Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Handbook of Physics PDF
Handbook of Physics PDF
Handbook
Of
Physics Formulae
Downloaded From:
Visit: www.pmtcorner.in
ALIEM PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
FORMULAE
Vectors
Kinematics ,
Circular Motion
Rotational motion
Gravitation
Elasticity
Hydrostatics
Surface Tension
Hydrodynamics
Viscosity
Thermal Physics.
'
(b) Conversions.
Dictionary of Physics .
[TM
ALLEM PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
KOTA (RAJASTMAN . .
. .
,"
"
. .
.
. . .
.
-
.,V.
FORMULAE
Binomial theorem
Arithmetic progression-AP
a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, .a + (n - l)d here d = common difference
Sum of n terms S =
n
- [2a+(n-l)d]
n(n +1)
Note : (i)l + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5..,. + n =
n(n + l)(2n + 1)
(ii) l2 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 =
Geometrical progression-GP
I 3
a, ar, ar
2
, ar .
here, r = common ratio
"
a(l-r )
Sum of n terms S„ = Sum of * terms S =
1-r 1-r
l
ALLEN
CAREER INSTITUTE
PHYSICS
NOT A (RAJAS THANV FORMULAE
cosine law
b2+c2--2
a a-
c
-
2 .
+ a _
2
- b a
'
+b2 -c;
cosA= -
,
cosB= - cosC =
2bc 2ca
,
2ab
For small 0
sin9 « 0
Differentiation
" " 1 dy 1
. y = x -> - = nx . y = fnx -» - = -
dx dx x
dy dy
. y = sin x -> - = cos x . y = cosx -» = -sinx
dx dx
+P
°" dy dv du
. y = -> = ae . y = uv -» - = u- + v -
dx dx dx dx
. y = f (g(x)) dy =
df(gU') x r'3'"))
dx dg(x) dx
Integration
. Jf x dx = --
"
+ C,n*-1 . J[ -x dx = tnx + C
n +1
dx dx2
dy „ g d2y
. For minimum value ~ +V®
_
J ydx J ydx
If y = f(x) then < y >= y = -7:
x2 Xj
J dx
3
ALL EM PHYSICS
CA f-t !\ !\S |U'!I
"
Area of a trapezoid
1
=
. Area of ellipse = n ab (a & b are semi major and semi minor axis respectively)
. Total surface area of a cone = 7ir2+7ir£ where nxC = nr vr2 + h2 = lateral area
Systems of Units
SN
. .
Physical Qty. Name of Unit Symbol
1 Mass kilogram kg
2 Length meter m
3 Time second s
4 Temperature kelvin K
5 Luminous intensity candela Cd
6 Electric current ampere A
7 Amount of substance mole mol
6
ALLSK PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
KOlA (KAJA,M MAN FORMULAE
Supplementary Units
Radian - for measurement of plane angle
>
a b
( HT
r\Uj= n u
2 => n
2 = n
fM0 fk] ,
1
where u = MfLtTC
2 l
2 T
< > *2 /
. The relation derived from this method gives no information about the
dimensionless constants.
7
ALLEN tW1,.. « >: <*.;... V
. .
.
.
, y-
PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE W»W*iSWiC,.,
...
( V v.
FORMULAE
.
.
.
Vectors
Vector Quantities
A physical quantity which requires magnitude and a particular direction when ,
AB+D=AC RorA+B=R>=JA
Triangle law of Vector addition
Bsin9
R= Va2 + B2 + 2ABcos0
B sin 0
tana=-r---- If A = B then R = 2A cos
A + Bcos0 2
Z + B2 + 2AB cosG
B sin 0 a Sin a
t3"C'"
A + Bcos0 3"d ta"P = B + A cos 0
Vector subtraction
BcosG / ®
R=A-B=A+ (~b )1 a
_
BsinQ
R= Va2 + B2 -
2AB cos 0 . t3"t= A - Bcos0
0
If A = B then R = 2Asin-
9
op siteord. A
Addition of More than Two Vcctors (Law of Polygon)
c
R=A+B+C+D
Unit Vectors
A = A i+Ax y
] + Azk
\ a
Angle made with x-axis cosa = =_
,
t
(K+A;+ )
Here sin2a + sin2 p + sin2y =2
10
PHYSICS
/&USM
*»«*
(WWWW*W>>V . '
.
&a*wsw «? «» v.;.. -.
>
/ .
r = r (cos0i + sinOj)
Examples
1. Construct a vector of magnitude 6 units making an angle of 60°with x-axis.
'
lr 73,
Sol. ? = r(cos60i + sin60j)h = 6
"
'+ - 3i + 3%/3j
2 T>
2 . Construct an unit vector making an angle of 135° with positive x axis.
Sol.
a A B = ABcosG
.
AB AXBX + A By + AZBZ
.
y
cos0 =
AB Ja , +A
*
+ A* fol + B + B|
a i i = 1 i j.j = 1 > k.k = 1 » i.j = 0, i.k = 0 » j.k = 0
.
n Component of b perpendicular to a bj _
= b - b|i = b -|b. a a
11
ALLEN
CAREER INSTITUTE
eir p|a
and its direction given by right hand thumb nile.
j k
a AxB = A
,
A
v A, = i(ABrABy) -j(AB-B A) +k(ABy-BA)
B .
a AxB~-BxA
(A x B) A = (A x B).B = 0
.
Differentiation
d / a o\
-(A.B) = --B + A.-
dA - v dB
n
d/X dA D t dB
-(A xB) = - xB + Ax -
dt dt dt dt dt dt
= (x2 -
x, )i + (y2 - yj )j + (z2 -
z, )k
12
FM
ALLEM PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
K0TA (RAJAS THAN I
FORMULAE
Lami,s theorem
A
sinG
/
Area of triangle Area = 1A|M = |ABsin0
y
. BsinO
ft
BsinB
Area of parallelogram Area = |a x b| = ABsinG
Electric flux, <j>r « £ /\ = EAcosO where E -> electric field, A -> Area
13
mmw'*?** s'** ';
,MM»>«feM«'4fe
mi»ll|!»Wij|W)
:»>> > . PHYSICS
'
sow***-* «j
FORMULAE
(7 Kinematics
Total length of path (ACB) covered by the particle in definite time interval is ,
From AOAB Ar = rB - r A
Displacement Ar
Average
a
velocity = I
---r = v =-
lme interval ®" At
Distance travelled
Average speed = Time interval
3U
=
At
Acceleration
dT
°
s("-'+"», -
)"ir'+ir,+"dTf° a.,+=.)+3-f
15
r , T-"
jB|iaB|(|)|(g||J|(g -w--jM--... .1
-
J
***«
*" V -
In 1-D motion a
(
Velocity is the slope of position time curve. 1V
~
~
'
dv
Slope of velocity-time curve = instantaneous acceleration
16
ALLEN PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
*OTA 414 AJ A $ TM AN1
FORMULAE
v v=constant
1 . Uniform motion
2 .
Uniformly accelerated
motion with u = 0 at t = 0
s =]/2 at
* t
3 .
Uniformly accelerated
with u 0 at t = 0
/s = ut+1/2 at2
->t - t
4 .
Uniformly accelerated motion
with u 7 0 and s = s0 at t = 0
2
s =s0+ut+V2 at
->t >t
s 2
s=ut -1/2 at
6 .
Uniformly retarded then
accelerated in opposite direction
- t
to
17
PHYSICS
p» Sftf<tJ
CAREER INSTITUri
nr.*
Bmzggf|
Motion with constant acceleration : Equations of motion
a In vector form :
v = li -f at
/
U+ V I
.
1 .,2 1 -.2
It = ut + -at = vt - - at
_
At = r2 - Fj = s =
2 2
2
v =u 2+ 2a s
.
sn
=u + |(2n-l)
In scalar form (for one dimensional motion)
v = u + at
' X
u + v 1 2 1 2
s = t = ut + -at = vt-at
v /
v2 = u2+2as
sn = u + -(2n-l)
Differentiation Differentiation
Displacement Velocity Acceleration
Integration Integration
Relative Motion
w r . .
t. g round is its actual velocity (v ) and velocity of particle w.r.t. moving
act
object is its relative velocity (v ) and the velocity of moving object (w.r.t.
rel
V i = V , -f V ,
actual relative reference
18
TM
PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
P*t< f» S*ca*i CSESEK2 AJASIHANl
.
.
,
; *
FORMULAE
v
m ,
will
V
m = VV *
+ Vm + 2v r
v
m cos90° = /vf + V Vertically up
/ \
BD v , v _
water. If water is also flowing with velocity vR then velocity of man relative to
ground vm = v + vR
. If the swimming is in the direction of flow of water or along the downstream
then
-*v
*vu
-
Vm = V + VRK
v *-
v = v- V
m
m K
If man is crossing the river as shown in the figure i.e. v and vR not
V = W + V
collinear then use the vector algebra m r (assuming v > vR) t*
-
mmmi'-v *: ~ 5=55££US£™
WUKK.-F H, i.
career inst nI SLIJllt MMVKiv 3W-S«KW
Am* A&MMw
To reach at B, vsin 0 = vF
sin 0 = -
v
B C
-
* -
*
"
then
v„
A
(for minimum time)
PROJECTILE MOTION
u cos 0
Horizontal Motion
u cosO = u
X
a
x = 0
x = u
x
t or x = (u cos0)t
Vertical Motion :
2
inGt g£ gt
"
V
y
= u y - gt where u y = u sinO
=
y = uV t - -
Z
gt - us
Net acceleration = a = a x
i + a
y
j = -gj
O At any instant
v
x = ucos0 , vy = usin9 - gt
OA
Velocity of particle at time t :
A A A A A
tana = = = "&i"e-S*=tan0--
V
v
U U COS 0 U COS 0
2uy 2usin0
Time of flight T =
g* f x
X
2u2 cos2 0 V Ry
2h
a Time of flight T =
2h
Horizontal range R = uT = u
| ALLEN
CAREER INSTITUTE
(; y.s,- .mCXVm
Kswsew.w-" .-
PHYSICS
KOTA iUAJASTHAN FORMuTa-
(ucosG)T
T =
2ux 2usin(9-a)
Time of flight
9j gcosa
H
u*
2
1
u sin2(0 a)-
Maximum height _
=
29i 2g cos a
R = OA =
2u2 sin (0 - a)cos0
Range on inclined plane
gcos a
Maximum range R ™*
=
2u± 2usin(0 + a)
Time of flight : T
* = 2t = ~~~
a gcosa
u
*
u2 sin2 (0 + ot)
Maximum height H =
2d , 2gcosa
u
k a
Maximum range R at angle e =
g(l - sina) 4 2
22
CAREER INSTITUTE !»«*
PHYSICS
< *"* VV9MN
PntA to Smsecu IK OTA 1KAJASTHAN
Force
A push or pull that one object exerts on another.
Forces in nature
Inertia : Inertia is the property of the body due to which body oppose the
change of itself state. Inertia of a body is measured by mass of the body.
inertia « mass
_
dp _ d . _ dv _ dm
+ V~
dpmV' ~ m d7 dT linear momentum p = mv)
"
~~ ~~
24
PHYSICS
FORMULAE
Momentum
2 -
K lower
upper lower
m
On cutting the lower spring, by virture of non-impulsive ~~
7
~
2mg
!\ I
m ) t mg = ma => a = 2g
Upper block
-
T
mg
25
SSI ALLEN
CAREER ,NST,TUTE
K4>» V NVy} >
-
Frame of reference
Inertial frames of reference :
'
. Newton s laws of motion are not directly applicable in such frames before ,
Pseudo force
/
o
A
'
O
I ma
/
/ «
a
*
« /
. / m
,
mg
|u
Q ZIP
smooth surface
For observer O on ground train is moving with acceleration
" "
:
hc equation F = ma to be valid in this frame also.
ALLEN PHYSICS
* ..
«"» > .
******
CAREER INSTITUTE
(ssxaKSESEBUSQZi) FORMULAE
Motion in a Lift
(a) If the lift moving with constant velocity v upwards or downwards. In
this case there is no accelerated motion hence no pseudo force
experienced by observer inside the lift .
Case - 1
_
2 x Pr oduct of masses 2m1m2
Tension = -----g =
Sum of two masses (mt + m2
D 4m,m2 g
Reaction at the suspension of pulley K - 1 - ---
(m1 + m2)
Case - II
m2g m,m2 m
and T =
.
Acceleration a =
(m, + m2) (irij + m,
m .
27
fiirt n 5»aw fiS£SUKKIM2MI
Friction
Friction is the force of two surfaces in contact, or the force of a mediur
acting on a moving object, (i.e. air on aircraft.)
Frictional forces arise due to molecular interactions. In some eases frictj0r
acts as a supporting force and in some cases it acts as opposing force
Cause of Friction
Friction is arises on account of strong atomic or molecular forces of attractior
between the two surfaces at the point of actual contact.
Types of friction
Friction
__
L _
.
r
3t.C fr"C*|°"
i
Dynamic friction (Kinetic friction)
|
/k. i
Limiting friction
f = f /
Dynamic friction
spy
cfy
X45°
F={
Applied force F
F
Sliding friction coefficient Hk = 77
N
fk =-(KN)0 relative
fs
tank - -
MN For smooth surface A.
= 0
N N
9Q
Angle of Repose (0)
If a body is placed on an inclined plane and if its angle of inclination is
gia ually increased then at some angle of inclination 0 the body will just
,
~~
N,
[n2
i
ti P2N;
N ,
U,N, +
-
*F
,
y
m,g m2g
_
, .
F - jit. (m, + m?)g
. For system acceleration : a =---
j + m2
rri
F-ji mj +m2)g
. For m2 : p2 (m2g) = m2a = m2 m, + m2
29
Examples
1 .
Find relation between a, and a2
iniiiiiiiiillllllllllllllltlltllllllillllllillliiiiiiiiiii
ummmiiuLniiiiiiiiiiiiininii
x, x,
T
T
a,
3.i c±] m K
Sol. Here x} + x
2 + x
2 = constant
2 .
If block A is moving with uniform veloicty vA upwards then find out
velocity of block B.
UUU\\UU\U\UU\\\U\U\\tt\\\\\\\\UUtt\U\U\U\\
Its unit is revolutions per second (r.p.s ) or revolutions per minute (r.p.m.)
.
A0
Average angular velocity w = - (a scalar quantity)
d0
Instantaneous angular velocity co = (a vector quantity)
2n
For uniform angular velocity co = - =2rrf or 2 Tin
Angular displacement 0 = cot
co ->. Angular frequency n or f = frequency
,
at that instant
C0AB ~
-
(Var)i _ Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B perpendicular to line AB
r
AB seperation between A and B
dv d
- dto dr - _ _ _ _ _ _
dt dt
dv
Tangential acceleration at = -- =ar [a = component of a along v=(a v)v]
,
v
Centripetal acceleration ac = cov = co r or ac = a - a
t
,-
?
\(y2\* /j..>2
dv
Magnitude of net acceleration a = y]ac + a2 = +
t
V r y v dt/
Maximum and minimum speed of circular motion of car
4
tan 0 + |is
On banked road V max
1 - |i tanG
Rg = tan(G + <J))Rg
/
tan 0 - j_i
V
miri
1 + (i tanG
Rg = tan(G - <J>) Rg
5
2
m(u2- v2)=mgh => v2 = u -2gh .... (ii) e mocosO
- - (iii)
R
Since speed of the particle decreases with height, hence tension is maxi-
mum at the bottom, where cosG=l (as 0=0 )
33
9"
/2
mv mv ,
=> T max =-+mg; T = --nig at the top.
J mm R
Here, v' = speed of the particle at the top.
v„=
v5R 9-Tf0
Umin= 5gR
;
T=6mg
-*u
A
Substituting 0 = ti in Eq. (i), Therefore, from Eq. (ii)
,
2 2gh - u2
-
v
where, cos0 = - - = -5--
Rg Rg
Substituting, this value of cos9 in Eq. (i),
2gh - u2 h u2 + Rg
=1 -- =>h
3g =h, (say)..(iv)
.
=
we get
---
or we can say that at height h. tension in the string becomes zero. Further,
if u < yJbgR . velocity of the particle becomes zero
u
when 0 = u2 - 2gh h = - =h (say)...(v)
2g
i.
e., at height h2 velocity of particle becomes zero.
Now , the particle will leave the circle if tension
zero or
u 2 + Rg
< -- => 2u2 + 2Rg < 3u2 =>u2 > 2Rg =>u > J2Rg
3g 2g
Therefore, if yj2gR <u < 5gR the particle leaves the circle.,
u 2 u 2 + Rg
h <h
2 i=> 2q< 3g
Moreover , if ht = h2, u= J2Rg and tension and velocity both becomes zero
simultaneously .
Further ,
from Eq. (iv), we can see that h < R if u < 2Rg .
Thus ,
for 0 < u < yj2gR , particle oscillates in lower half of the circle
(0° < 0 < 90°)
This situation is shown in the figure 0 < u < 2gR or O°<0 < 90°.
CP Work, Energy and Power
r1 dr r2
or even zero
1
(0 >90")
(H < 901
I mg
S*
f
Work done by
friction force Motion of particle ! mg
(8 = ISOe) on circular path
(e = 90T Motion under gravity
(e « 0")
A S
N
f
B
9 -* F=2 5 N
t mg
.
f =10N ™
f=friction force
Work done by gravity Work done by friction
(» = 1801
mg «100 N force on block A
As f - F. hence S = 0 (e = 0°)
energy. K
.. - - mv2 = - m(v.v)
2
Potential
>ntial energy
The energy which a body has by virtue of its position or configuration in a
conservative force field .
P V7I 1 m\ n ~ 9U -
F = -VU = -grad(U) = - -- 1 - -- j-k
ox dy dz
If force varies only with one dimension (along x-axis) then
dU
F =-
dx > U = - | Fdx
Potential energy may be positive or negative
. Repulsion forces
;+ve
U-ve
Attraction forces
is attractive or vice-versa .
dU
At point D : slope is positive so F is negative
*
. t A ,, IT dU n j d2U
At point
1 A : U = U r,". , - = 0 and -5- = positive
dx dx2
Unstable equilibrium :
When a particle is slightly displaced from equilbrium and it tends to move
away from equilibrium position then it is said to be in unstable equilbirum
dU
At point E : slope is positive so F is negative
Neutral equilibrium :
When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and no force
acts on it then equilbirum is said to be neutral equilibrium point H is at
dU . d2U .
neutral equilibrium => U = constant ; =0, =U
Work energy theorem W = AKE
Change in kinetic energy = work done by all force
Law of conservation of Mechanical energy
Total mechanical (kinetic + potential) energy of a system remains constam
if only conservative forces are acting on the system of particles or the wort
done by all other forces is zero. From work energy theorem W = AKE
For internal conservative forces Wi Ilt
= -AU
dU
For conservative force F(x) =-
dx
dW F.dr
Instantaneous power P = _
= Fv .
dt dt
»_' i
fig(a)
Hg(b) fig(c)
1
dt time -=
,
time . time
W-JPdt
(a) (b)
p
-f-tone W
. W,
-
AW
(0 P=P-= 1TT =
-
dv dm
For a system of varyin g mass F= (mV) =m - +v dt dt
dm dm
If v = constant then F = v- +hpn P- p r,
v-v
- v
2
dt r-|
-
In rotatory motion : P = t - =
dt
(T Centre of Mass and Co,,,s,on
m,(x„ y„ z,)
f m,(x2, y2, z2)
0
_
/ y3. z3)
V 7 V-*
y„, 2,)
.
7,
x
(0,0,0)
,
m
, + m2 + m3 + ... M
co-ordinates of centre of mass :
1 1 1
an = TtE™.*. , ym = 771m,yi and zcm = - Im,z
M * m "" """" "" M
Centre of mass of continuous distribution of particles
Rpw = - f rdm
cm MJ
X
-
= />dm '
dm
and z cm
M -m
. 2 CM
Mz-mz
M -m
MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS
For a system of particles velocity of centre of mass ,
V =
dRCM _
nijV, + m2v,, + ...
cm
dt in
, + m2 +....
d lr. m
, a,+m2a,+...
Similarly acceleration CM
dt m, + mz + ....
dt
If no external force acts on a system the velocity of its centre of mass remains
constant, i.e., velocity of centre of mass is unaffected by internal forces .
j
On the basis of direction On the basis of kinetic energy
{ 1 1 I
said to be said to be
which the particles move the particles move in the particles gets slicked together
elastic, it the inelastic, if the atter the collision is called
along the saiiu> straight same pbr.e at different total Kinetic
,
total kinetic
line More and after the angles before and after perfectly inelastic collision.
collision, is defined as one collision, is defined energy before energy docs not
and after collision
In this type of inelastic collision .
remains constant
dimensional collision as oblique collision. loss of energy is maximum
remains the same .
Coefficient of restitution
V,
jL
A .+- ft
B ?'. .
,
'
A
'
B
vjr mP
v. ?
,.
<
m, m >
m, m,
V2~V1
(iii) According to Newton's law c
-
U2-Ul
If m » m and u2 = 0 then v
] 2 :
= u
t , v
2 = 2u:
When a heavy body A collides against a light body B at rest, the body *
should keep on moving with same velocity and the body B will move vvid1
velocity double that of A .
If m » m .
and u = 0 then v = 0, v, = - u
, ,
*
*- , 1 1
When light body A collides against a heavy body B at rest the body A sho ,
start moving with same velocity just in opposite direction while the body $
should practically remains at rest .
Loss in kinetic energy in inelastic collision
m,m2
AK = (l-e2) (u, -uz)Z
2(m, + m.,)
Oblique Collision
Before
collision
+ rn v
2 2 cosp2 and m2u2sina2
m -
Since no force is acting on mx and m2 along the tangent (i.e. y-axis) the
individual momentum of m and m2 remains conserved.
;
v2cosp2 -v osp,
U j cosocj -
u2 cosa2
Rocket propulsion
dm mo
Thrust force on the rocket = Vr => v= u-gt + v fn
~ ~
dt ( m
At t=0 At t=t
v=u m=m
m=m, v=v
(9-
*
; '
-
.
.
*>: ,
-:
Rotational Motion
A 1 . . -
d9
Angular velocity od =
dt
dto d20
Angular acceleration a=
dt dt2
- - e dL
Torque x= rxF=-
dt
1 l2
Rotational Kinetic energy K = -loo = -
1)
Moment of Inertia
A tensor but for fixed axis it is a scalar
2
For discrete distribution of mass I=m1r12 + m
2 2
r 2 + .
= Xr" 1i
>
Radius of gyration k= h
Theorems regarding moment of inertia
2
Theorem of parallel axes Iaxis =-- Icm + md
where d is the perpendicular distance between parallel axes.
Theorem of perpendicular axes I = Ix + \ y
Rod
Mf2 \A o1
I = -£r vU51
vjj 12 M
M
Rectangular Lamina
Nl/'7
vU 12 45-M( ]
A .
r , _
.
«
.
V 12
1
'
V --
< -
-/J--
/ .
Ring Disc
vjj I = MR.
; (Geometrical axis)
i (Geometrical axis)
T1f1+fi»
2 t
45T : I = MR'
vjj >12 2)
Hollow cylinder
I
R =
MR"
v45 i
2
k - _
\\ . .
j
Solid cylinder
I
Solid & Hollow sphere
S°,ir .1.'.Hollow-
Rolling motion
/TTTTTTTTTT TTTaTTTTTTTTZ
n Total angular momentum = MvcmR + Ico
T 1 vn lw ? f
k21
Mv2 + - (Mk2)
.
K total = - Mv 1 +
2 2 U 2
; 2 V RJ
Pure rolling motion on an inclined plane
gsinG
Acceleration a = + / p2
tan0
Minimum frictional coefficient pmin + z
.
dco d(lco) dL dJ
Torque x
_
ja _ J- =--or
dt dt dt dt
GM
On the surface E = -=75- where r = R
9 R2 ' ,
GM
Acceleration due to gravity g= -j r
GM ( 2h
At height h gh = R+hj 2 If h « R ; gh «g , R
'
GM(R - d) 1 ? -
Gravitational potential
w GW
Due to a point mass at a distance V=- --
Gravitational potential due to spherical shell
GM
o Outside the shell V=- - , r > R
r
GM
Inside/on the surface the shell V= - , r< R
R
Potential due to solid sphere
GM
V = , r > R
Outside the sphere r
GM
On the surface V = , r = R
R
V =
GM(3R2-r2)
Inside the sphere 2R3
GM
Potential on the axis of a V =
VrW
thin ing at a distance x
r
(2GM
Escape velocity from a planet of v =
e
R
mass M and radius R
Ve
For nearby satellite V
o
=
_
"
V2
2nr 2nr2/Z
Time period of satellite T =
~
v Vgm
Energies of a satellite
GMm
Potential energy U =
2T
a Binding energy GMm
BE= -E = ~
2r
Kepler"s laws
0 I41 - Law of orbitals
Path of a planet is elliptical with the sun at a focus
dA
II"- - Law of areas Area! velocity - L
dt
,
con5tant .
2m
/ 3
III,t - Law of periods T2 cc a3 or T2 r r
oc rnax *min |
V 2 J
For circular orbits T2 oc R5
(if Simple Harmonic Motion
Periodic Motion
Any motion which repeats itself after regular interval of time (i.e. time period)
is called periodic motion or harmonic motion.
Ex. (i) Motion of planets around the sun.
(ii) Motion of the pendulum of wall clock.
Oscillatory Motion
The motion of body is said to be oscillatory or vibratory motion if it moves
back and forth (to and fro) about a fixed point after regular interval of time.
The fixed point about which the body oscillates is called mean position or
equilibrium position.
'
The point at which the restoring force on the particle is zero and potential
energy is minimum is known as its mean position.
,
. Restoring Force
The force acting on the particle which tends to bring the particle towards
its mean position, is known as restoring force .
. Amplitude
The maximum (positive or negative) value of displacement of particle from
mean position is define as amplitude .
one one
. Frequency (n or f)
The number of oscillations per second is define as frequency .
1 CO
It is given by n = - = -
I £K
. Phase
Phase of a vibrating particle at any instant is the state of the vibrating
particle regarding its displacement and direction of vibration at that particular
instant.
cl 0
x = I -jp- = la = - k0 = - mco20 where co =
Differential equation of 5HM
d20
d2x 2
0 Angular SHM: +®26 -
0
Linear SHM:~jpr +co x ~
de
Angular velocity = 0O co 4 ({))
d2x
Acceleration a= -rrr = - A©Z sin(a)t + <j)j = -co x
at
d20
Angular acceleration jpr= ~ 0ooo2sin(cot+<j))=-co20
1
- kA TE kA
TE
displacement time
cot
|kA2 + U0
(ii) The position average of P.E. and K.E. between x = -A to x=A
* 6 2
mmm
t
Spring block system T=
2,.If , m
777777777777777777777777777
T = 2k
da
Limmw
m,
lm + -7T
8 T = 271.1 3
When spring mass is not negligible
03
1
m _
T - 271 Jr
V Keff
where k CI! k2 k3
m
'
n (m + n) k (m + n)
C But k =kj = k 2 k M k
Ci = 2 ~ j 2 j
=
,
m 4- n
,
m+n) m n
k
- + e,
T=2tt = 2n t
T=2n
mg£ \
U11L
T = 2n
l/?cos0 0 h
= c
. Ti .
-
g vs
Ba pendulum Centre
/R
SHM of a particle in a tunnel inside the earth T= 2n J- .
Vg
Internal restoring forcc _
Stress = rea 0f cross _ section A
There are three types of stress
Longitudinal Stress
...
J ..
Compressive
Stress
.
Change in size of the body
Original size of the body
., ,
Volume strain--,
. . change in volume of the body
---
AV rv= --
i .
-
- =_
C
tan <}> = -
or
and
Strain
/ O \ % jT T
(Mg/nx2) _ MgL
elasticity of the material of wire Y~ (£/ L) Ttr 2C
MgC pg£
Increment in length due to own weight AI- 2AY 2Y
-dP
=* yPdV + VdP = 0 =* 7P = So bulk modulus = yP
dV/V
. For any polytropic process PV "
= constant
-dP
n"1
=> nPV dV + V"dP = 0 => PdV + VdP = 0 => nP =
dV/V
So bulk modulus = nP
i i
lateral strain
Poisson,s ratio (a)=i :~T i 7-r~
Longitudinal strain
Work done in stretching wire
1 F AC
W = - x stress x strain x volume W
2
*
A
*
T
XAX,
| Fx«
Lead is not much elastic at room temperature but when cooled in liquid nitrogen
exhibit highly elastic behaviour.
For a special kind of steel elastic constants do not vary appreciably temperature-
,
wire effectively increase by impurity due to this external force can be easily
opposed.
/j A-.-v
("j 0 Hydrostatics
mass
Density
volume
. . weight
Specific weight =-; -
= pg
volume
M, +M2 + M3 ....
i + -2- + -1 +
Pi P2 P3
+ V2 + V + ....
normal force
Pressure =
area
tan0 =
mg g
vS toV
29
Pascal,s Law
. The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all the points if gravity is ignored.
. A liquid exerts equal pressures in all directions.
Gauge Pressure :
P gauge = hog or p OC h
gauge
Density of body
. Relative density of body =
Density of water
Floatation
Case I Density of the body (p) is greater than that of liquid (a)
In this case if p > a then W > Th
So the body will float partially submerged in the liquid In this case th*,
.
body will move up and the volume of liquid displaced by the body (V,„) i
will be less than the volume of body (V) So as to make Th equal to W
.
W .
= W - Th = 0
App
Surface tension is basically a property of liquid The liquid surface behaves
.
This distance is nearly 10~9 m Within this limit this increases very rapidly as
.
. When surface area of liquid is increased molecules from the interior of the
,
liquid rise to the surface. For this, work is done against the downward cohesive
force.
its surface tension increases. If the impurity is partially soluble in a liquid then
its surface tension decreases because adhesive force between insoluble impurity
molecules and liquid molecules decreases cohesive force effectively, e.g.
(a) On mixing detergent in water its surface tension decreases.
(b) Surface tension of water is more than (alcohol + water) mixture.
. On Temperature
On increasing temperature surface tension decreases At critical temperature
.
. On Electrification
The surface tension of a liquid decreases due to electrification because a force
starts acting due to it in the outward direction normal to the free surface of liquid.
The force acting per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the free liquid
surface at right angles to the line and in the plane of liquid surface, is defined
as surface tension.
'
*
Work = surface energy = TAA
Liquid drop W = 4nr2T Soap bubble W = 37rr2T
*
Splitting of bigger drop into smaller droples R n'/3 1
Work done= Change in surface energy = 4nR3T j = 4nR2T (nJ/3-l)
*
Excess pressure Px .
= P„ -
P
out
2T 4T
°
In liquid drop Pex = o In soap bubble P
ANGLE OF CONTACT (0 ) c
the liquidinside
The angle enclosed between the tangent plane atf contact s nd
e liquid
tangent plane at the solid surface at the point o
defined as the angle of contact.
The angle of contact depends the nature of the solid and hqu: d contact
_
of contact G increases.
c
9 ,
decreases.
„ ... , _
2Tcos0
Capillary rtse " "
.
rpg
Zurin's law h -
Jeager,s method T =
-(Hp - hd)
2
The height 'h' is measured from the bottom r>f tk„
there exist some liquid above this line also If correction™,T
this .
appW
rpg h +
then the formula will be j _ 3
2 cos 8
When two soap bubbles are in contact then -- -
r
radius of curvature of the common surface i ~ r2
r ' >
Streamline Flow
In steady flow all the particles passing through a given point follow the same
path and hence a unique line of flow. This line or path is called a streamline.
density is not constant for the fluid whereas in incompressible flow the density
of the fluid remains constant throughout .
Bernoulli"s theorem :
C P
P
Kinetic Energy
. . i Kinetic Enerou 1 m , 1 2
kinetic energy per unit volume ---- -
"
v - pv
volume 2 V 2V
Potential Energy
Potential Energy m
= -
~~~=vSh = P3h
Pressure Energy
Pressure energy
Pressure energy per unit volume = -;- = p
volume
2gh
P1 + |pVl = P2 + |PV" => y 1 = A2
V Al - A;
Rate of flow :
2gh
Q - A,v.
,
V
,
- A, A 2
- i »
2
Aj - A
*
aI?»
f
H i B X
-
-v
hU
J
(f? V,scos,ty
Ay
decreases.
(b) The viscosity of gases is the result of diffusion of gas molecules from
one moving layer to other moving layer. Now with increase in tempera
ture, the rate of diffusion increases. So, the viscosity also increases.
Thus , the viscosity of gases increases with the rise of temperature.
On Pressure of Fluid
4
dV Ttpr
Poiseuillel,s formula Q = ~
~
2 r2(p~ o)g 2
Terminal velocity VT =
9 VT oc r
pvd
Reynolds number R_
=
Scales of temperatures
.
80 - 0
C F - 32 T-273 15 .
R C - Centigrade
K - Kelvin
~
"
5 9 5 4
F - Fahrenheit
AC AF AT AR R - Reaumur
e-o x-x ,
T-0 X
Modern thermometry 273 16 0
~
- X
jy _y
Principle of calorimetry Heat lost = Heat gained
T,+
Conduction K
dQ „A dT Q KA(T -T,)
Rate of heat flow -j- - -KA -- Qr - =--
dt dx t C
C
Thermal resistance (RH) =
KA
Rods in series
A K K U
,
K = -
+ 2
eq
Xf/K
Rods in parallel K, K,
A, K , ka + k2a2 ika
A .
K Keq = Aj + A. IA
2KB
Time taken by ice to grow a thickness from x to x
x 2
Radiation
Stefan-Boltzmann's law :
Radiated energy emitted by a perfect black body per unit area
per second E = gT4
For a general body E = e aT4
r
0i - „
0, + 9
surrounding ot temperature 0o then --- = K -
Oo
,
VVien s displacement law X T = b in
f nV
Real gas equation [Vander Waal,s equation] ' (V -- pb) = pRT
V j
where a & b are vander waal s constant and depend on the nature of gas.
'
8a
°
Critical temperature Tc = 27Rb
The maximum temperature below which a gas can be liquefied by pressure
alone.
3
lfmN ,
v
2 - -
=-P
Kinetic energy per unit volume Lv - 2 [ y
"
m 2
a
2 3RT |3kT
v? + vz +
2RT 2kT
n Most probable speed v
mp
=
Mw m
A 8RT 8kT
Vl+V2 + V3+-.-
Average speed vav= tcM w i ran
V N
a l
y n a
t
i o n
c i
o Total (f) cP
CP«Cv+R j
t
y = -J-
i
i
a
m l
t
Cv
Cv =-R
o
s
n
a
t
*- V 2
t o
a
A r R
T
Monoatomic
[He, Ar, Ne..].
3 0 3
! -1f7
! R £R
2
Diatomic
[H2, n2..]
3 2 5 I
I
r
-
H
! - -
2
R
Triatomic
(Linear C02)
3 2 5
1
->4
! » -
2
R
Triatomic
4
Non-linear-NH ) 3 3 6 ~ =133 3R 4R
O
& Polyatomic
1
=
+ 2MW + ....
Molecular weight Mu, =
;
Hj+H2+....
Cp mlM
l P, + +
Xnix Cy |JjCy M-2 V
mt* ' 2
'
Q = W + AU or <5Q = 5W + dU
where Q = heat supplied to the system,
Isothermal Process
Isobaric process
rat r
Work done W =--
x -1
; Molar heat capacity C = Cv +
1 - x
Q2 Q,
1
Q
_
Heat supplied = Q , Q
Qi T,
j Q,
j T,
Source T]
For refrigerator
Q* Q2 T
Coefficient of performance (3 = ttt =
,
W Q, - Q2 t, - T,
Effect
Wave Theory and Popple*
*
Wave Motion
J J T
Necessity Propagation Vibration
Dimension
of medium of energy of particle
¥ ¥ T 2 71
Wave propagation constant k = -
A ,
Speed of wave v = n X
Maximum particle velocity = Aco
Relation between path difference (A x) phase difference (A « & time difference (ATI
,
A(j) _
~
Ax AT
2k X ~~T
Intensity of progressive wave I = 2rt2 a2 n2v
E
Speed of longitudinal wave V ~
VP
B
o v , =
V
scuid ,
liquid
VP
yP [yRT
Speed of Longitudinal wave in gaseous medium v
qas
=
"
mT
T T
Speed of transverse wave v =
m v nr 2p
max min v 1 AH
Degree of hearing = i *
, i
max min
Beats frequency = nt ~
n
2
n Fundamental frequency =
v
For COP n = where e = 0.6 R
4(f + e)
where R = radius of resonance tube.
v
n For OOP n =
2(f + 2e)
<- 2 -
3 1
In resonance tube X = 2 [C2 -
£
, ) end correction e -
v ,
O
">Vc
Doppler,s effect in sound source Sound observer
wave
f
_
sjieed of sound wave w.r.t observer _ V + Vo _
v + v
o
n
'
observed wavelength -O
v
v V - V
s }
n
If vQ, v
<<< v then n
'
= n
s
V V j
speed of source
Mach number =
speed of sound
" / rr /
v =
1 + v/c
V ~
'
l+ V . A., =
1 - v/c
X = | 1-- Violet shift
1 - v/c C) 1 + v/c c
f\
6 02 x 1023 mol1
.
19 (b)
365.24 days = 3.16 x 10 s
o 1 year "
s
= 24 h = 8.64 x 10
1 day
« 107 ergs
a 1 J
= 4.184 J
1 ca\
= 1.6 x 10"W J
1 eV
= 0.746 k\W
a 1 hp
= 10& N/m2
a 1 bar
a 1 fm
, 760u.mH3-76cinH9
013x10
1 atm
= i 013 xlO& N/m2 =1
.
= 9.46 x 1012 km
mega (10f)
joule
J
kelvin
k -> kilo (103)
meter h - hecto (102)
minute
maxwell da -» deca (101)
oersted d deci (10-1)
pascal
ohm c -> centi (10_2)
radian
m -y milli (10~3)
second 1
Siemens I -
> micro (10~&)
tesla
nano (10~9)
volt Jj
n
watt P ->
pico (10-J2)
w eber