameson

(1984) similarly found out that the strongest and most consistently effective influence

on students’ achievement is the access to good learning materials. Also, Heneyman and

Lexley (1987) admitted that greater availability of learning materials can raise the

quality of learning activities; thus, increasing achievement.

As expected, the number of hours of study at home is an important determinant

of general average grade and honors received. This implies that having good study habit

increases academic performance as manifested by the honors and awards received by

OFW children. Rosete (1999) and Hongnee (2003) had similar results, i.e., academic

performance has significant relationship with study time in all grade levels The

formation of desirable study habits among students is very necessary for their cognitive

development. According to Hongnee (2003) the students spend 30 minutes to one hour

in studying which is a good sign for the students to fully understand the lesson.

School Factor on Academic Performance

Left parent’s support predicts honors/awards received by OFW children. This

means that the more support extended by parents to their children in school, the more

awards these children would receive. Children who feel supported by parents tend to

be more active in class because they were more confident. Therefore the null
hypotheses: there is no significant relationship between school motivation and

academic performance was rejected.

Personal Adjustment on Academic Performance

None of the personal adjustment was found significant for general average

grade. There is one variable each found to have negative effect on participation to

extra-curricular activities and honors/awards received. Among the personal adjustment

factors manifest concentration anxiety and social self-efficacy and competence were

found to predict academic performance. Manifest concentration anxiety negatively predicts honors/awards

received by OFW children. This means that the lower manifest concentration anxiety they have the more award

these children would get. If OFW children were concentrated with their studies, they would receive honors or

awards based on their performance. If they perform well, then they would be rewarded in the end. Social self-

efficacy also predicts of extra-curricular activities among OFW children which means that higher self-efficacy

could increase participation to extra-curricular activities. This finding on the relevance of self-efficacy was also

demonstrated by Adeyeno (2001) when he found that students’ curricular activities and academic performance

is influenced by self-efficacy. Pintrich and DeGroot (1997) also concluded from their study that academic self-

efficacy is correlated with academic performance. Students’ initial sense of efficacy for performing

well can motivate them to act in ways that enhance performance.

 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary

The study was conducted to determine the factors that predict the academic

performance of Overseas Filipino Workers’ (OFW) children in the private and public

schools in the division of San Jose City school year 2011 – 2012. Specifically, the study

sought to:

1. describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the following: (a) pupil-

respondent in terms of age, sex, grade level, type of school,

ambition/aspiration, number of siblings, birth order, daily allowance; (b)

employed parent abroad or OFW’s age, sex, and years working abroad; (c)

left parent’s age, sex, highest educational attainment, and occupation or

source of income; (d) other support system’s age, sex, and highest

educational attainment;

2. determine the parental involvement in terms of the roles and degree of

performance of the school-related needs of the OFW;

3. describe the home environment in terms of availability of learning materials

and resources, means, topic and frequency of communication between the

OFW parent and the pupil-respondent, size of household, and child’s study

time at home;

4. determine the school motivation in terms of facilitating condition, and

engagement and disaffection with learning;

 5. ascertain the personal adjustment of OFW children in terms of anxiety, self-

efficacy, basic psychological need satisfaction, and prosocial behavior;

6. determine the academic performance of OFW children and the difference in

terms of the average grade for two school years prior the migration of the

OFW parent and the average grade for two school years while the OFW

parent is working abroad, extra-curricular activities participated in, and

honors/awards received for the said school years;

7. identify the factors that predict the OFW children’s academic performance.

Survey-questionnaires developed by the researcher and adopted from other

studies were used to collect data from 462 pupils (218 from public schools and 244 from

public schools) whose parents have been working abroad for two or more years. These

OFW children came from the upper elementary grade composed of grade four, five and

six from selected public and private elementary schools in San Jose City for school year

2011 – 2012. These pupils were distributed with the questionnaire, and FGD was also

conducted to gather supplementary data. Other pertinent data like the pupils’ general

average grades were secured from school authorities.

For the statistical treatment of data, frequency counts, percentages, to describe the

socio-demographic characteristics of children-respondents while weighted means and

standard deviations and were employed for parental involvement, home environment,

school motivation and academic performance . To determine the difference in the

academic performance of OFW children in terms of sex and, type of school, t-test for

paired and independent samples and chi-square were used, respectively. Correlations
and linear regression were performed to identify the factors that predict the OFW

children’s academic performance. All analyses were done using the Statistical Package for

Social Science Software version 14.

Socio-demographic Characteristics of Pupil-respondents

Most of the pupil respondents were aged 11 years and dominated by male

(51.10%). Many of them wanted to become professional (92.64%) like teachers,

engineers, doctors, or nurses in the future. A number (21.30%) of the pupil-respondents

have one sibling only while the eldest children (35.70 %) comprised the biggest group

among them. The OFW children received an average of P 45.00 as daily allowance.

OFW parents were categorized as in the middle adulthood (31 – 50 years old)

with a mean of 38.83 years, and half (50.40 %) of them were fathers who have been

employed for five years (62.80%).

With the mean age of 38.30 years, majority (87.01 %) of the left-behind parents

were categorized in the middle adulthood (31 – 50 years old) mothers who were high

school graduates (46.50%) and self-employed (31%) while others were unemployed

(23.59%).

More than half (56.90%) of the OFW children have other support system aside

from their left-behind parents. Majority (75%) were grandmother belonging to age

bracket 51 to 75 years old with the mean age was 56 years and the range was 17 to 86

years. Some (33.84%) were college graduates and the others (45.63%) were high school

graduates.
Parental Involvement

Seventy percent of the roles were performed by left-behind parents. These

included: Prepares their food before going to school (49.70%); Checks their hygiene

before going to school (50.87%); Read books/ magazines and other educational materials

with them (60.39%), Encourages them to study harder (60.17%), Attends school

programs and activities (57.790%), Confers about their school standing (65.80%), and

Provides them school things (81.39%) through the OFW remittances. The other 30

percent was done by the other support system - Prepares their school clothes/uniforms

(56.49%); Helps them with their homework (52.16%); Helps them review their lessons

before examinations (50.43%).

Three out of ten roles were marked “Very Often” with an overall mean rating of

3.67 (Often). The highest rating was on the preparation of food before they go to school

(x=4.70) ; encourages them to study harder (x=4.47) ; and providing or buying their

school needs (x=4.30) . The lowest rating was on reading educational materials with

them (x=2.38) .

Home Environment

Majority (90.50%) of the pupil respondents have books at home basically

composed of dictionary and story books. Most (96.30%) of the pupil-respondents have

available learning resources like computers, cabled television sets at home.

 On communication between the OFW parent and the pupil-respondent, this was

done weekly (41.60%) using cellular phone (75.20%). School performance (52.60%) was

the number one topic of conversation. This means that OFW parents and children left

behind had constant connection due to advancement and availability of communication

technology.

On the mean size of household, this was 4.38 (35.90%). Some had five (26.40%),

three (20.80%), six (14.70%), seven (1.50%) and two (0.60%) household members

More than half (52.80%) of the pupil-respondents had no specific study time at

home. Some spend 1 hour (43.70%) while others spend 2 hours (3.50%) study time

daily.

School Motivation

The facilitating condition had an overall mean of 3.48 described as very satisfactory.

Rated very satisfactory were Parent Support ( x=3.48 ), Teacher Support ( x=3.69 ) and

Pride from Others x=3.70 ). Rated only satisfactory was Peer Support x=3.08 ).
¿ ¿
The OFW children’s engagement with learning had an overall mean of 4.23 (Very

High) while the lowest was disaffection with learning ( x=2.29) .

Personal Adjustment
 The anxiety among the OFW had an overall mean of 3.12. This was high in items like

having trouble making up their mind, worrying a lot of the time, often feeling sick in their

stomach, and wiggling in their seat.

Self-efficacy had an overall mean of 3.48 described as high. This was high in the

items like on not giving up on things before completing them, and capable of dealing with

most problems that come up in life.

The OFW children’s basic psychological needs had an overall mean of 3.48

described as very satisfactory. This was a result of subscale means such as autonomy/self-

worth ( x=3.48¿ ; competence ( x=3.47 ); and relatedness or trust

( x=3.49 ).

Finally, a high mean ( x=3.73 ) was found in the prosocial behavior of the children.

This has to do with the internalization and integration of values and regulations as a

natural developmental tendency among OFW children.

Academic Performance of Pupils

The general average grade of pupil-respondents before the OFW parent left was

described as good although respondents from private school had higher general average

grade (84.66=good) than their public counterpart (81.81=fair). Meanwhile, the mean

general average grade of 84.65 (good) for the OFW children in the private schools and
the mean average grade of 81.62 (fair) for OFW children in the public schools for two

school years after the OFW parent went abroad showed both performed well.

The participation in extra-curricular activities of OFW children decreased by 7.20

percent after parents worked abroad. After the parents left for work abroad,

participation in extra-curricular activities among OFW children in private schools

decreased by 0.56 percent while a drop of 7.04 percent was recorded from the public

schools. This means that OFW children became less participative to school activities

after their OFW parents left.

In contrast, the number of OFW children who received awards after their

parents worked abroad increased by 151.43% after their OFW parent left. After the

parents left to work abroad, awards received by OFW children in private schools

increased by 45.66 percent. Also, the increase of 15.61 percent was received by the

OFW children in the public schools.

Difference on the Academic Performance of OFW Children Before and During Parent
Migration

The paired samples test on the general average grades of OFW children before

and after a parent left for work abroad showed no significant difference with the

computed p-value of 0.120.

Also, the computed p-value of 0.005 of the independent samples test revealed a

significant difference between the general average grades of pupil-respondents in terms of

sex. Female pupil-respondents x=83.75 ) performed better than the male OFW children
¿

(x=82.63) .

Meanwhile, the general average grade in terms of the type of school showed

that the OFW children from private schools performed better with the mean of 84.65

than those from the public school with the mean of 81.64. Furthermore, the computed

p-value of 0.000 of the independent samples test in this regard showed significant

difference in terms of type of school.

Predictors of Academic Performance

Among the socio-demographic characteristics, eleven variables were found to

predict academic performance. These were pupil-respondent’s age, sex, type of school,

ambition, number of siblings, daily allowance, OFW parent’s years working abroad, left

parent’s age, sex, highest educational attainment and occupation or source of income

were predictors of academic performance.

Moreover, parental involvement in the form of roles performed by the left

behind parent was found to predict academic performance of the OFW children.

Among the home environment factors, learning materials and resources, and

study time were found significant predictor of academic performance.

Meanwhile, left parent’s support was the only predictor of honors/awards

received by OFW children.

 Similarly, the personal adjustment factors, manifested concentration anxiety and self-

efficacy also predicts of extra-curricular activities among OFW children which means that higher self-efficacy

could increase participation to extra-curricular activities

Conclusions

Based on the result of the study, the following conclusions are drawn:

1. OFW children in the study were of school age that belongs to families with an

OFW father and a left behind mother who were more able to send them to better

schools. More than half of the OFW children have other support system aside from

their left parents usually grandmother. Findings implied that OFW children were

adjusted, and the absence of a parent however, did not make a big difference in their

academic performance because of the presence of significant others like their left parents,

grandmothers, teachers and peers.

2. Most of the indicated roles on school-related needs of OFW children were

performed by the left parents and other support system that made these children

motivated and encouraged to perform well in class despite the absence of one parent.

3. At home, OFW children were exposed to multimedia, and these made them

perform better and have higher grades and more awards.

4. Generally, the home environment factors contributed much on the good

performance of the OFW children provided the mother is left at home to look after the

left behind children, there is support system to assist the left parent, there is good study

habit among the OFW children, and there are availably learning resources for them.
 5. Teacher and peer’s supports to school work were good motivating factors for

OFW children to remain in school and to have these children engage well in school work.

6. OFW children maintained good academic performance despite revealed moderate

physiological manifest anxiety because they have self determination and eagerness to perform

well in school for the sake of their parents who work hard abroad. Furthermore, pupil-

respondents’ basic psychological needs were provided through the affectional bond

between OFW children and primary caregivers – either the left parents or other support

system and other people like teachers and peers.

7. There was no significant difference on the average grade of OFW children

before and after the OFW parent left. These children have already adjusted and

understood the issue of migration in their families, so they just accept the reality and

learned to adopt with it.

8. OFW children in private schools performed better than their counterparts in

the public schools based on the general average grades. There was greater involvement

to extra-curricular activities among OFW in private schools than those in the public

schools. This means that OFW children in private schools were more active than those in

the public schools

9. There was significant difference on the academic performance of OFW

children in terms of sex. However, female respondents have higher general average

grade than their male counterpart. This means that female OFW children performed

better than the male OFW children.

 10. Socio-demographic characteristics, parental involvement, home

environment, school motivation, personal adjustment were determinants of the

academic performance of OFW children. Truly, excellent performance does not only

blossom from a single factor but from a conglomeration of factors that blend together to

bring about desired outcomes among students. Therefore the null hypothesis – pupil

respondent’s socio-demographic characteristics, parental involvement, home

environment, school motivation, and personal adjustment do not predict the academic

performance of OFW children is rejected.

Recommendations

On the basis of the findings and conclusion of this study, the following are the

recommendations:

1. Pupil-respondents should be continuously encouraged, motivated and

directed to have study time at home to improve their academic

performance.

2. OFW children in public schools should be given opportunities to study harder

and to participate in extra-curricular activities like competitions in spelling,

reading, public speaking, drama and even music in the classroom and school

levels to improve their academic performance.

3. In families where parents plan to work abroad, it would be better if a father

leaves instead of a mother as this has effect on the performance of OFW

children in school.

4. Newspapers, magazines, journals and other learning materials and resources

like computers with internet access should be made available in the school

library so pupils who cannot afford can access to these materials. OFW

children and left-behind members of the family must be trained to use the

internet and e-mail as an alternative to cellular phones.

5. Other support system must continue to extend moral, spiritual and even

personal assistance to OFW children for them not to experience the absence

of an OFW parent.

6. Schools must continue its program for OFW children, or may adopt programs

that will help these OFW children overcome anxiety and other problems

brought by the changes that happen in their own household caused by

migration.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A. Letter to the Schools Division Superintendent

Institute of Graduate Studies

Central Luzon State University
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija

September 8, 2011

ALBERTO P. SALUDEZ, Ph.D.

OIC-Schools Division Superintendent
Division of San Jose City
San Jose City

Sir:

Greetings!

I am a graduate student taking up Doctor of Philosophy in Development Education at CLSU.

At present, I am conducting a study entitled DETERMINANTS OF THE ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE OF OVERSEAS FILIPINO WORKERS’ CHILDREN IN THE DIVISION OF SAN
JOSE CITY as a course requirement.

In this connection, I would like to request that I be allowed to conduct my study in the
selected public and private schools in your division. Rest assured that data gathered will be
treated with utmost confidentiality.

Attached is the list of private and public elementary schools which will be the locale of the
said study.

Thank you very much and God bless!

Very truly yours,

(Sgd) ALLAN MOORE S. CABRILLAS

Researcher

Noted by:
(Sgd) EDEN G. AGCAOILI, Ph.D.
Adviser
Appendix B. Letter to the District Supervisors/ School Heads and Teachers

Institute of Graduate Studies

Central Luzon State University
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija

March 5, 2012

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

Sir/Madam:

Greetings!

I am a graduate student taking up Doctor of Philosophy in Development Education at CLSU.

At present, I am conducting a study entitled DETERMINANTS OF THE ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE OF OVERSEAS FILIPINO WORKERS’ CHILDREN IN THE DIVISION OF SAN
JOSE CITY as a course requirement.

In this connection, I would like to request that I be allowed to conduct my study in your
district/school/class. I would also like to ask if you could provide me copies of pertinent
secondary data like form 137 and 138 of pupil respondents. Rest assured that data gathered
will be treated with utmost confidentiality.

Thank you very much and God bless!

Very truly yours,

(Sgd) ALLAN MOORE S. CABRILLAS

Researcher

Noted by:

(Sgd) EDEN G. AGCAOILI, Ph.D.

Adviser
Appendix C. Survey Questionnaire for Pupil Respondents

DETERMINANTS OF THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF OVERSEAS FILIPINO

WORKERS’ CHILDREN IN THE DIVISION OF SAN JOSE CITY
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE

I. SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PUPIL-RESPONDENT

Direction: Evaluate the following items below. Indicate your answer by putting a check (√)
on the space that corresponds to your answer or choice, or fill in the necessary
information.

1. Name ___________________________________________2. Sex ________ 3. Age_________

4. Ambition/Aspiration in Life ____________________________ Going abroad someday ______
5. Number of brother/s _____ sister/s _____
6. Birth Order
____ eldest child _____2nd _____3rd______ 4th ______youngest ______only child
7. Daily Allowance
_____P 10.00 _____P20.00 _____P30.00 _____P40.00 _____P50.00
_____ Others, please specify: _____________

8. Age of Parents/Guardian
Father ________ Mother ________ Guardian ________
9. Highest educational attainment of your parents
Father Mother Guardian
a. No formal education _____ _____ _____
b. Did not complete elementary _____ _____ _____
c. Elementary graduate _____ _____ _____
d. Did not complete high school _____ _____ _____
e. High school graduate _____ _____ _____
f. Vocational course _____ _____ _____
g. Did not complete college _____ _____ _____
h. College graduate _____ _____ _____
i. Post graduate _____ _____ _____

10. OFW Parent’s Occupation Abroad Father Mother

a. Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers _____ _____
b. Professionals (teachers, computer programmers, _____ _____
engineers, doctors, nurses, bankers, attorneys, social workers,
broadcasters, journalists, chemist, etc.
c. Associate Professionals _____ _____
(researchers, technicians, computer technicians, electricians,
day care workers, librarians, tellers, entertainers: singers; dancers; movie
and t.v. stars; sports/athletics)
d. Clerks (office related or customer service related) _____ _____
e. Service Workers (domestic helpers, hotel personnel, cooks and
food services, personal services, travel attendants, security guards,
seafarer/seaman) _____ _____
f. Sales Workers _____ _____
g. Craft and Related Trade Workers (handicrafts, metal, machinery,
factory worker etc.) _____ _____
h. Plant, Machine Operators (assemblers, welder, drivers, plant operators) _____ _____
i. Elementary Occupations (agricultural, fruit picker fishery, _____ _____
mining, construction, transport, factory worker, etc.)
11. Number of years working abroad Father Mother
1-3 years _____ _____
4-6 years _____ _____
7-9 years _____ _____
10 years above _____ _____

Place of work _____ _____

12. Left Parent’s or Guardian’s Occupation Father Mother

Guardian
a. Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers _____ _____
_____
b. Professionals (teachers, computer programmers, _____ _____
_____
engineers, doctors, nurses, bankers, attorneys, social workers,
broadcasters, journalists, etc.
c. Associate Professionals _____ _____ _____
(researchers, technicians, computer technicians, electricians,
day care workers, librarians, tellers, entertainers: singers; dancers;
movie and t.v. stars; sports/athletics)
d. Clerks (office related or customer service related) _____ _____
_____
e. Service Workers (domestic helpers, hotel personnel, cooks and
food services, personal services, travel attendants, security guards,
seafarer/seaman) _____ _____
_____
f. Sales Workers _____ _____
_____
g. Craft and Related Trade Workers (handicrafts, metal, machinery,
factory worker etc.) _____ _____
_____
h. Plant, Machine Operators (assemblers, welder, drivers, plant operators) _____ _____
_____
i. Elementary Occupations (agricultural, fruit picker fishery, _____ _____
_____
mining, construction, transport, factory worker, etc.)
j. Care taker _____ _____
_____
k. Self-employed (sari-sari store, piggery, farm owner, tricycle driver)

II. PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

A. Identify Who Assists the Child’s School-Related Needs

Direction: Indicate your answer by putting a check (√) on the space that corresponds to your answer or
choice.
older
fathe mothe older others
WHO? broth
r r sister (maid/helper)
er
1. Prepares your food before going to school
2. Checks your personal hygiene before going to school
3. Prepares your school clothes/uniform
4. Helps you with your homeworks
5. Helps you review your lessons before examinations
6. Guides your reading activities
7. Encourages you to study harder
8. Attends school programs/activities
9. Confers about your school standing
10. Provides your school things

B. Left Parent’s or Guardian’s Roles and Degree of Performance on School-Related Needs of the Child
Direction: Evaluate the following items using the scale given below. Indicate your answer by putting a check
(√) on the space that corresponds to your answer or choice.
Frequency/Week Score Description Rate
5X 5 Very Often
4X 4 Often
3X 3 Sometimes
2X 2 Once
0X 1 Never

ROLES PERFORMED BY THE LEFT PARENT 1 2 3 4 5

1. Prepares your food before you go to school
2. Looks after your personal hygiene before going to school
3. Prepares your school things
4. Monitors your works/homeworks
5. Conducts review sessions before exams
6. Reads books/magazines and educational magazines with you
7. Encourages you to study harder

Frequency/Year Score Description Rate

10X 5 Very Often
7-9X 4 Often
4-6X 3 Sometimes
1-3X 2 Once
0X 1 Never

ROLES PERFORMED BY THE LEFT PARENT 1 2 3 4 5

8. Attends school programs and PTA meetings
9. Confers about your school standing
10. Provides/Buys your school things

III. HOME ENVIRONMENT FACTORS

A. Availability of Learning Materials

1. Do you have books at home? _____ None _____ If yes, what are they? Please check.
____ Dictionaries _____ Storybooks ______ Religious Books e.g. Holy Bible
____ Encyclopedia _____ Other reference materials e.g. textbooks, manuals

2. Do you read newspaper at home? _____ No _____ If yes, please check the name of the newpaper:
____ Philippine Daily Inquirer _____ Philippine Star _____ Manila Bulletin
____ Abante _____ Balita _____ Bulgar _____ TikTik _____ People’s Tonight

3. Do you read magazines at home _____ No _____ If yes, please check the kind of magazine/s
____ Entertainment _____ Beauty & Lifestyle _____ Sports _____ News and Info
____ Religion _____ Science and Technology_____ Travel and Leisure
 4. What home devices/gadgets/appliances do you have that help you in your studies? Please put a check ( √ ) to
those that you have at home.
_____ television set _____ internet
_____ television set (cable network) _____ computer
_____ radio/cassette/karaoke _____ landline telephone
_____ VHS/CD/DVD player _____ cellphone

B. Communication with OFW Parent and Family

1. Which form of communication do you use?

_____ landline telephone _____ cellphone
_____ e-mail/chat _____ snail mail/telegram
_____ other, please specify ______________________________

2. How often do you communicate?

_____ everyday _____ 2X a week
_____ every other day _____ weekly
_____ once a week _____ 3X a month
_____ monthly _____ once a year
_____ other, please specify ______________________________

3. What is the usual topic of communication?

_____ family _____ school grades/performance
_____ financial (bills/fees) _____ materials (toys, clothes, gadgets)
_____ health (medicines, foods) _____ others, please specify

C. Make a Schedule of your Daily Activities (Preparation for School, Time in School, Study Time, Play Time, Doing Chores)

Morning
5:00-6:00 = ____________________________________________________
6:00-7:00 = ____________________________________________________
7:00-8:00 = ____________________________________________________
8:00-9:00 = ____________________________________________________
9:00-10:00 = ____________________________________________________
10:00-11:00 = ____________________________________________________
11:00-12:00 = ____________________________________________________
Afternoon
1:00-2:00 = ____________________________________________________
2:00-3:00 = ____________________________________________________
3:00-4:00 = _____________________________________________________
4:00-5:00 = ____________________________________________________
5:00-6:00 = ____________________________________________________
Night
6:00-7:00 = ____________________________________________________
7:00-8:00 = ____________________________________________________
8:00-9:00 = ____________________________________________________
9:00-10:00 = ____________________________________________________
10:00-11:00 = ______________________________________________________
11:00-12:00 = ____________________________________________________
IV. SCHOOL MOTIVATION FACTORS

A. Facilitating Condition Questionnaire (FCQ)

Direction: This survey wants to find out what your parents, teachers, and your friends tell you about school and its
importance for you. Read the items carefully and encircle the number that reflects the degree of your honest answer to each
item. Be guided accordingly with the scale in answering:

1 = Strongly Disagree 4 = Agree

2 = Disagree 5 = Strongly Agree
3 = Not Sure

SCALE
ITEMS SD D NS A SA
1 2 3 4 5
1. My mother helps me with my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
2. My father helps me with my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
3. It’s important to me to have my mother’s help with my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
4. It’s important to me to have my father’s help with my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
5. My father helps me to work hard at school. 1 2 3 4 5
6. My mother helps me to work hard at school. 1 2 3 4 5
7. Teachers are positive to me at school. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I get encouragement from some of my teachers to do well in school. 1 2 3 4 5
9. Teachers encourage me to go on to college or university. 1 2 3 4 5
10. My teachers help me with my school work. 1 2 3 4 5
11. It’s important to me to get my teacher’s help with schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
12. My teachers help me to work hard at school. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Some of my friends help me with my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
14. My friends help me with my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
15. It’s important to me to have my friends help with schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
16. Working with my friends at school improves my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
17. My friends help me to work hard at school. 1 2 3 4 5
18. It’s important for my father to be proud of my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
19. It’s important for my mother to be proud of my schoolwork. 1 2 3 4 5
20. It’s important for my teachers to be proud of my school work. 1 2 3 4 5
21. It’s important for my friends to be proud of my school work. 1 2 3 4 5

B. Questionnaire on Engagement and Disaffection with Learning

Direction: The following are statements that will report your engagement and disaffection with learning in the class. Read
the items carefully and encircle the number that reflects the degree of your honest answer to each item. Be guided
accordingly with the scale in answering:

1 = Strongly Disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree
 SCALE
ITEMS SD D NS A SA
1 2 3 4 5
1. I try hard to do well in school. 1 2 3 4 5
2. In class, I work as hard as I can . 1 2 3 4 5
3. When in class, I participate in class discussions. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I pay attention in class. 1 2 3 4 5
5. When I’m in class, I listen very carefully. 1 2 3 4 5
6. When in class, I feel good. 1 2 3 4 5
7. When we work on something in class, I feel interested. 1 2 3 4 5
8. Class is fun. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I enjoy learning new things in class. 1 2 3 4 5
10. When we work on something in class, I get involved. 1 2 3 4 5
11. When I’m in class, I just act like I’m working. 1 2 3 4 5
12. I don’t try very hard at school. 1 2 3 4 5
13. In class, I do just enough to get by. 1 2 3 4 5
14. When I’m in class, I think about other things. 1 2 3 4 5
15. When I’m ion class, my mind wanders. 1 2 3 4 5
16. When we work on something in class, I feel bored. 1 2 3 4 5
17. When I’m doing work in class, I feel bored. 1 2 3 4 5
18. When my teacher first explains new material, I feel bored. 1 2 3 4 5
19. When I’m in class, I feel worried. 1 2 3 4 5
20. When we start something new in class, I feel nervous. 1 2 3 4 5

V. PERSONAL ADJUSTMENT

A. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)

Direction: Read the items carefully and encircle the number that reflects the degree of your honest answer to each item. Be
guided accordingly with the scale in answering:

5 = Strongly Disagree
4 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure
2 = Agree
1 = Strongly Agree

SCALE
ITEMS SA A NS D SD
1 2 3 4 5
1. I have trouble making up my mind. 1 2 3 4 5
2. I get nervous when things do not go the right way for me. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Others seem to do things easier than I can. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I like everyone I know. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Often I have trouble getting my breath. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I worry a lot of the time. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I am afraid of a lot things. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I am always kind. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I get mad easily. 1 2 3 4 5
10. I worry about what my parents will say to me. 1 2 3 4 5
11. I feel others do not like the way I do things. 1 2 3 4 5
12. I always have good manners. 1 2 3 4 5
13. It is hard for me to get sleep at night. 1 2 3 4 5
14. I worry about what other people will think of me. 1 2 3 4 5
15. I feel alone even when there are people with me. 1 2 3 4 5
16. I am always good. 1 2 3 4 5
17. Often I feel sick in my stomach. 1 2 3 4 5
18. My feeling get hurt easily. 1 2 3 4 5
19. My hands feel sweaty. 1 2 3 4 5
20. I am always nice to everyone. 1 2 3 4 5
21. I am tired a lot. 1 2 3 4 5
22. I worry about what is going to happen. 1 2 3 4 5
23. Other children are happier than I. 1 2 3 4 5
24. I tell the truth every single time. 1 2 3 4 5
25. I had bad dreams. 1 2 3 4 5
26. My feelings get hurt easily when I am fussed at. 1 2 3 4 5
27. I feel someone will tell me I do things the wrong way. 1 2 3 4 5
28. I never get angry. 1 2 3 4 5
29. I wake up scared some of the time. 1 2 3 4 5
30. I worry when I go to bed at night. 1 2 3 4 5
31. It is hard for me to keep my mind on my school work. 1 2 3 4 5
32. I never say things I shouldn’t. 1 2 3 4 5
33. I am nervous. 1 2 3 4 5
34. A lot of people are against me. 1 2 3 4 5
35. I often worry about something bad happening to me. 1 2 3 4 5
36. I never lie. 1 2 3 4 5
37. I wiggle in my seat a lot. 1 2 3 4 5

B. Self-efficacy Scale

B-1. Direction: Read the items carefully and encircle the number that reflects the degree of your honest answer to each
item.
Be guided accordingly with the scale in answering:

5 = Strongly Disagree
4 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure
2 = Agree
1 = Strongly Agree

SCALE
ITEMS SD D NS A SA
5 4 3 2 1
1. I cannot get down to do school work when I should. 5 4 3 2 1
2. When I set important goals for myself, I rarely achieve them. 5 4 3 2 1
3. I give up on things before completing them. 5 4 3 2 1
4. I avoid facing difficulties. 5 4 3 2 1
5. If something looks to complicated, I will not even bother to try it. 5 4 3 2 1
6. When trying to learn something new, I soon give up if I am not initially
5 4 3 2 1
successful.
7. When unexpected problems occur, I don’t handle them well. 5 4 3 2 1
8. I avoid trying to learn new things when they look too difficult to me. 5 4 3 2 1
9. I feel insecure about my ability to do things. 5 4 3 2 1
10. I give up easily. 5 4 3 2 1
11. I do not seem capable of dealing with most problems that come up in
5 4 3 2 1
my life.
12. It is difficult for me to make new friends. 5 4 3 2 1
13. If I meet some one interesting who is hard to make friends with, I’ll
5 4 3 2 1
soon stop trying to make friends with that person.
14. I do not handle myself well in social gatherings. 5 4 3 2 1

B-2. Direction: Read the items carefully and encircle the number that reflects the degree of your honest answer to each
item.
Be guided accordingly with the scale in answering:

1 = Strongly Disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Not Sure
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree

SCALE
ITEMS SD D NS A SA
1 2 3 4 5
1. When I make plans, I am certain I can make them work. 1 2 3 4 5
2. If I can’t do a job the first time, I keep trying until I can. 1 2 3 4 5
3. When I have something unpleasant to do, I stick with it until I finish it. 1 2 3 4 5
4. When I decide to do something, I go right to work on it. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Failure just make me try harder. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I am self-reliant person 1 2 3 4 5
7. If I see someone I would like to meet, I go to that person instead of
1 2 3 4 5
waiting for him/her to come to me.
8. When I’m trying to become friends with someone who seems
1 2 3 4 5
uninterested at first, I don’t give up easily.
9. I have acquired my friends through my personal abilities at making
1 2 3 4 5
friends.

C. Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale

C-1. Direction: Read each of the following items carefully, thinking about how it relates to your life, and encircle the number
that indicates how true it is for you. Be guided accordingly with the scale in answering:

5 = Strongly Agree
4 = Agree
3 = Not Sure
2 = Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree

SCALE
ITEMS SA A NS D SD
5 4 3 2 1
1. I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life. 5 4 3 2 1
2. I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions. 5 4 3 2 1
3. People I interact with on a daily basis tend to make my feelings into
consideration. 5 4 3 2 1

4. I feel like I can pretty much be myself in my daily situations. 5 4 3 2 1

5. People I know tell me I am good at what I do. 5 4 3 2 1
6. I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently. 5 4 3 2 1
7. Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do. 5 4 3 2 1
8. I really like the people I interact with. 5 4 3 2 1
9. I get along with people I come into contact with. 5 4 3 2 1
10. I consider the people I regularly interact with to be my friends. 5 4 3 2 1
11. People in my life care about me. 5 4 3 2 1
12. People are generally friendly towards me. 5 4 3 2 1

C-2. Direction: Read each of the following items carefully, thinking about how it relates to your life, and encircle the number
that indicates how true it is for you. Be guided accordingly with the scale in answering:

1 = Strongly Agree
2 = Agree
3 = Not Sure
4 = Disagree
5 = Strongly Disagree

SCALE
ITEMS SA A NS D SD
1 2 3 4 5
1. I feel pressured in my life. 1 2 3 4 5
2. In my daily life, I frequently have to do what I am told. 1 2 3 4 5
3. There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to do
1 2 3 4 5
things in my daily life.
4. Often, I do not feel very competent. 1 2 3 4 5
5. In my life, I do not get much of a chance to show how capable I am. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I often do not feel very capable. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I pretty much keep to myself and don’t have a lot of social contacts. 1 2 3 4 5
8. There are not many people that I am close to. 1 2 3 4 5
9. The people I interact with regularly do not seem to like me much. 1 2 3 4 5

D. Prosocial Behavior Scale

Direction: Read each of the following items carefully. These questions are about the reasons you do things. Different kids
have different reasons. We want to know how true each of these reasons is for you. Encircle the number that indicates how
true it is for you. Be guided accordingly with the scale in answering:

5 = Very True
4 = Sort of True
3 = Not Sure
2 = Not Very True
1 = Not at all True

SCALE
ITEMS VT ST NS NVT NT
5 4 3 2 1
Why do you keep a promise to friends?
1. So my friends will like me. 5 4 3 2 1
2. Because I’d feel like a bad person if I didn’t. 5 4 3 2 1
3. Because my friends will get mad at me if I don’t. 5 4 3 2 1
4. Because I think it’s important to keep promises. 5 4 3 2 1
5. Because I don’t like breaking promises. 5 4 3 2 1
Why do you not make fun of another child for making a mistake?
6. Because if I do, I’ll get into trouble. 5 4 3 2 1
7. Because I think it’s important to be nice to others. 5 4 3 2 1
8. Because I’d feel ashamed of myself after I did it. 5 4 3 2 1
9. Because other kids won’t like me if I do that. 5 4 3 2 1
10. Because I don’t like to be mean. 5 4 3 2 1
Why don’t you hit someone when you’re mad at them?
11. Because I’ll get into trouble if I do. 5 4 3 2 1
12. Because I want other kids to like me. 5 4 3 2 1
13. Because I don’t like to hit others. 5 4 3 2 1
14. Because I wouldn’t want to hurt someone. 5 4 3 2 1
15. Because I’d feel bad about myself if I did. 5 4 3 2 1
Why do you try to be nice to other kids?
16. Because if I don’t, other kids won’t like me. 5 4 3 2 1
17. Because I’ll get into trouble if I don’t. 5 4 3 2 1
18. Because I think it’s important to be a nice person. 5 4 3 2 1
19. Because I will feel bad about myself if I don’t. 5 4 3 2 1
20. Because I don’t like being mean. 5 4 3 2 1
Why do you help someone who is in distress?
21. Because I think it’s important to give help when it’s needed. 5 4 3 2 1
22. Because I could get into trouble if I didn’t. 5 4 3 2 1
23. Because I’d feel bad about myself if I didn’t. 5 4 3 2 1
24. Because I want people to like me. 5 4 3 2 1
25. Because it is satisfying to help others. 5 4 3 2 1

VI. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

1. Extra-curricular activities participated in:
School Year 2008-2010
_____ Literary (poem, declamation, oration, tula, talumpati, etc.
_____ Sports (individual or dual events, etc.)
_____ Campus Journalism (news writing, features writing, etc.)
_____ Camping Activities (district, provincial, regional encampment, etc)
_____ Theater Arts (acting, performing, etc.)
_____ Musical (drum & lyre, instrumental solo, singing, dancing, etc.)
_____ Others, please specify ________________________________________________________________________

School Year 2010-2012

_____ Literary (poem, declamation, oration, tula, talumpati, etc.
_____ Sports (individual or dual events, etc.)
_____ Campus Journalism (news writing, features writing, etc.)
_____ Camping Activities (district, provincial, regional encampment, etc)
_____ Theater Arts (acting, performing, etc.)
 _____ Musical (drum & lyre, instrumental solo, singing, dancing, etc.)
_____ Others, please specify ________________________________________________________________________

2 . Honors or Awards Received

School year 2008-2010:
_____ First Honors _____Academic Excellence
_____Second Honors _____Outstanding Performance
_____Third Honors _____Commendable Performance
_____ With Honors _____Diligence Award
_____Commendable
_____Best in ___________________________________________________________
_____Most_____________________________________________________________
_____Pinaka____________________________________________________________
_____Others, please specify:________________________________________________
_____No Award

School year 2010-2012:

_____ First Honors _____Academic Excellence
_____Second Honors _____Outstanding Performance
_____Third Honors _____Commendable Performance
_____ With Honors _____Diligence Award
_____Commendable
_____Best in ___________________________________________________________
_____Most_____________________________________________________________
_____Pinaka____________________________________________________________
_____Others, please specify:________________________________________________
_____No Award

END OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Thanks and God bless!

Appendix D. Focus Group Discussion Questionnaire for Pupil-respondents

1. Were you informed by your parents that they are going to work abroad? How did
they tell you?

2. How did you feel when you learned that your father/mother are leaving? Why?

3. If you were to choose between your father or mother, who would you prefer to leave
or work abroad? Why?

4. What are the advantages of having an OFW parent?

5. What are the disadvantages?

6. Do you want to go abroad someday? Why?

7. How is your left parent/guardian? Do you think they are performing their
responsibilities to you very well? Are you comfortable with them?

8. What do you miss from your OFW parent?

9. As a child, how would you pay back the sacrifices of your OFW parent? Are you
satisfied/comfortable being away from your OFW parent?

10. Does your school have any program for OFW children like you? How do your school
assist you in your needs?

Appendix E. Tables used in the discussion of results

Appendix Table 1. Academic performance of OFW children in private and public schools
 PRIVATE PUBLIC
n=218 n=244

f % f %
General Average Grade (A)
95 – 100 = Excellent 9 1.90 1 0.10
89 – 94 = Very Good 39 8.40 1 0.10
83 – 88 = Good 83 18.00 93 13.20
77 – 82 = Fair 84 18.20 141 20.00
70 – 76 = Poor 3 0.60 8 1.10
Mean 84.66 81.81
SD 5.12 2.78

General Average Grade (B)

95 – 100 = Excellent 8 3.67 0 0.00
89 – 94 = Very Good 31 14.22 5 2.05
83 – 88 = Good 80 36.70 97 39.75
77 – 82 = Fair 95 43.58 139 56.97
70 – 76 = Poor 4 1.83 3 1.23
Mean 84.65 81.62
SD 5.18 2.75

Appendix Table 2. Independent samples test on the general average in terms of sex

MEAN SD t df P

Female 83.75 4.40361

Male 82.63 3.86645

Paired difference 1.12 0.53716 2.823 225 .005

Appendix Table 3. Paired samples test on the general average in terms of type of school

MEAN SD t df P
 Private 84.3646 4.94205

Public 82.1224 2.96668

Paired difference 2.24220 5.75165 5.756 217 .000

Appendix Table 4. Frequency count and percentage of extra-curricular activities

participated in and awards received by OFW children

PRIVATE PUBLIC
n=218 n=244

f % f %
Extra-Curricular (A)
With 176 80.73 142 58.20
Without 42 19.26 102 41.80

Extra-Curricular (B)
With 175 80.28 132 54.10
Without 43 19.72 112 45.90

Honors/Awards (A)
With 75 34.40 119 48.77
None 143 65.60 125 51.23

Honors/Awards (B)
With 138 63.30 141 57.79
None 80 36.70 103 42.21

Legend:
(A) Before migration
(B) During migration

Appendix Table 5. Correlation analysis between the dependent and independent

variables

GENERAL EXTRA- HONORS/

VARIABLES AVERAGE CURRICULAR AWARDS
GRADE ACTIVITIES RECEIVED
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Pupil-respondent
Age 0.10* -0.030 ns 0.060 ns

Sex 0.14* -0.050 ns 0.080 ns

Grade Level -0.00 ns 0.080 ns 0.020 ns

Type of School 0.270** 0.230** 0260**

Ambition/Aspiration 0.110** 0.070 ns

0.020 ns

Number of Siblings -0.170** -0.014ns -0.070 ns

Birth Order 0.005ns 0.000 ns -0.020 ns

Daily Allowance 0.210** 0.270** 0.080 ns

OFW Parent
Age -0.010 ns -0.000 ns 0.010ns

Sex -0.200** -0.090 ns -0.14 ns

Years Working Abroad 0.190** 0.170** 0.080ns

Left Parent
Age 0.060ns 0.160** 0.040 ns

Sex 0.200** 0.070 ns 0.120*

Highest Educational Attainment 0.140** 0.130** 0.070 ns

Occupation/Source of Income 0.120* 0.000 ns 0.130**

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
Prepares your food before you go to school -0.023 ns 0.064 ns -0.007 ns
Looks after your personal hygiene before going
0.094 ns 0.055ns -0.048 ns
to school
Prepares your school clothes/uniform -0.030ns -0.026 ns -0.060ns

Helps you with your homework -0.07ns -0.070ns -0.140**

Helps you review your lessons before
-0.000 ns 0.000 ns 0.000 ns
examinations
Reads educational materials with you -0.081 ns -0.087 ns -0.025 ns

Encourages you to study harder 0.030ns 0.200** 0.030ns

Attends school programs/activities 0.210** 0.100* 0.100*

Confers about your school standing 0.080 ns

0.110* 0.100*

Provides/Buys your school things -0.060 ns

-0.080 ns
-0.010 ns
Appendix Table 5 continued…
GENERAL EXTRA- HONORS/
VARIABLES AVERAGE CURRICULAR AWARDS
GRADE ACTIVITIES RECEIVED
HOME ENVIRONMENT
Availability of Learning Materials and
0.370** 0.420** 0.320**
Resources
Frequency of Communication with OFW Parent 0.010ns 0.070 ns 0.020 ns
 Size of Household -0.140** -0.030 ns -0.080 ns

Study Time at Home 0.250** 0.080 ns 0.010ns

SCHOOL MOTIVATION
Facilitating Condition
Parent Support 0.120** -0.050 ns 0.100*

Teacher Support 0.040 ns 0.060 ns 0.050 ns

Peer Support 0.020 ns 0.090ns 0.090 ns

Pride for Self 0.030ns -0.040 ns 0.050 ns

Engagement with Learning 0.020 ns 0.030 ns 0.010 ns

Disaffection with Learning 0.040 ns 0.030 ns 0.060 ns

PERSONAL ADJUSTMENT
Anxiety
Physiological 0.050 ns 0.040 ns 0.070 ns

Worry -0.080 ns -0.020 ns -0.001 ns

Concentration 0.090ns 0.020 ns 0.100*

Self-efficacy 0.110* 0.110* 0.030ns

Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction

Autonomy 0.000 ns 0.030 ns 0.010 ns

Competence 0.000 ns 0.000 ns 0.000 ns

Relatedness 0.070 ns -0.010 ns 0.020 ns

Prosocial Behavior
Sincerity 0.100* 0.040 ns 0.010 ns

Respectfulness 0.050 ns 0.070 ns 0.030 ns

Self-control -0.030 ns 0.030 ns 0.030 ns

Friendliness -0.000ns 0.000 ns -0.000 ns

Helpfulness 0.040 ns 0.060 ns 0.040ns

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).