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5 Conclusions
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Outline
5 Conclusions
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Lossy media
D = d E, J = σE, B = µH
σ
c = d − j
ω
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Examples of lossy media
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Characterization of lossy media
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Maxwell’s equations in lossy media
Assuming dependence only on z we obtain
∂
ẑ × E = −jωµc H
(
∇ × E = −jωµc H
⇒ ∂z
∇ × H = jωc E ∂ ẑ × H = jω E
c
∂z
Nothing really changes compared to the lossless case, for instance
it is seen that the fields do not have a z-component. This can be
written as a system
∂ E 0 −jkc E
=
∂z ηc H × ẑ −jkc 0 ηc H × ẑ
where the complex wave number kc and the complex wave
impedance ηc are
√
r
µc
kc = ω c µc , and ηc =
c
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The parameters in the complex plane
√
For passive media, the parameters c , µc , and kc = ω c µc take
p
their values in the complex lower half plane, whereas ηc = µc /c
is restricted to the right half plane.
Im Im
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
11111111111111
00000000000000
Re
00000000
11111111 Re
00000000000000
11111111111111 00000000
11111111
00000000000000
11111111111111 00000000
11111111
00000000000000
11111111111111 00000000
11111111
00000000000000
11111111111111 00000000
11111111
00000000000000
11111111111111 00000000
11111111
00000000000000
11111111111111 00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
Equivalently, all parameters (jωc , jωµc , jkc , ηc ) take their values in
the right half plane.
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Solutions
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Exponential attenuation
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Power flow
The power flow is given by the Poynting vector
∗
1 −jβz−αz 1 −jβz−αz
P(z) = Re E 0 e × ẑ × E 0 e
2 ηc
1 1
= ẑ Re |E 0 |2 e−2αz = P(0)e−2αz
2 ηc∗
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Characterization of attenuation
δ = 1/α
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Characterization of losses
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Example of material properties
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Approximations for weak losses
In weakly lossy dielectrics, the material parameters are (where
00c 0c )
c = 0c − j00c = 0c (1 − j tan θ)
µc = µ0
The wave parameters can then be approximated as
√ p
0
1
kc = ω c µc ≈ ω c µ0 1 − j tan θ
2
r r
µc µ0 1
ηc = ≈ 1 + j tan θ
c 0c 2
If the losses are caused mainly by a small conductivity, we have
00c = σ/ω, tan θ = σ/(ω0c ), and the attenuation constant
r
1 p 0 σ σ µ0
α = − Im(kc ) = ω c µ0 0 =
2 ωc 2 0c
is proportional to conductivity and independent of frequency.
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Example: propagation in sea water
A simple model of the dielectric properties of sea water is
4 S/m
c = 0 81 − j
ω0
that is, it has a relative permittivity of 81 and a conductivity of
σ = 4 S/m. The imaginary part is much smaller than the real part
for frequencies
4 S/m
f = 888 MHz
81 · 2π0
for which we have α = 728 dB/m. For lower frequencies, the exact
calculations give
f = 50 Hz α = 0.028 dB/m δ = 35.6 m
f = 1 kHz α = 1.09 dB/m δ = 7.96 m
f = 1 MHz α = 34.49 dB/m δ = 25.18 cm
f = 1 GHz α = 672.69 dB/m δ = 1.29 cm
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Approximations for good conductors
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Skin depth
f = 50 Hz δ = 9.35 mm
f = 1 kHz δ = 2.09 mm
f = 1 MHz δ = 0.07 mm
f = 1 GHz δ = 2.09 µm
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Surface impedance
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Outline
5 Conclusions
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Generalized propagation factor
e−jkz → e−jk·r
∇(e−jk·r ) = −jk(e−jk·r )
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Properties of the solutions
k × (k × E 0 ) = −ω 2 µE 0
k 2 = k · k = ω 2 µ
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Preferred direction
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TM and TE polarization
kc2 = k · k = ω 2 c µc
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Outline
5 Conclusions
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The plane wave monster
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Finite extent in the xy-plane
We can represent a field distribution with finite extent in the
xy-plane using a Fourier transform (where kt = kx x̂ + ky ŷ):
∞
ZZ
1
E t (kx , ky ; z)e−jkt ·r dkx dky
E t (x, y; z) =
(2π)2
−∞
∞
ZZ
E t (x, y; z)ejkt ·r dx dy
E (k , k ; z) =
t x y
−∞
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Initial distribution
Assume a Gaussian distribution in the plane z = 0
2 +y 2 )/(2b2 )
E t (x, y; 0) = Ae−(x
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Paraxial approximation
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Computing the field
Inserting the paraxial approximation in the Fourier integral implies
∞
ZZ
1 2 2 b2 z
E t (x, y; z) ≈ Ab2 e−(kx +ky )( 2 −j 2k )−j(kx x+ky y)−jkz dkx dky
2π
−∞
Ab2 −(x2 +y2 )/(2F 2 ) −jkz
= e e
F2
1
where F 2 = b2 − jz/k = jk (z + jkb2 ) = q(z)/(jk).
I q(z) = z + jz0 is known as the q-parameter of the beam.
I z0 = kb2 is known as the Rayleigh range.
The final expression for the beam distribution is then
2 2
A − x +y
E t (x, y; z) ≈ e 2b2 (1−jz/z0 ) e−jkz
1 − jz/z0
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Beam width
33 / 46
Beam width
5 Conclusions
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The Doppler effect
Classical formulas:
c c
fb = = fa
λb c − va
c − vb c − vb
fb = = fa
λa c
11111111111111
00000000000000
Re
00000000000000
11111111111111
00000000000000
11111111111111
00000000000000
11111111111111
00000000000000
11111111111111
00000000000000
11111111111111
00000000000000
11111111111111
This means we could very well have c /0 ≈ −1 and µc /µ0 ≈ −1
for some frequency.
p What is then the appropriate value for
√ p
k = ω c µc = k0 (c /0 )(µc /µ0 ) = k0 (−1)(−1),
k = +k0 or k = −k0 ?
38 / 46
Negative refractive index
Simple solution: consider all parameters in the right half plane and
approach the negative axis from inside the half plane, using the
standard square root (with branch cut along negative real axis):
p
jkc = (jωc )(jωµc )
Im Im Im Im Im
jk
ǫ jωǫ √ n=
µ jωµ jωǫ · jωµ jk = jωǫ · jωµ jk0
Re Re Re Re Re
39 / 46
Consequences of negative refractive index
ej(ωt−kz) = ej(ωt+|k|z)
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Negative refraction
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Realization of negative refractive index
I Artificial materials,
“metamaterials”
I Periodic structures
I Resonant inclusions
I Small losses
required
I Theoretical and
practical challenges
I Very hot topic since
about 10 years
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Example: two Lorentz models
²(!)
4
²s
2 ²m =1.5
Re ²1
Im !
0
0.1 1 10
²m =-1
-2
j²(!)-²m j
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 j²(!)+1j
j²(!)+1j j²(!)-1.5j
!
0
0.1 1 10
5 Conclusions
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Conclusions
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