Grammar Notes

INVERSION

Όταν οι παρακάτω εκφράσεις βρίσκονται στην αρχή μιας πρότασης ακολουθούνται

από ερωτηματική σύνταξη (inversion) (Βοηθητικό ρήμα + Υποκείμενο + Τύπος του
ρήματος ανάλογα με το χρόνο που χρησιμοποιούμε)

At no time
Hardly
Never
No sooner …than
Not only
Not until
Nowhere
Only
Only by / with
Only in this way
Rarely
So + επίθετο/ επίρρημα
Under no circumstances

Παράδειγμα
1. Never have (Βοηθητικό ρήμα) I (Υποκείμενο) seen (Τύπος ρήματος) such a
beautiful girl
2. Only by luck can you get it.
3. Rarely had his friend been more helpful.
4. Hardly had they started doing their homework when the lights went out.
5. Not only did he go but he also helped him.

Rewrite the sentences

1. The Director will never give in to public pressure.

Never
2. As soon as the meeting started, fighting broke out in the audience.
No sooner
3. Henry didn't suspect his brother of complicity in the crime for one moment.
Not for one moment
4. I have never been so surprised in all my life.
Never
5. You will not find craftsmanship of such quality anywhere.
Nowhere (else)
6. I will never allow such practices to take place again.
Never
7. He announced his discovery to the world only when he was certain of his results.
Only when
8. Good whisky is ready for consumption only after it has matured for ten years.
Only after.
9. This government had deceived the public, and it has deceived itself.
Not only but
10. This door should not be left open under any circumstances.
Under / In no circumstances
11. The values of our society are at risk, and the very survival of the nation is
threatened.
Not only
12. This country has never been so threatened before.
Never before
13. Artists are rarely appreciated while they are still alive.
Rarely
14. Children little realize that their world of innocence soon disappears.
Little
15. I didn't intend to deceive you at any time.
At no time
16. If I ever told you a lie, I wouldn't be able to look you in the eye.
Should
17. If you require any further information, don't hesitate to contact me.
Should
18. If I hadn't witnessed the experiment with my own eyes, I would never have
believed it could be done.
Hadn’t
19. If the government raised interest rates, they would lose the election.
Were
20. If you do happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me?
Should

COHESION
Linking across sentences
and: In addition, Besides, Moreover, Furthermore
but: However, Nevertheless, On the other hand
so: Therefore, Consequently, As a result
Numbering points and concluding
We can use First/Firstly/First of all to begin a list of points.
For other points we say Second/Secondly/Third/Thirdly, etc.
To add a point without numbering we can say In addition, As well as this or Besides
this.
To conclude one particular discussion point we can say Overall or Taking everything
into consideration.
To finish the points we can say Finally. To finish and conclude more formally we can
say In conclusion.
Examples
We can use for example or for instance.
We use such as in the middle of a sentence to give examples. It is the same as ‘like’.
Such as is followed by a noun phrase, not a whole clause.
Some delays are beyond our control, such as strikes or bad weather.
True but surprising
We use In fact, Actually or As a matter of fact to say what is really true, when this is
surprising or different to what people think.
Alternatives
We use either to begin a list of possibilities. We do not begin with or.
We use instead (of) to mean ‘in the place of something else’.
At the end of a sentence, instead is used without of. Can we meet on Friday instead?
Exceptions
We use except, except for, with the exception of or apart from to
mean ‘not including’. I contacted everyone except (for) Irina.
Generalizing
To talk generally we can say: In general, On the whole, As a rule, Typically, Broadly
speaking.
If we want to make a balanced argument, we often use one of these phrases
followed by a word like but + a contrasting idea.
On the whole, I think you’re right, although I disagree with you about the level of risk.
As a rule, we usually ask for an upfront payment on a first-time order. However, I
think we can be flexible on that.
Summarizing
To summarize quickly we can use So, Basically, In short and To put it simply. To
summarize more formally we can use To sum up and In summary.
Underline the correct words.
1. If you don’t want the Canon, what about this Panasonic instead/instead of?
2. The fall in share prices has made investors nervous. On the other side/hand, it
could be an excellent buying opportunity.
3. As a rule/As a whole, I don’t normally have a big lunch, but I’ll come with you to
the restaurant today.
4. All commodity prices rose last week, apart/except soybeans and wheat.
5. We can either/or wait for a train, or go by taxi.
6. I know Madrid very well. As a matter of fact/On the whole, I worked there for a
short time many years ago.
7. For instance/On the whole I am a supporter of the green movement. However, I
think that they are wrong to oppose nuclear energy.
8. I like to drive to work because I can go door-to-door. On the other hand/Besides,
the train would probably be quicker.
9. I like to drive to work because I can go door-to-door. On the other hand/Besides,
the company pays for my petrol.
10. Investment in areas for example/such as biotechnology can be risky.
11. Investment in some areas, for example/such as biotechnology, can be risky.
12. The resumes are all very strong, except for/instead of these two here.

Complete the sentences with the words or phrases in the box.

actually moreover either except in general instead nevertheless

so such as therefore

1. People think it’s expensive, but actually over the long term it isn’t.
2. The restaurant is open every day ____________Monday.
3. She is out of the country and _____________unable to attend the meeting.
4. I was going on Tuesday, but now I’m going on Monday________________ .
5 .________________, I think the meeting went very well, although we didn’t
manage to agree on a budget for next year.
6 .Some areas, ________________recruitment, are outsourced to other companies.
7. I’m sorry, I’ve had enough. _______________he goes, or I go.
8. It’s reliable, safe and easy to use.___________________ ,it’s excellent value for
money.
9. It’s reliable, safe and easy to use.___________________ , the maintenance costs
can be quite high.
10._______________ , in short, we offer a full range of insurance products to both
corporate and private clients.

Read this article about traffic in city centres. Complete the article by choosing the
best alternative from A, B, C or D below.
Want to enter the city? Sorry, you’ll have to pay.
Traffic congestion in city centres is a big problem for both businesses and
residents. Policy makers are being forced to think of solutions based on public
transport, road pricing and restricted use of various kinds. What are the
reasons for this? (1) _______ , cars cause noise and pollution in areas where
people walk, shop or go sightseeing. (2)___________this, they require
parking areas, and space in city centres is limited. And (3)_________ , cars
cause traffic jams and (4)________ many hours of work time are lost.
(5)__________ , people do like the freedom and convenience of using their
own car, and alternatives are often unavailable or of poor quality.
What can be done? Public transport has to become more reliable and more
comfortable. (6)__________ , bicycle use should be encouraged –
(7)__________ , by having more cycle lanes. Some large cities, (8)________
Cologne and Amsterdam, are already organized in this way. But the most
radical measure is road pricing. Asking motorists to pay to enter city centres is
controversial, but is an increasingly common solution. So,(9)________ , we
can see that imaginative and sometimes unpopular measures will be needed
to make the city centre a more pleasant place to work and live.

(1) A As well B First of all C In fact D As a result

(2) A Besides B Also C For example D Except
(3) A for example B however C instead D finally
(4) A either B both C as a result D instead of
(5) A However B Therefore C So D In conclusion
(6) A To sum up B In addition C Actually D For example
(7) A on the whole B in addition C actually D for example
(8) A such as B as well as C instead of D except
(9) A thirdly B in conclusion C instead D also

Complete this speech made by the leader of a Korean trade delegation in Slovakia
with the words and phrases in the box.

as a rule first of all however in addition

in conclusion in fact instead of therefore

Could I just say a few words? Thank you. Well, first of all I’d like to thank everyone
here at the Bratislava Chamber of Commerce for organizing our short tour of
Slovakia. We have enjoyed looking round all the factories and meeting the
employees. _____________ , I would like to thank the Korean Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and Trade, who made the whole trip possible. As you know,
we see the European market as very important for our company. _____________ , it
is central to our future plans. _____________ I look forward to a close cooperation
between our two countries in the future. ______________I think it’s better to keep
the ceremonies short on occasions like this.
_____________ , I would just like to take this opportunity to leave you with
something to remember our visit. I have great pleasure in presenting this book with
photographs of Korea to Mr Telensky, who took such good care of us.
__________ , I hope that we may have the pleasure of welcoming
some of you to our country in the near future. Perhaps the next time we meet it will
be in Seoul____________ Bratislava! Once again, thank you all very much.

Choose only one

1. I should have told you about this earlier but I didn't want to involve you.
__________ you never tell me anything these days. It's not like it used to be.
a) Therefore b) Alternatively c) Besides d) Eventually
2. The value of the pound has recently depreciated against the euro. __________,
visitors from Europe will find their UK holidays are cheaper than in the past.
a) Correspondingly b) Alternatively c) Nevertheless d) Consequently
3. The weather was good, the food was tasty, __________, it was an excellent
holiday.
a) lastly b) in any event c) altogether d) to crown it all
4. It has been argued that language becomes more difficult to learn with increased
age.__________, there is also research to show that adults can be very efficient
learners.
a) Thus b) However c) Altogether d) Lastly
5. You might want to consider renting a holiday home near the sea. __________,
there are some excellent city centre apartments currently available.
a) Alternatively b) In the meantime c) After all d) For a start
6. At first it was assumed that trees were dying because of increased pollution. Tests
__________ showed that the cause of death was actually a virus.
a) in other words b) subsequently c) in addition d) accordingly

INFINITIVE and GERUND

 Infinitive
After an adjective Example: The new computer is really easy to use.
After certain verbs (with to) Example: He refused to pay the bill.
· afford · agree · appear · arrange · beg · choose
· decide · expect · fail · help (also without to)
· hesitate · hope · learn · manage · mean · offer
· plan · prepare · pretend · promise · refuse · want
· wish · would like · would love · would prefer
 Gerund
As the subject of a clause Example: Cycling is good for your health.
After a preposition Example: I did my homework before going out.
Verbs followed by Gerund Example: I enjoy cooking.
· admit · advise · allow · avoid · can't help
· can't stand · deny · dislike · enjoy · fancy · finish
· keep · mind · miss · permit · practice · suggest
· waste time/ money
Verbs with Prepositions followed by Gerund
Example: I'm looking forward to seeing you again soon.
· accuse of · agree with · apologize for · ask about
· believe in · be used to · blame for · care for
· carry on · complain about · concentrate on · depend on
· dream about/of · feel like · forgive for · give up
· insist on · keep on · look forward to · object to
· think of · succeed in · use for
Words followed either by Infinitive or Ing-Form
Words with the same meaning Example: I started to read. / I started reading.
· attempt · begin · bother · cannot bear · cease
· continue · hate · intend · love · prefer · start
Words with the same meaning but different use
Word Infinitive - with an object Gerund – without an object
advise I advise you to go by bus. I advise going by bus.
allow / permit He allowed her to take the car. He allowed taking the car.
forbid She forbids us to smoke. She forbids smoking.

Words with a different meaning

Word Infinitive meaning Gerund meaning
forget / remember
with regard to the future
with regard to the past
go on
start something new
continue with the same action
regret
with regard to the future
with regard to the past
stop
interrupt another action
Terminate
try
do something complicated
do it and see what happens
Remember to switch off the lights.
Do you remember switching off the lights?
Go on to read.
Go on reading.
I regret to say that’s wrong.
I regret saying that.
I stopped to smoke.
I stopped smoking.
Try to solve this riddle.
Try talking to him.

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the verb in brackets
1) A lot of people are worried about _______their jobs. (lose)
2) He agreed _______ a new car. (buy)
3) The question is easy _______ (answer)
4) Not everybody can afford _______ to university. (go)
5) I look forward to _______ you at the weekend. (see)
6) Are you thinking of _______ London? (visit)
7) He apologized for _______ so late. (arrive)
8) Stop _______ noise, please; I’m studying. (make)
9) She doesn't mind _______ the night shift. (work)
10) I learned ______ the bike at the age of 5.(ride)
11)We decided _______ a new car. (buy)
12) I regret _______ you we won’t lend you the money. (tell)
13) Peter gave up _______.(smoke)
14) He'd like _______ an aeroplane.(fly)
15) I enjoy _______ picture postcards. (write)
16) He offered _______ help with the cleaning.1(help)
17) Avoid _______ silly mistakes.(make)
18) My parents wanted me _______ home at 111o'clock. (be)
19) I dream about _______ a big house. (build)
20) He advised me _______ so much money. (not spend)
Fill the gaps with the verb in brackets in the appropriate form.
1. I can't stand ________________ in queues. (wait )
2. I wouldn't like ________________ in his shoes. (be )
3. Jim loves ________________ in Thailand. (work )
4. I hate ________________ the shopping on Saturday. (do )
5. Blast! I forgot ________________ milk. (buy )
6. In the end we decided ________________ in. (stay )
7. I need ________________ some information about Portugal. ( find )
8. My parents like ________________ for long walks at the weekend. ( go )
9. Tony gave up ________________ years ago. ( to smoke )
10. I wanted ________________ and see Troy but no one else was interested. ( go)
11. Mrs Leith offered ________________ us to the airport. ( take )
12. Claire refused ________________ clean up after the party. ( help )
13. I tried ________________ him to come but it was no use. ( persuade )
14. Do you mind not ________________ ? ( smoke )
15. Everybody really enjoyed ________________ the cha-cha-cha. ( dance )
16. Lionel admitted ________________ my chocolate mousse. (eat )

MAKE & DO
Put in the correct form of ‘make’ or ‘do’:
1. How much money does a waitress ____________?
2. Could you ____________ the laundry today? We have no clean clothes.
3. She spent the evening watching black and white films and ____________ her
nails.
4. Did their new business ____________ a profit last year?
5. The teacher ____________ some very positive remarks about Susie’s work.
6. There’s so much paperwork to ____________! I’ll be here all night
7. The CEO of the company ____________ some interesting observations during
his visit to our department.
8. I’d like to ____________ Julie an offer of a job. It would be full time in our
office.
9. There was a man sitting on the pier earlier. He was ____________ a painting
of the boats.
10. This lecture is so boring! Let’s ____________ an escape during the break and
go to the café!
11. William ____________ an excuse to the teacher about why he was late, but
she didn’t believe him.
12. Stop talking and ____________ some work!
13. Alison can’t come tonight. She’d already ____________ plans.
14. I’m going to work all weekend. I really want to ____________ some progress
on this project.
15. Could you please ____________ sure that the money has gone into the correct
bank account?
16. It takes Lizzie an hour a day to ____________ the washing up. She would
love to have a dishwasher.
17. I offered the job to Ian, and I said he had until Monday to ____________ his
mind up.
18. In the morning she gets up, has a shower and gets dressed, then ____________
the bed. After that she goes downstairs and has breakfast.
19. John and Lucy ____________ their way through the crowded streets to their
hotel.
20. Graham ____________ really well in the tennis competition. He came second
out of over a hundred people.