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Students That Have Experienced Gender Based Violence Population

Oklahoma State University

Holly Loberg
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Students That Have Experienced Gender Based Violence Population

Descriptions and Definitions

Gender Based Violence (GBV) is typically defined as "any act or threat by men or

male-dominated institutions that inflict physical, sexual, or psychological harm" on an

individual (Valentine, Gefter, Bankoff, Rood, & Pantalone, 2017, p. 772). This does not mean

that only women are affected or that only men are perpetrators, rather it shows that male-

dominated institutions, such as the United States in this instance, inflict harm. GBV is an

umbrella term that includes sexual assault, stalking, domestic violence, and dating violence.

The United States Department of Justice Office on Violence Against Women (2018)

legally defines sexual assault as “any nonconsensual sexual act… including when the victim

lacks capacity to consent.” This definition includes rape, which is defined as “the penetration,

no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration

by a sex organ of another person without the consent of the victim” (Office of Public Affairs,

2012). The United States Department of Justice Office on Violence Against Women (2018)

also provides legal definitions for stalking, domestic violence, and dating violence. Stalking

focuses on conduct that “would cause a reasonable person to feel fear” (Office on Violence

Against Women, 2018). Dating and domestic violence are both quite similar and sometimes

encompass one another, but do not always need to. Dating violence focuses on having a

“social relationship of a romantic or intimate nature” whereas domestic violence focuses on

being a “current or former spouse or intimate partner of the victim” (Office on Violence

Against Women, 2018). Each of these definitions provide insight into GBV as a whole, which

helps to better understand students that have experienced GBV.

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Unique Experiences and Challenges

Overall, "approximately 20-25% of women are sexually assaulted in college" (Holland

& Cortina, 2017, p. 50). Furthermore, about half of these instances involve alcohol use by

either the perpetrator(s) and/or victim(s) (Gross, Winslett, Roberts, & Gohm, 2006). Due to

this, many students that have experienced GBV may have an altered perception of alcohol use

in either a positive or negative way. In other words, students that have experienced GBV may

not be comfortable in party situations or around alcohol in general, or they may fall the

complete opposite where they are heavily drinking or very associated with parties (Gross et

al., 2006).

Almost ¾ of students that have experienced GBV indicate that their experience was

committed by someone they know (Gross et al., 2006). Of this high percentage, almost half of

the perpetrators are partners of the victim(s) (Gross et al., 2006). In addition, a majority of

college sexual assaults occur within the first few months of a student’s college career (Rape,

Abuse & Incest National Network, 2018). This means that these students are likely already

attempting to adjust to college life and making new friends, but their GBV experience could

completely warp that (Mengo & Black, 2015). With all of this in mind, students that

experience GBV are likely to have expereinced it within their first few months from someone

they has created a relationship of some kind with (Gross et al., 2006). This means that first-

year students are at particular risk of having lower GPA’s and are more likely to dropout

because of it (Mengo & Black, 2015).

Heightened Awareness

Individual’s entering college and experiencing GBV within their first few months need

have access to resources and understanding (Mengo & Black, 2015). However, the stigma
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surrouding reporting of sexual assault and gender based violence as a whole may deter these

students from reporting, thus, not allowing them to gain the resources they may despearately

need (Lisak, Gardinier, Nicksa, & Cote, 2010). With the stigma that “false rape allegations are

a common occurrence [being] a widely held misconception in broad swaths of society” many

students may be more apt to not report for fear of retalitions or misunderstanding (Lisak et al.,

2010, p. 1331). This stigma noted appears to be untrue, however, has the rate of false

allegations is between 2-10% (Lisak et al., 2010).

Keeping all of this in mind, students that do experience GBV and do not get help are

more likley to not be retained at their instition (Mengo & Black, 2015). Due to this, institions

need to increase their awareness and support for these students regardless of if they choose to

report or not (Mengo & Black, 2015). If institions invest more resources and awareness into

bystander intervention and violence prevention programs as a whole, they may note a higher

retention rate of these students (Mengo & Black, 2015).

All in all, awareness needs to be heightened for this student population because one in

five college women will experience GBV by the time they finish college (Valentine et al.,

2017). Furthermore, that number is even more pronounced when looking at students of

sexual- and gender-minority status (Valentine et al., 2017 & Coulter & Rankin,

2017). Overall, these students need to have more intentional interactions and resources put

forth for them without directly outing them as survivors of GBV.

Higher Education Structure

For students that have experienced GBV, there is already a very formal structure put in

place that is meant to directly serve this population. This structure focuses on policies that

requires individuals such as a Title IX Coordinator to listen to, help, and support individuals
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that have experienced GBV. However, this typically is only for those that decide to report to

some degree due to Title IX Coordinators being obligated to report at least anonymous

numbers of occurrences (The United States Department of Justice, 2015).

With this in mind, most survivors will not go directly to the Title IX Coordinator if

they experience GBV, rather they are more likely to go to an informal service (Holland &

Cortina, 2017). An informal service is typically someone that supports the individual in their

everyday life, such as a friend, or parent or guardian. This tends to occur because formal

support providers, such as campus professionals, can be seen as gatekeepers of resources or

they are perceived to give more negative responses rather than informal supporters (Banyard,

2014 and Holland & Cortina, 2017). Furthermore, those that do end up reporting are more

likely to do so if they trust their campus authorities and if they trust that their campus is

actively trying to prevent sexual violence, if there is no trust, it is likely that they will not

report (Banyard, 2014).

Overall, a perception of actively trying to prevent sexual violence is built when a

campus has prevention education, especially if it is not inherently mandatory (Banyard, 2014).

The ways in which education can be disseminated that tend to boast positive attitude change

include “social marketing campaigns, in person education workshops, academic classes,

online training, and interactive theater” (Banyard, 2014, p. 340). Although these prevention

education delivery methods are beneficial, they typically fall short for this community as they

may not address the pervasiveness of the problem or may come across in a separated fashion

that does not show how violence often co-occurs (Banyard, 2014).
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Resources & Services

Many institutions ranging from small private to large flagships, appear to have some

form of student GBV prevention group focused on providing ongoing education on prevention

to their peers (Purdue University, 2018, St. Olaf College Sexual Assault Resource Network,

2017, Stanford University, 2018, The University of Kansas, 2018, The University of

Oklahoma, 2018, and Winona State University, 2018). The typical program appears to consist

of some form of education seminar and/or workshop that can be brought to a classroom or

event (The College of St. Scholastica, 2018, Purdue University, 2018, Stanford University,

2018, The University of Kansas, 2018, and Winona State University, 2018). Furthermore,

many institutions have adopted the use of pre-first year students so that first year students

coming in have some form of knowledge on the topic of GBV (Oklahoma State University,

2018 and Winona State University, 2018). Within these seminars and/or workshops, the most

common topic is bystander intervention (The College of St. Scholastica, 2018, Purdue

University, 2018, Stanford University, 2018, The University of Kansas, 2018, and Winona

State University, 2018). This seminar/workshop focuses on how the vast majority of people

can safely intervene in possible situations of GBV (The College of St. Scholastica, 2018,

Purdue University, 2018, Stanford University, 2018, The University of Kansas, 2018, and

Winona State University, 2018). Other than bystander intervention, topics range from consent

(Stanford University, 2018 and The University of Kansas, 2018), definitions and general

understanding (The College of St. Scholastica, 2018, Purdue University, 2018, Stanford

University, 2018, and Winona State University, 2018), healthy relationships (Stanford

University, 2018, The University of Kansas, 2018, and The University of Oklahoma, 2018),

and so much more.

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Furthermore, many institutions have some form of campus or local advocacy phone

line that is staffed either overnight or 24/7 for those that have experienced GBV (The College

of St. Scholastica, 2018, Loyola University Chicago, 2018, St. Olaf College Sexual Assault

Resource Network, 2017, The University of California Berkeley, 2011, The University of

Utah, 2018, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2018, and Winona State University, 2018).

These programs help to always provide an ear and support for those that have experienced

GBV. They can typically be used in the moment, or if an individual has further questions

about processes and more (Winona State University, 2018).

Some institutions are even providing quick exit buttons on their websites for those that

may have someone looking at their screen over their shoulder (The University of Kansas,

2018 and The University of Utah, 2018). The quick exit button provides a great avenue for

individuals to look up the services they need at any time, then quickly exit if they are in fear

of someone finding out, such as an abusive partner. As well, some are even creating apps that

help in a multitude of different ways for immediate support or FAQs (Loyola University

Chicago, 2018 and Oklahoma State University, 2018). Some institutions are even adopting

support groups for those that have experienced GBV that range from discussions to yoga to

acupuncture (Michigan State University, 2018).

Beyond the institution, some schools have a partnership with outside, community-

based resources (Oklahoma State University, 2018, St. Olaf College, 2018, and Winona State

University, 2018). These partnerships can be with local women’s resource centers, hospitals,

or even local police forces. Much of the time, these community-based partnerships provide

legal or medical support that the institution is typically not equipped to handle.
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All in all, many institutions are providing more and more resources and services for

those that have experienced GBV. These resources are becoming more varied and diverse, but

tend to be getting more and more specific (Banyard, 2014). Thus, it should be noted that

institutions also need to focus their prevention efforts into looking “across victimization

experience, as forms of violence often co-occur” (Banyard, 2014, p. 341).

Policies

There are many policies that emphasize protections for those that have experienced GBV

on the institutional, state, and federal levels. These policies range from explaining how to

respond to incidents of GBV, to conducting campus climate surveys, and many areas in between

(Coulter & Rankin, 2017). In the last few years, there has been a heavy emphasis on institutions

having the same policies and regulations in regards to handling cases of GBV (Coulter &

Rankin, 2017). This heavy emphasis comes from White House Task Force to Protect Students

From Sexual Assault (2017) that was established in 2014 for the purpose of preventing GBV on

campus. All in all, many policies and procedures exist specifically for these students on all

levels.

Federal Policies

The first set of policies comes from the federal level, which includes three very important

areas: The Clery Act, The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA), and Title IX. The first of the

policies listed, The Clery Act, focuses on having institutions be transparent in their campus crime

statistics and policies, as well as providing timely warnings if needed for a campus crime

occurring (Clery Center, 2018). A timely warning may be issued when or if there is an ongoing

threat to those in the campus community (Clery Center, 2018). Furthermore, The Clery Act also

provides specific requirements, rights, options, and resources for those that have experienced
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GBV. The first of these is requiring prevention education on an ongoing basis for all crimes

under the GBV umbrella that uses and explains how bystanders can intervening in a given

situation (Clery Center, 2018). The next area requires institutions to provide the reporting party

with a written explanation of their rights, which includes the option to relocate housing, offering

transportation if needed, reassigning courses, and counseling and legal services (Clery Center,

2018). Finally, the Clery Act is the policy that requires institutions to have fair, just, and swift

proceedings in their handling of reports of GBV, including providing rights to all parties

involved (Clery Center, 2018).

The next federal policy is VAWA, which provides additions to the Clery Act that focus

on reporting and disciplinary actions that an institution must take (American Council on

Education, 2014). First, VAWA requires that names be held confidentially even if a timely report

is sent to the campus and the institution is aware of whom it regards (American Council on

Education, 2014). This provides the protection noted in the Clery Act that points to providing

rights to all parties involved (Clery Center, 2018; American Council on Education, 2014).

VAWA also notes that institutions must make it clear that it is up to the student that is reporting

their experience of GBV whether or not they seek legal services, counseling, or if they wish to

put in a type of restraining order (American Council on Education, 2014). Finally, VAWA

makes it clear that institutions must conduct their investigations through a preponderance of

evidence, which notes how the finding of the report must be more likely than not, or above 50%

likely that something did or did not occur (American Council on Education, 2014).

The final, and typically most apparent, federal policy that drastically affects those that

have experienced GBV is Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (The United States

Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, 2015). This policy prohibits all discrimination
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based on sex in any educational program or activity that receives some form of federal assistance

(The United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, 2015). Title IX is the “mother”

policy that both VAWA and The Clery Act branch out from as Title IX holds all the definitions

that the other two policies work from (The United States Department of Justice Civil Rights

Division, 2015). In other words, Title IX defines all terms under the GBV umbrella including

sexual assault, domestic violence, dating violence, and stalking (The United States Department

of Justice Civil Rights Division, 2015).

Each of these three federal laws drastically affect institution policies. The Clery Act,

VAWA, and Title IX all tell institutions what they must and must not do to protect all parties

involved in reports of GBV, including those that have experienced GBV themselves. These

policies may help students that have experienced GBV to feel more supported on all levels, as its

shown that these federal level policies can have a drastic, positive effect on student’s attitudes of

GBV (Banyard, 2014). These policies also affect the state level alongside the institutional level.

State Policies

Each state has minimally different policies that respond to the federal policies. Overall,

they are minimally different due to the federal policies being quite airtight in the response to

GBV. In fact, many state policies do not go further than the federal policies, rather they simply

revert to having just the federal policies and providing state resources instead (Oklahoma State

Department of Health, 2018; Idaho Department of Health and Welfare, 2018; Georgia

Department of Public Health, 2018). One state that does go a bit more in depth, however, is

Minnesota.

Minnesota requires many more things than the federal policies, possible due to three

court cases that affected Minnesota’s outlook on GBV. The three court cases of importance are
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State v. Traczyk in 1988, State v. Danielski in 1984, and State v. French in 1986 (Rape, Abuse

and Incest National Network, 2017). These three court cases all help to look critically at the laws

that Minnesota required at the time and adapt them to our current time.

Minnesota requires that institutions have clear, written policies and definitions of sexual

harassment alongside the definitions of GBV (The Minnesota Office of the Revisor of Statutes,

2017). Furthermore, Minnesota requires institutions to have a working relationship with local

law enforcement and local health services for incidents of GBV in crisis times (The Minnesota

Office of the Revisor of Statutes, 2017). Additionally, Minnesota requires that institutions have

some form of online, confidential reporting system for individuals that have experienced GBV to

use to report confidentially (The Minnesota Office of the Revisor of Statutes, 2017). Overall,

states such as Minnesota may provide students in those states that have experienced GBV more

protections and support, including benefiting campus norms (Banyard, 2014).

It is unclear why other states researched have not followed Minnesota, however, it may

be due to the court cases listed previously. These court cases did not go beyond the state level

and may have shaped the way that Minnesota reacted with its policies. If other states have not

had court cases to do this, then they may not be as apt to change their policies.

Institutional Policies

Overall, institutions take on the policies of their state and the federal level. The two levels

above institutions flow downward, meaning that if there is a higher level above them requiring it,

they must require it, too. That being said, most institutional policies refer back to the state and

federal levels when looking at working with and for students that have experienced GBV.
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Addressing and Working with Policies

All in all, there is a bountiful amount of policies and procedures on the federal level that

regulate the state and institutional responses to GBV. Many of these policies speak to one

another and provide a standard for how GBV should be handled on campuses to best support

those that have experienced GBV. Overall, these policies need to be constantly adapted and

worked on, as they are, to best help these students through not only their reporting, but their

processing of the incident as time continues.

College Student Development and Higher Education Theory Alignments

Many College Student Development and Higher Education theories fall in line with

supporting students that have experienced GBV. Of these theories, there are some that fit better

than others that may be better to adopt when supporting these students than others. In specific,

three of these theories and models to look into are Goffman’s 1963 Stigma Theory (Coulter &

Rankin, 2017), Bronfenbrenner’s 1979 Ecological Systems Theory, and Sanford’s Challenge and

Support

Goffman’s Stigma Theory is one of the base theories used to connect students that have

experienced GBV to a theory basis (Coulter & Rankin, 2017). Stigma Theory focuses on how

environmental stigmas can result in further violence against the groups that the stigma is against.

For example, an environment that is more homophobic, transphobic, or sexist, may result in

belittling of individuals that are minoritized due to their sexual or gender identity (Coulter &

Rankin, 2017). This can result is more violence against these communities, which, in this case,

typically results in more acts of GBV committed (Coulter & Rankin, 2017). Therefore, according

to this theory, if an institution has a community that negatively stigmatizes individuals, the

institution is more likely to see more acts of violence against that community (Coulter & Rankin,
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2017). On the other side, however, if a community is more inclusive, they are likely to see less

acts of violence against these communities. For the previous example, this means that utilizing

Stigma Theory to create more inclusive environments can result in “lower sexual assault

victimization” (Coulter & Rankin, 2017, p. 3).

The second theory of interest for students that have experienced GBV is

Bronfenbrenner’s 1979 Ecological Systems Theory. This theory looks at how different systems

affect an individual. The five types of systems are the Microsystem, the Mesosystem, the

Exosystem, the Macrosystem, and the Chronosystem (Strayhorn, 2016). The first, the

Microsystem, relates to the immediate setting of the individual, such as their family and school

(Strayhorn, 2016). The Mesosystem is just beyond that and looks at the interactions between

settings, such as the interactions that the individuals school has with the family (Strayhorn,

2016). The Exosystem includes areas that do not directly affect the individual, but can indirectly

influence them, which could include a parent’s place of work or policies that the individual’s

institution follows (Strayhorn, 2016). The Macrosystem is the largest of the physical systems and

relates to cultural norms and beliefs, including gender socialization and political culture

(Strayhorn, 2016). Finally, the Chronosystem focuses on the collective experience of an

individual over time, such as major life events and transitions (Strayhorn, 2016).

When using the Ecological Systems Theory in Higher Education, especially with students

that have experienced GBV, it is important to look at everything surrounding the student,

especially if they are still in a traumatic point in life (Banyard, 2014). In other words, using this

theory can help students to understand their social situations, their community situations, and

beyond that to find how things may have changed after this experience of GBV (Banyard,

2014; Strayhorn, 2016).

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The final theory of interest is Sanford’s Challenge and Support (Patton, Renn, Giudo,

& Quaye, 2006). This theory focuses on finding an optimal mismatch between the amount of

challenge given to the student and the amount of support given to the student (Patton et al.,

2006). Overall, Challenge and Support is a commonly used theory that can, if done right,

greatly help a student that has experienced GBV. On the flip side, if Challenge and Support is

not used wisely for these students, the results could be harmful and result in disengagement or

retreating (Patton et al., 2006). Students that have experienced GBV are likely to need more

support the closer to the traumatic event they are or if they are still experiencing heavy trauma

from the event in general (Banyard, 2014; Patton et al., 2006). Thus, it is highly important to

understand the amount of support that the student needs in the given time period to find that

optimal mismatch between challenge and support (Patton et al., 2006).

All in all, there are many more theories other than the three shown above that can be

used to help or hinder students that have experienced GBV. In practice, the use of theory

needs to be tailored to each individual that has experienced GBV due to GBV being a form of

violence that can affect anyone, anywhere, at any time (Coulter & Rankin, 2017). With this in

mind, it is important for a practitioner to understand what the student needs from each individual

interaction, then use theory to give that student what they need (Reason & Kimball, 2012). In

other words, each practitioner needs to be actively engaging in the Theory-To-Practice loop,

which entails using theory to inform practice, which then turns around for practice to inform

theory (Reason & Kimball, 2012).

Critical Readings and Resources

Each student that experiences GBV needs or wants to be supported in different ways.

While keeping this in mind, there are a handful of different concepts and resources that can be
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used to help a practitioner, faculty, or staff member to support these individuals. As previously

stated, these concepts and resources are important to know because GBV can affect anyone at

any time on a college campus and in life (Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network, 2017). The

main critical areas of interest are trauma-informed approaches, the Safe Space/Zone program,

and the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN).

The first of these, taking on a trauma-informed approach, speaks directly to practitioners,

faculty, and/or staff utilizing the theory-to-practice loop to inform their work (Reason &

Kimball, 2012). As noted previously, the theory-to-practice loop focuses on using theory to

influence practice, which then turns around to influence theory (Reason & Kimball, 2012). The

trauma-informed approach does just that: it focuses on putting the control back into the hands of

the one that experienced trauma, which then the practitioner, faculty, or staff member takes to

inform how they will continue working with this student (McCauley & Casler, 2015). In other

words, a trauma-informed approach makes it so the individual that has experienced GBV is able

to make decisions on their own (McCauley & Casler, 2015). This is incredibly important for

these individuals becauset experiencing GBV takes the choice away from that individual

(McCauley & Casler, 2015). Therefore, a practitioner, faculty, or staff member utilizing a

trauma-informed approach can better serve their students.

A second critical resource or area for those working with students that have experienced

GBV is the Safe Space/Zone program. This program helps individuals to be better allies for those

that are sexual- or gender-minority individuals (Coulter & Rankin, 2017). Furthermore, once an

individual has completed the Safe Space/Zone program, they are encouraged to place the Safe

Space/Zone sticker in a place that is highly visible (Coulter & Rankin, 2017). Overall, this

program is meant to show to students of all kinds that they are welcome in this particular office
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(Coulter & Rankin, 2017). Furthermore, if enough individuals place the sticker in a highly

visible location, this can help to “create a more welcoming and inclusive campus climate,” which

can then create a better higher education structure to serve these students better (Coulter &

Rankin, 2017, p. 11). This is an important point because those that are sexual- and/or gender-

minority students are at a far greater risk of experienced GBV than cisgender heterosexual

college students (Coulter & Rankin, 2017). Said differently, 21% of transgender, genderqueer, or

nonconforming students have exerpeinced GBV or will experience GBV while in college (Rape,

Abuse and Incest National Network, 2017). Thus, it is highly important to create an enviornment

that allows for these students to be heard as they are far more likely to experience GBV while in

college (Coulter & Rankin, 2017).

The final area of important to note is the Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network

(RAINN). RAINN is a beneficial resource for everyone to know about because GBV can truly

affect anyone at any time, but it is incredibly important to know about if working with college

students. This network hosts a 24-7 helpline that is both over the phone and through a live chat

(Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network, 2017). Furthermore, the importance of RAINN is

that it has statistics, descriptions, policies, and more to inform not only the practitioner, faculty,

or staff member, but also the student that experienced GBV (Rape, Abuse and Incest National

Network, 2017). In other words, this is a great resource to direct anyone to if they have

experienced or know someone that has experienced GBV.

Additional Considerations

All in all, there are many things to consider when working with students that have

experienced GBV. A couple of main points focus on emotional and psychological wellbeing,

institutional betrayal, and even feminist ideals. Regarding emotional and psychological
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wellbeing, many individuals that have experienced GBV tend to feel incredibly low self-worth,

especially if they do not receive the care and support they need (Holland & Cortina, 2017).

Therefore, if individuals do not feel supported in the structure of their institution, as noted

previously, they are not as likely to do as well in their schooling at the institution (Holland &

Cortina, 2017).

Furthermore, those that experienced GBV have the possibility of feeling institutional

betrayal, especially if they see the institution not answering in, what they view as, the “correct”

way (Stader & Williams-Cunningham, 2017). This feeling occurs for individuals that feel the

institution has “deliberately or unknowingly cause[d] harm to an individual who trusts or

depends on that institution to keep them safe and treat them fairly” (Stader & Williams-

Cunningham, 2017, p. 198). Said differently, this occurs when a student that has experienced

GBV feels that the college has betrayed them and has not kept the individual safe, which is an

expectation of the institution from the individual (Stader & Williams-Cunningham, 2017). Thus,

if a practitioner, staff, or faculty member supports them in a more notable way, such as through a

trauma-informed approach, the individual that experienced GBV will likely not feel the full brunt

of institutional betrayal (McCauley & Casler, 2015).

A final important consideration focuses on feminist ideals and their relation to

experienced GBV and sexism (Valentine, Gefter, Bankoff, Rood & Pantalone, 2017).

Specifically, it has been found that individuals that have either first-hand experienced sexism or

have experienced GBV, are more likely to adopt feminist attitudes and beliefs (Valentine et al.,

2017). However, it is also important to note that most of these individuals that have experienced

GBV and do adopt feminist values, tend to not self-identify as a “feminist” (Valentine et al.,

2017). This is important to know because individuals that do not self-identify as a “feminist”
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likely feel that the feminist label holds a stigma in society or in a culture, especially if that

society or culture is heavily sexist (Valentine et al., 2017).

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spx

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