DMA AD Lighting Handbook 1sted Elec - Ver Part 1 PDF

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Abu Dhabi
Public Realm & Street
Lighting
Handbook
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 3
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
F I R S T E D I T I O N 2 0 1 4
4 Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook
His Highness Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan His

President of the United Arab Emirates, Ruler of Abu Dhabi Emirate Crown P
His Highness General Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan

Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed
Forces and Chairman of the Abu Dhabi Executive Council
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Note:
The “Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” development process brings together contributors representing varied
viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus on lighting recommendations. While the contributors tried to administer the process and
to establish policies and procedures to promote at first independency in the development of consensus, it must be said that a main basic
input is to develop the lighting design and implementation process especially for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In this regard it makes no
guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.
The contributors disclaim liability for any injury to persons or property or for damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect,
consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance on this document.
In issuing and making this document available, the contributors are not undertaking to render professional or any other kind of services
for or on behalf of any person or entity. Nor are the contributors undertaking to perform any duty owed by any person or entity to someone
else. Anyone using this document should rely on his or her own independent judgement or, as appropriate, seek the advice of competent
professionals in determining the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances.
The contributors have no power, nor do they undertake, to police or enforce compliance with the contents of this document. Nor do the
contributors list, certify, test or inspect products, designs or installations for compliance with this document. Any certifications or statements
of compliance with the requirements of this document shall not be attributable to the contributors and is solely the responsibility of the
certifier or maker of the statement.
It is acknowledged by the editors and the publisher that all the service marks, trademarks, and copyrighted images/graphics (if any) in
this book are for editorial purposes only and to the benefit of the service mark, trademark or copyright owner, with no intention of infringing
on that service mark, trademark, or copyright. Nothing in this handbook should be construed to imply that respective service mark, trade-
mark, or copyright holder endorses or sponsors this handbook or any of its contents.
For general information please visit the Abu Dhabi City Municipality at www.adm.gov.ae page.
Imprint
Department of Municipal Affairs Abu Dhabi; Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook, First Edition
Copyright © 2014 by Abu Dhabi City Municipality, and the Editing Consultant Team:
World Planners Consultant Engineers LLC and
Lichttechnische Planung - Lighting Design Austria e.U.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form,
in any electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission
of the Abu Dhabi City Municipality and that of the contributors.
ISBN 978-3-200-03884-4
Printed in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi



Foreword
Foreword:
Abu Dhabi has long been recognized worldwide as a global leader in the promotion and
development of sustainable infrastructure. The Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council developed
the ‘Abu Dhabi 2030 Structure Framework Plan’ to optimize the Emirate’s development through
a 25-year program of urban evolution and in doing so it is laying the foundation for socially
cohesive and economically sustainable community that preserves the Emirates’ unique cultural
heritage. This foresight to plan for sustainable infrastructure ahead of time is a key example
of visionary government.
The Abu Dhabi City Municipality working with The Department of Municipal Affairs in 2010
launched the Abu Dhabi Sustainable Lighting Strategy to ensure the vision for quality and
sustainable lighting would be at the core of all future development.
Le Corbusier, the iconic Swiss architect and renowned protagonist of the modern architecture
movement wrote in 1950 “Urbanism and Architecture and Light are Inseparable” and the
Municipality of Abu Dhabi has long since recognized the importance of ‘Light’ and ‘Sustainable
Lighting’ to be provided as an essential public service both within the City limits and beyond in
the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.
The Municipalities over the last four years have taken the initiative forward through new
Lighting Specifications and project designs to address the overriding importance of Urbanism,
Architecture and Sustainable Lighting and now prides itself on being among the first Civic
Authorities to promote an expansive technical lighting handbook in support of the Sustainable
Lighting Strategy.
The Department of Municipal Affairs, Abu Dhabi City Municipality, Al Ain Municipality and
Western Region Municipality are pleased and proud to introduce this new ‘Abu Dhabi Public
Realm & Street Lighting Handbook’ as a universal guide for lighting design, for the promotion
of the art, science and technical aspects of lighting and as a tool to aid understanding,
promote education and improve sustainable lighting practice in the years ahead.
H.E Saeed Eid Al Ghafli

Chairman of the Department of Municipal Affairs
Emirate of Abu Dhabi
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Department of Municipal Affairs:

Address: Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA), Al Markaziya, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 3
Telephone: +971 2678555, Fax: +971 2677 7755, Web: www.dma.abudhabi.ae
Municipality of Abu Dhabi City:

Address: Abu Dhabi City Municipality (ADM), Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 263
Telephone: +971 26788888, Fax: +971 2677 3338, Web: www.adm.gov.ae
ADM Project Coordinator/Advisor: Martin Valentine MSLL PLDA
Stakeholders:
Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA) Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC)
Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council (UPC) Abu Dhabi City Municipality (ADM)
Al Ain City Muncipality (AAM) Western Region Municipality (WRM)
Department of Transport (DoT) Masdar
Musanada
Acknowledgements
H.E. Musabbah Mubarak Musabbah Al Marar, Acting General Manager, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Eisa Mubarak Al Mazrouei, Executive Director, Municipal Infrastructure & Assets Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Majed Abed Al Kathiri, Division Director, Internal Roads and Infrastructure, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Ahmed Saif Al Saedi, Section Head – O&M of Internal Roads & Street Lighting and Public realm Team, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Jamal El Zarif, Ph.D. Technical Advisor, Municipal Infrastructure & Assets Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Ian Rose, Landscape Consultant, Parks & Recreational Facilities Division, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Mona Rizk, Project Development Consultant, Parks & Recreational Facilities Division, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Khaled N. Al Junadi, Environment Expert, Town Planning Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Khaled Jaman Al Sokhny, Consultant-Coordination-ADEA, Infrastructure Coordination & Services, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Martin Valentine MSLL PLDA, Lighting Expert, Executive Director Office, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Gordon McMurray, Head of Project Management, World Planners Consultant Engineers (WP) llc
Contributors
LLC
Local Consultant:
World Planners Consultant Engineers LLC
Address: P.O.Box: 126634 Abu Dhabi, UAE
Tel: 00971-2-22 22 052
Fax: 00971-2-22 22 171
Email: info@wpc.ae
Managing Director Mr. Arch. Camille Feghali
ouncil (ADQCC)
Foreign Lighting Consultant:

Lichttechnische Planung - Lighting design Austria e.U.
Address: Marienstrasse 23, 3032 Eichgraben, Austria
Tel & Fax: 0043 2773 43534
Email: office@LDA.at
unicipality Managing Director / Project Director: Mr. Helmut Regvart
Dhabi City Municipality Local Project Coordinator: Mr. Arch. Gordon McMurray
Project Lighting Designer: Mr. Eng. Deshprim Krasniqi
Project Lighting Designer: Ms. Arch. Elisabeta Manescu
abi City Municipality
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Preface:
Abu Dhabi City Municipality and the contribu- lighting applications, especially for outdoor
tors produce this “Abu Dhabi Public Realm & and in detail for all public realm lighting, provide
Street Lighting Handbook” to guide and to give luminance recommendations for specific tasks
authoritative recommendations to those who and areas, and identify some of the analytic
design, specify, install, and maintain lighting goals of lighting design using science and
systems, and as an impartial source of informa- technology.
tion for the public. The “Abu Dhabi Public
Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” contains During the past years, the science, technology,
a mix of science, technology and design; and the design practice related to lighting has
mirroring the nature of lighting itself. advanced significantly. Vision and biological
sciences have deepened knowledge of com-
Four main sections are represented in this first plex relationship between light and health,
edition: Visual Effects of Lighting, Recommen- adding both opportunity and awareness of
dations – ADM Sustainable Lighting Strategy – the public of how lighting affects our lives.
Efficiency – The Problem of Light Pollution – Technology has transformed lighting with the
Visual Hierarchies for Public Realm Lighting, light emitting diode, now a practical source
Equipment and Lighting Design Standards. for general illumination in many cases. New
equipment, new testing procedures, and new
Visual Effects chapters describe the science application considerations have all risen in
and technology related to lighting, including response to this development. And the philoso-
vision, optics, non-visual effects of optical radia- phy, goals, and practice of architectural design
tion, photometry and light sources. have been deeply affected by concerns for
the natural environment and desires for more
Recommendations – ADM Sustainable Lighting sustainable buildings and public grounds. New
Strategy – Efficiency – The Problem of Light developments in sustainable practices and
Pollution – Visual Hierarchies for Public Realm lighting control technology provide ways to
Lighting chapters include not only fundamental respond to these concerns and expectations.
considerations of artificial lighting, but also
energy management, controls, and economics. New and helpful information is provided in the
chapters of visual effects and equipment and
Equipment and Lighting Design Standards in the lighting design standards chapters.
chapters establish the design context for many The aim is that in the future artificial lighting,
Preface
controls design and implementation tasks for safety especially for outdoor
throughout all public realm areas may design and implementation of lighting
act in concert to produce better luminous systems.
environments. The consequences of this
for the public realm energy consumption Among many effects of the new techno-
can be very large if design parameters logy and understanding of light and well-
and controls are an integral part of newly being, has been the emergence of wide
developed lighting systems. interest in new lighting technologies and
large questions of public policy regarding
The public hope and expectations of lighting, energy, sustainability, and health.
reducing the energy allotted to the public For these reasons this first edition of
realm have increased the challenge of “Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street
providing the lighting required for comfort, Lighting Handbook” has been designed
safety, and appropriate to the use of the and written for a very wide audience.
outdoor space. In response to these con-
straints, the contributors have established This first edition of the “Abu Dhabi Public
this first edition of “Abu Dhabi Public Realm Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” pro-
& Street Lighting Handbook” to generate vides information and recommendations
recommended illumination targets cited at that can guide designers and users of
different parts of this handbook. This fine lighting systems in the Emirate of Abu
and detailed information gives the designer Dhabi of both reduced lighting energy
and the client the ability to more carefully expectations and undiminished needs
match illuminance targets with visual for attractive, comfortable, productive
tasks outdoor. These recommendations luminous environments.
for outdoor applications will take into
account the activity levels and special The Contributors
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Chapter A
Fundamentals Page
1.0 Light 28
1.1 The Nature of Light 28
1.2 The CIE Standard Observers 28
2.0 The Measurement of Light – Photometry 30
2.1 Luminous Flux 30
2.2 Luminous Intensity 31
2.3 Illuminance 31
2.4 Luminance 31
2.5 Reflectance 31
2.6 Typical Values 33
2.7 The Measurement of Light – Colourimetry 34
2.8 The CIE Chromaticity Diagrams 34
2.9 Correlated Colour Temperature 37
2.10 CIE Colour Rendering Index 38
2.11 Colour Gamut 39
Chapter B
Vision Page
1.0 The Structure of the Visual System 42
1.1 The Visual Field 42
1.2 Optics of the Eye 42
1.3 The Structure of the Retina 43
1.4 The Central Visual Pathways 45
1.5 Colour Vision 46
2.0 Continuous Adjustments of the Visual Systems 47
2.1 Adaptation 47
2.1.1 Change in Pupil Size 47
2.1.2 Neutral Adaptation 47
2.1.3 Photochemical Adaptation 47
2.2 Photopic, Scotopic and Mesopic Observer 48
2.2.1 Photopic Vision 48
2.2.2 Scotopic Vision 48
2.2.3 Mesopic Vision 48
2.3 Accommodation 49
2.4 Capabilities of the Visual System 49
2.5 Threshold Measures 49
2.6 Factors Determining Visual Threshold 49
2.7 Colour Threshold 50
2.8 Visual Discomfort 51
2.9 Illuminance Uniformity 53
2.10 Glare 54
2.10.1 Saturation Glare 54
2.10.2 Adaptation Glare 54
2.10.3 Disability Glare 54
2.10.4 Discomfort Glare 56
2.10.5 Overhead Glare 57
2.11 Veiling Reflections 57
2.12 Shadows 58
Contents
Chapter C
Technology Page
1.0 Light Sources / Production of Radiation 62
1.1 Incandescence 62
1.2 Electric Discharges 63
1.3 Electroluminescence 63
1.4 Luminescence 64
2.0 Electric Light 65
2.1 Incandescent 65
2.2 Tungsten Halogen 67
2.3 Fluorescent 70
2.4 High Pressure Mercury
(also HID, Mercury Vapour, MVP Technique) 73
2.5 Metal Halide 75
2.6 Low Pressure Sodium 78
2.7 High Pressure Sodium 80
2.8 Induction 82
2.9 Conventional (non-LED) Luminaire Requirements 86
2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED) 87
2.10.1 The Main Components of LEDs 87
2.10.2 LED Luminaire Requirements 90
2.11 Electroluminescence 92
2.12 Plasma Lamp 95
2.12.1 Limited Life 96
2.12.2 Size 97
2.12.3 Heat and Power 97
2.12.4 High-Efficiency Plasma (HEP) 97
2.12.5 System Efficacy 97
2.12.6 CRI 98
3.0 Electric Light Source Characteristics 99
3.1 Luminous Flux 99
3.2 Power Demand 99
3.3 Luminous Efficiency 100
3.4 Lumen Maintenance 101
3.5 Life 101
3.6 Colour Properties 101
3.7 Run-up Time 101
3.8 Other Factors 101
3.9 Summary of Lamp Characteristics 103
4.0 Other Types of Lighting 104
4.1 Flames 104
4.2 Candle 104
4.3 Oil 104
4.4 Gas 105
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Chapter D
Luminaires Page
1.0 Basic Requirements 108
2.0 Electrical 108
2.1 Electrical Wiring 108
2.2 Earthing 108
3.0 Mechanical 108
3.1 Materials 109
3.1.1 Steel 109
3.1.2 Stainless Steel 109
3.1.3 Aluminium Sheet 109
3.1.4 Cast Aluminium – Extruded Aluminium 109
3.1.5 Plastics, PVC, Acrylic, etc. 109
3.1.6 Glass 109
3.1.7 Ceramics 109
4.0 Construction 110
5.0 Optical Control 110
5.1 Reflectors 110
5.2 Refractors 114
5.3 Diffusers 114
5.4 Baffles 114
5.5 Louvres 116
5.6 Filters 117
5.7 Luminaire Efficiency 118
5.8 Thermal 120
5.9 Environmental 120
6.0 Luminaire Types 120
6.1 Exterior Lighting 120
6.1.1 Road Lighting Luminaires 120
6.1.2 Post-Top Luminaires 121
6.1.3 Secondary Reflector Luminaires 123
6.2 Floodlights 123
6.3 Wall-mounted Luminaires 124
6.4 In-Ground (Above-Ground)
Up-Lights, Directional Lights 125
7.0 Certification and Classification 127
7.1 Certification 127
7.2 European (EU) Standards and Safety Trade Marks 127
7.3 United States of America (US) Standards
and Safety Trade Marks 132
7.3.1 The ANSI/UL 153 Standard 133
7.4 International used Standards and Safety Trade Marks 135
7.4.1 Operating Conditions (IP-Rating) 135
7.4.2 IK Code and Impact Energy 137
7.4.3 Electrical Protection 138
7.4.4 Separated or Safety Extra-Low Voltage (SELV) 139
7.4.5 Class II Insulation 140
7.4.6 Flammability 141
7.5 ADQCC and ESMA 142
7.5.1 Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC) 142
Contents
Page
7.5.1.1 Abu Dhabi Certification Scheme
for LED Exterior Lighting Fixtures (Luminaires) 142
7.5.1.2 Conformity Certificate 143
7.5.2 ESMA 143
7.5.2.1 Scope 144
7.5.2.2 Emirates Quality Mark 144
7.5.2.3 Energy Efficiency Label 145
8.0 Road Lighting Luminaires 146
8.1 Luminous Intensity Distribution 146
Chapter E
Electrics Page
1.0 Control Gear 154
1.1 Ballasts for Discharge Light Sources –
General Principles 154
1.1.1 Electromagnetic Control Gear
for Fluorescent Light Sources 155
1.1.2 Electromagnetic Control Gear for HID Light Sources 157
1.1.3 Low Pressure Sodium Lamp 158
1.1.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamp 158
1.1.5 Electronic Control Gear
for Fluorescent Light Sources 159
1.1.6 Electronic Control Gear for HID Light Sources 160
1.1.7 Iron-Core Transformers for Low-Voltage
Light Sources 161
1.1.8 Electronic Transformers for Low-Voltage
Light Sources 162
1.1.9 Drivers for LEDs 163
2.0 Lighting Controls 164
2.1 Options for Control 164
2.2 Input Devices 164
2.2.1 Manual Inputs 164
2.2.2 Presence Detectors 164
2.2.3 Timers 164
2.2.4 Photocells 164
2.2.5 Advanced Lighting Control Systems 165
2.3 Control Processes and Systems 167
2.3.1 0-10V or 1-10V Dimming Systems 167
2.3.2 DSI/DALI Lighting Control /
Dimming System Description 168
2.3.3 DMX 512 or DMX512-A Lighting Control
System Description 169
2.3.4 LON (Local Operating Network)
Lighting Control Systems 171
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Chapter F
Applications Page
1.0 Lighting Design 176
1.1 Objectives and Constraints 176
1.2 A Holistic Strategy for Lighting 177
1.3 Legal Requirements 177
1.4 Visual Function 178
1.5 Visual Amenity 180
1.6 Lighting and Architectural Integration 184
1.7 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability 185
1.8 Maintenance 186
1.9 Lighting Costs 189
2.0 Photopic or Mesopic Vision 189
3.0 Light Trespass and Skyglow 194
4.0 Basic Design Decisions 198
4.1 Choice of Electric Lighting System 198
4.2 Integration 201
4.2.1 Integration within the Space 201
4.2.2 Integration with the Surroundings 203
4.2.3 Integration with other Services 204
4.2.4 Integration with Daylight 205
4.3 Equal and Approved 207
Chapter G
Road Lighting Page
1.0 Road – Public Realm Classification 210
1.1 Lighting for Traffic Routes 210
2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial 210
2.1 Short-Cut Tutorial for DIALux 4.12.0.1 –
for standard Street Lighting Calculations 210
3.0 Lighting Recommendations for Traffic Routes 224
3.1 Design Criteria used to define Lighting
for Traffic Routes 224
3.1.1 Overall Luminance Uniformity 224
3.1.2 Longitudinal Luminance Uniformity 225
3.1.3 Threshold Increment 225
3.1.4 Surround Ratio 225
3.2 Lighting Classes for Traffic Routes 227
3.3 Samples of Streetlighting Calculations 229
3.3.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation
for a typical Highway Layout 231
for a typical Boulevard Layout 232
for a typical Avenue Layout 234
for a typical Street Layout 235
for a curvy Street Layout 237
Contents
3.4 Lighting Recommendations
for Areas adjacent to the Carriageway 238
3.5 Lighting Recommendations for Conflict Areas 238
3.5.1 Average Road Surface Illuminance 238
3.5.2 Overall Illuminance Uniformity 239
3.6 Samples of typical Conflict Area Lighting
Calculations 240
for a typical Two Lane Roundabout Layout 240
for a typical One Lane Roundabout Layout 241
for a typical Street (mini) Roundabout Layout 243
3.6.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a
typical Junction of Boulevard / Boulevard Layout 245
for a typical Junction of Street / Street Layout 247
3.7 Coordination 249
3.8 Traffic Route Lighting Design Fundamentals 249
3.8.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition
of relevant Area 249
3.8.2 Collection of Preliminary Data 249
3.8.3 Calculation of Design Spacing 253
3.8.4 Plotting of Luminaire Positions 258
4.0 Lighting for Subsidiary Roads 259
4.1 Lighting Recommendations for Subsidiary Roads 259
4.2 Lighting Design for Subsidiary Roads 261
4.2.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition
of relevant Area 261
4.2.2 Collection of Preliminary Data 262
4.2.3 Calculation of Design Spacing 262
4.2.4 Plotting of Luminaire Positions 262
5.0 Lighting for Urban Centres and Public
Amenity Areas 263
6.0 Pedestrian Underpasses in Public Realm Areas 265
7.0 Tunnel Lighting 269
8.0 Entrances or Underpasses, Underground Car Park
Facilities 278
9.0 Car Parks (above Ground) 279
9.1 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
Low-Risk Car Park next to Streets 280
Medium-Risk Car Park next to Streets 281
Medium-Risk Car Park 283
High–Risk Car Park 286
10.0 Service Stations and Mini-marts 290
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Chapter H
Exterior Workplace Lighting Page
1.0 Functions of Lighting in Exterior Workplaces 294
2.0 Factors to be Considered 294
2.1 Scale 294
2.2 Nature of Work 294
2.3 Need for Good Colour Vision 294
2.4 Obstruction 295
2.5 Interference with Complementary Activities 295
2.6 Hours of Operation 295
2.7 Impact on the Surrounding Area 295
2.8 Atmospheric Conditions 295
3.0 Lighting Recommendations 296
3.1 Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity 296
3.2 Glare Control 296
3.3 Light Source Colour Properties 298
3.4 Localised Lighting 299
Chapter I
Security Lighting Page
1.0 Functions of Security Lighting 302
1.1 Factors to be Considered 302
1.2 Type of Site 302
1.3 Site Features 303
1.4 Ambient Light Levels 304
1.5 Crime Risk 304
1.6 CCTV Surveillance 304
1.7 Impact on the Surrounding Area 304
2.1 Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity 305
2.2 Glare Control 307
2.3 Light Source Colour Properties 307
3.0 Approaches to Security Lighting 308
3.1 Secure Areas 308
3.1.1 Area Lighting 308
Contents
Chapter J
Public Realm Lighting Page
1.0 Public Realm Definition 312
1.1 Guiding Principles for Public Realm Lighting 313
1.2 Design Considerations for Public Realm Lighting 314
1.2.1 Visual Hierarchy 315
1.2.2 Lighting Techniques 316
1.2.3 Colour 318
1.2.4 Fixture Aesthetics & Theme 320
1.2.5 Detailing and Documentation 321
1.2.6 Public Wellbeing and Safety 322
1.2.7 Solar 326
2.0 Public Realm Typical Elements 328
2.1 Pathway Lighting 329
2.1.1 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
Main Pathway (10 lux) using
Typical Direct-Optic Column-Top Luminaires 330
Secondary Pathway (5 lux) using
Typical Direct-Optic Column-Top Luminaires 332
Main Pathway (10 lux) using Typical Direct/Indirect
Secondary-Reflector Column-Top Luminaires 334
Secondary Pathway (5 lux) using Bollard Luminaires 336
2.2 Tree Lighting 339
2.2.1 Introduction 339
2.2.2 Examples of Tree Lighting in Public Realm 340
2.2.3 Techniques for Tree Uplight Luminaires 342
2.3 Water Feature Lighting 344
2.3.1 Introduction 344
2.3.2 Interaction of Light with Water 344
2.3.3 Techniques for Lighting Water Features 346
2.4 Playgrounds and Play Areas 348
2.4.1 Introduction and Principles 348
2.4.2 Examples of Playground Lighting 350
2.5 Flexible Lawn Areas 352
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Chapter K
Sports Lighting Page
1.0 Functions of Lighting for Sports 356
1.1 Factors to be considered 356
1.2 Standard of Play and viewing Distance 357
1.3 Playing Area 358
1.4 Luminaires 358
1.5 Obtrusive Light 358
1.6.1 Athletics 361
1.6.2 Bowls, Boccia 361
1.6.3 Cricket 362
1.6.4 Fitness Training 362
1.6.5 Football (Association, Gaelic and American) 363
1.6.6 Lawn or Hardcover Tennis 363
1.6.7 Rugby 364
1.7 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for MUGA
(Multi-Use-Gaming-Area) 365
Chapter L
Lighting Performance
Verification Page
1.0 The Need for Performance Verification 368
1.1 Relevant Operating Conditions 368
2.0 Instrumentation 369
2.1 Illuminance Meters 369
2.2 Luminance Meters 370
3.0 Methods of Measurement 372
3.1 Maintained average (mean) Illuminance 373
3.2 Interior Lighting 373
3.3 Exterior Lighting 374
4.0 Selection of a Grid for Calculation or Measurement 376
4.1 Straight Roadway Sections 376
4.2 Curved Roadway Sections 376
4.3 Traffic Conflict Areas 377
4.4 Measurement for all other Areas at Public Realm 377
4.5 Measurement of Illuminance Variation and Diversity 377
4.6 Illuminance Uniformity 378
4.7 Luminance Measurements 378
4.8 Measurement of Reflectance 378
Contents
Chapter M
Lighting Maintenance Page
1.0 The Need for Lighting Maintenance 384
1.1 Lamp Replacement 386
1.2 Cleaning Luminaires 387
1.3 Outdoor Surface Cleaning 387
2.0 Maintained average (mean) Illuminance 388
2.1 Designing for Lighting Maintenance 388
2.2 Determination of Maintenance Factor
for Interior Lighting 389
2.3 Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor 389
2.4 Lamp Survival Factor 390
2.5 Luminaire Maintenance Factor 391
2.6 Room (exterior) Surface Maintenance Factor 392
2.7 Determination of Maintenance Factor
for Standard Exterior Lighting 394
3.0 Disposal of Lighting Equipment 395
Chapter N
On the Horizon Page
1.0 Changes and Challenges 398
1.1 The Changes and Challenges
facing Lighting Practice 398
1.1.1 Costs 398
1.1.2 Technologies 398
1.1.3 Specifications of LED Products 398
2.0 Three main Topics to be considered by designing
or using LED Systems 399
2.1 System Reliability 399
2.2 LED Performance 400
2.3 Optical Performance 400
2.4 PCB Quality and Design 400
2.5 Finish of the Luminaires 400
2.6 Mechanical Quality – IP Rating, etc. 400
2.7 Thermo Management 401
2.8 Housing Design 401
2.9 Gaskets, Sealants 401
2.10 Electrical Connections – Internal / External 401
2.11 Control Gear, Driver Design and Quality 401
2.12 Drive Current / LED Technique in General 401
2.13 Manufacturing 402
2.14 Operational Environments 402
3.0 Life 402
3.1 Lifetime 402
3.1.1 Failure Fraction 403
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
4.0 Luminaire Manufacturers Design Data 402

4.1 LED light Source / Luminaire / System Data 404
4.2 Measured LED Module Data 404
4.3 Measured Luminaire Data 404
4.4 Rated Power 404
4.5 Power Factor 404
4.6 Rated Lumen Output 404
4.7 Light Loss Maintenance Factor 404
4.8 Rated Luminaire Efficacy 405
4.9 The Board Temperature 405
4.10 Lumen Depreciation 405
4.11 Life 405
4.12 Failure Fraction 405
4.13 Colour Temperature 405
4.14 Colour Maintenance 405
4.15 Colour Temperature Tolerance 405
4.16 Colour Rendering Index of the Luminaire 406
4.17 Light Intensity Distribution 406
4.18 Temperature Cycling Shock Test 406
4.19 Supply Voltage Switching Test 407
4.20 Thermal Endurance Test 407
5.0 Data required for Specification of LED and /
or LED Luminaires / Systems 407
6.0 Lighting Controls 408
7.0 New Knowledge 408
8.0 Energy Consumption and Environmentally friendly
sustainable Lighting Design Approach 408
8.1 Environmentally friendly Lighting Design 409
8.2 Energy Sustainability 410
8.3 Energy Sources 410
8.4 Solar Street Lighting Developments as a Future Way
to reduce Energy Demand 411
9.0 Sustainable Lighting Design Codes of Practice
and Industrial Standards 414
10.0 Institutes and Societies for Standardisation,
Regulations and Societies for Lighting Technology 414
11.0 Conclusion 415
Contents
Chapter O
Lighting Vocabulary
from A to Z Page
A –Z 416 – 470
Chapter P
References Page
1.0 Acknowledgements 474
2.0 Executive Leadership and Higher Steering
Committee 475
3.0 Technical Advisory Committee 475
4.0 DMA Project Coordinator / Advisor 475
5.0 Consultant Team – The Contributors 475
6.0 References, Standards and Documents used to
develop this Comprehensive Handbook 477
6.1 Authorities, Local Standards and Guidelines
to be referred to for Development and Design
of Public Realm and Street Lighting 477
6.2 Norms, Standards and Publications used to
develop this Handbook 480
6.3 Referenced Norms and Standards – International 486
6.4 Referenced Norms and Standards - Local 488
7.0 Referenced Lighting Societies and Organisations 489
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Chapter A
Fundamentals
Fundamentals
1.0 Light
1.1 The Nature of Light

Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum that human visual system. The result is the photometry
stretches from cosmic rays to radio waves (Figure 1). system (see Chapter A / 2.0).
What distinguishes the wavelength region between
380-780 nanometres (nm) from the rest is the The Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE)
response of the human visual system. has established three standard observers to repre-
Photoreceptors in the human eye absorb energy in sent the sensitivity of the human visual system to
this wavelength range and thereby initiate the pro- light at different wavelengths, in different conditions.
cess of seeing. In 1924, the CIE adopted the Standard Photopic
Observer to characterise the spectral sensitivity of
the human visual system by day.
The commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE)

has established three standard observers to repre-
sent the sensitivity of the human visual system to
light at different wavelengths, in different conditions.
In 1990, in the interests of greater photometric

accuracy, the CIE produced a Modified Photopic
Observer, having greater sensitivity than the CIE
Standard Photopic Observer at wavelengths below
Figure 1 460 nm. This CIE Modified Photopic Observer is
A schematic diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum showing
the location of the visible spectrum. The divisions between the considered to be a supplement to the CIE Standard
different types of electromagnetic radiation are indicative only.
Photopic Observer not a replacement for it. As a
result, the CIE Standard Photopic Observer has
1.2 The CIE Standard Observers continued to be widely used by the lighting industry.
The sensitivity of the human visual system is not This is acceptable because the modified sensitivity
the same at all wavelengths in the range 380 nm to at wavelengths below 460 nm has been shown to
780 nm. This makes it impossible to adopt the ra- make little difference to the photometric properties of
diometric quantities conventionally used to measure light sources that emit radiation over a wide range of
the characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum wavelengths. It is only for light sources that emit si-
for quantifying light. Rather, a special set of quanti- gnificant amounts of radiation below 460 nm that
ties has to be derived from the radiometric quantities changing from the CIE Standard Photopic Observer
by weighting them by the spectral sensitivity of the to the CIE Modified Photopic Observer makes a
Fundamentals
significant difference to photometric proper- Observer are shown in Figure 2, the Standard
ties. Some narrow band light sources, such as and Modified Photopic Observers having
blue light emitting diodes, fall into this category. maximum sensitivities at 555 nm and the
Standard Scotopic Observer having a maxi-
In 1951, the CIE adopted the CIE Standard mum sensitivity at 507 nm. These relative
Scotopic Observer to characterise the spec- spectral sensitivity curves are formally known
tral sensitivity of the human visual system by as the 1924 CIE Spectral Luminous Efficiency
night. The Standard Scotopic Observer is and References Function for Photopic Vision,
used by the lighting industry to quantify the and the 1951 CIE Spectral Luminous Efficiency
efficiency of a light source at stimulating the Function for Scotopic Vision, respectively. More
rod photoreceptors of the eye (see Chapter commonly, they are known as the CIE V (λ),
B / 2.2). CIE VM (λ), and the CIE V` (λ) curves. These
curves are the basis of the conversion from
The CIE Standard and Modified Photopic radiometric quantities to the photometric
Observers and the CIE Standard Scotopic quantities used to characterise light.
Figure 2
The relative luminous efficiency functions for the CIE Standard Photopic Observer, the CIE Modified Photopic Observer,
the CIE Standard Scotopic Observer, and the relative luminous efficiency function for a 10 degree field of view in photopic
conditions.
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2.0 The Measurement of Light – Photometry
2.1 Luminous Flux

The most fundamental measure of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a source is its radiant flux:
This is the rate of flow of energy emitted and is measured in watts. The most fundamental quantity used to
measure light is luminous flux. Luminous flux is radiant flux multiplied, wavelength by wavelength, by the relative
spectral sensitivity of the human visual system, over the wavelength range 380 nm to 780 nm (Figure 3).
This process can be represented by the equation:
ĭ = Km Ȉ ȌȜ VȜ ¨Ȝ
where: ĭ = luminous flux (lumens)
ȌȜ = radiant flux in a small wavelength interval ¨Ȝ (watts)
VȜ = the relative luminous efficiency function for the conditions
Km = constant (lumens/watt)
¨Ȝ = wavelength interval
In System International (SI) units, the radiant flux is measured in watts (W) and the luminous flux in lumens (lm).
The values of Km are 683 lm/W for the CIE Standard and Modified Photopic Observers and 1699 lm/W for the
CIE Standard Scotopic Observer. It is always important to identify which of the CIE Standard Observers is being
used in any particular measurement or calculation. The CIE recommends that whenever the Standard Scotopic
Observer is being used, the word scotopic should precede the measured quantity, i.e. scotopic luminous flux.
Luminous flux is used to quantify the total light output of a light source in all directions.
Figure 3
The process for converting from radiometric to photometric quantities. The left-hand Figure shows the spectral power distribution of a light
source in radiometric quantities (watts/wavelength interval). The centre Figure shows the CIE Standard Photopic Observer.
Multiplying the spectral power at each wavelength by the luminous efficiency at the same wavelength given by the CIE Standard Photopic
Observer, the right-hand Figure is produced. The right-hand Figure is the spectral luminous flux distribution in photometric quantities
(lumens/wavelength interval).
Fundamentals
2.2 Luminous Intensity 2.4 Luminance
Luminous intensity is the luminous flux emit- The luminance of a surface is the luminous in-
ted/unit solid angle, in a specified direction. tensity emitted per unit projected area of the
Solid angle is given by area divided by the surface in a given direction. The unit of mea-
square of the distance and is measured in surement of luminance is the candela/m2
steradians. An area of 1 square metre at a (cd/m²). Luminance is widely used to define
distance of 1 metre from the origin subtends stimuli presented to the visual system.
one steradian. The unit of measurement of
luminous intensity is the candela, which is 2.5 Reflectance
equivalent to one lumen/steradian. Luminous As might be expected, there is a relationship
intensity is used to quantify the distribution of between the amount of light incident on a sur-
light from a luminaire. face and the amount of light reflected from the
same surface. The simplest form of the re-
2.3 Illuminance lationship is quantified by the luminance
Illuminance is the luminous flux falling on unit coefficient. The luminance coefficient is the
area of a surface. The unit of measurement of ratio of the luminance of the surface to the
illuminance is the lumen/m2 (lm/m²) or lux (lx). illuminance incident on the surface and has
The illuminance incident on a surface is the units of candela/lumen. The luminance coeffi-
most widely used electric lighting design cient of a given surface is dependent on the
criterion. Figure 4 shows some typical illumi- nature of the surface and the geometry bet-
nances on different surfaces under the noon- ween the lighting, surface and observer.
day sun in temperate climates.
There are two other quantities commonly
used to express the relationship between
the luminance of a surface and the illumi-
nance incident on it. For a perfectly diffusely-
reflecting surface, the relationship is given by
the equation:
(illuminan ce u reflectanc e)
luminance
ʌ
where luminance is expressed in candela/m2
Figure 4 and illuminance is expressed in lumens/m2
Typical illuminances on different surfaces under the
noonday sun in temperate climates. or lux (lx).
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For a diffusely-reflecting surface, reflectance is defi- of the surface viewed from a specific position and lit
ned as the ratio of reflected luminous flux to incident in a specified way to the luminance of a diffusely-
luminous flux. For a non-diffusely-reflecting surface, reflecting white surface viewed from the same
i.e. a surface with some specularity, the same equa- direction and lit in the same way. It should be clear
tion between luminance and illuminance applies but from this definition, that a non-diffusely-reflecting
reflectance is replaced with luminance factor. Lumi- surface can have many different values of the lumi-
nance factor is defined as the ratio of the luminance nance factor. Table 1 summarises these definitions.
Table 1
The photometric quantities:
Measure Definition Units

Luminous flux That quantity of radiant flux which lumens (lm)
expresses its capacity to produce
visual sensation
Luminous intensity The luminous flux emitted in a very candela (cd)
narrow cone containing the given
direction divided by the solid angle
of the cone, i.e. luminous flux/unit
solid angle
Illuminance The luminous flux/unit area lumen/m2 or lux
at a point on a surface
Luminance The luminous flux emitted in a candela/m2
given direction divided by the
product of the projected area of
the source element perpendicular
to the direction and the solid angle
containing that direction, i.e.
luminous intensity/unit area
Luminance coefficient The ratio of the luminance of a candela/lumen
surface to the illuminance incident
on it
Reflectance The ratio of the luminous flux
reflected from a surface to the
luminous flux incident on it
Fundamentals
For a diffuse surface:
(illuminan ce u reflectanc e)
luminance
ʌ
Measure Definition Units
Luminance factor The ratio of the luminous flux
reflected from a surface to the
luminous flux incident on it
The ratio of the luminance of a
reflecting surface viewed from a
given direction to that of a perfect
white uniform diffusing surface
identically illuminated
For a non-diffuse surface, for a specific direction and lighting geometry:
(illuminan ce u luminance factor)

luminance
ʌ
2.6 Typical Values

Table 2 shows some illuminances and luminances typical of commonly occurring situations,
all measured using the CIE Standard Photopic Observer.
Table 2
Typical illuminance and luminance values:
Situation Illuminance (lm/m2) Typical surface Luminance

or lux (cd/m2)
Clear sky in 100,000 lx Grass 1,910
summer in
temperate zones
Overcast sky in 16,000 lx Grass 300
summer in
temperate zones
Moonlight 0.5 lx Asphalt road surface 0.01
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2.7 The Measurement of Light — considered as another form of standard observer.

Colourimetry The CIE colour matching functions are mathematical
Photometry does not take into account the wave- constructs that reflect the relative spectral sensitivi-
length combination of the light. Thus it is possible for ties required to ensure that all the wavelength
two surfaces to have the same luminance but the combinations that are seen as the same colour have
reflected light to be made up of totally different combi- the same position in the CIE colourimetry system
nations of wavelengths. In this situation, and provided and that all wavelength combinations that are seen
there is enough light for colour vision to operate, the as different in colour occupy different positions.
two surfaces will look different in colour. The CIE co- Figure 5 shows two sets of colour matching
lourimetry system provides a means to quantify colour. functions. The CIE 1931 Standard Observer is used
for colours occupying visual fields up to 4° of angular
2.8 The CIE Chromaticity Diagrams subtense. The CIE 1964 Standard Observer is used
The basis of the CIE colourimetry system is colour for colours covering visual fields greater than 4° in
matching. The CIE Colour Matching Functions are angular subtense. The values of the colour matching
the relative spectral sensitivity curves of the human functions at different wavelengths are known as the
observer with normal colour vision and can be spectral tristimulus values.
Figure 5
Two sets of colour matching functions: The CIE 1931standard observer (2 degrees)
(solid line) and the CIE 1964 standard observer (10 degrees) (dashed line).
Fundamentals
The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram can be city coordinates move. The CIE 1931 chroma-
considered as a map of the relative location of ticity diagram is useful for indicating approxi-
colours. The saturation of a colour increases mately how a colour will appear, a value
as the chromaticity coordinates get closer to recognised by the CIE in that it specifies
the spectrum locus and further from the equal chromaticity coordinate limits for signal lights
energy point. The hue of the colour is deter- and surfaces so that they will be recognised
mined by the direction in which the chromati- as red, green, yellow, and blue.
Figure 6
The CIE 1931 Chromaticity Diagram showing the spectrum locus, the Planckian locus and the equal energy point).
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The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram is perceptually use of the CIE 1976 UCS diagram. Both diagrams
non-uniform. Green colours cover a large area while are simply linear transformations of the CIE 1931
red colours are compressed in the bottom right cor- chromaticity diagram. The axes for the CIE 1976
ner. This perceptual non-uniformity makes any UCS diagram are
attempt to quantify large colour differences using the
CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram problematic. In an u' = 4x/ (–2x+12y+3)v' = 9y/ (–2x+12y+ 3)
attempt to improve this situation, the CIE first intro-
duced the CIE 1960 Uniform Chromaticity Scale where x and y are the CIE 1931 chromaticity coordi-
(UCS) diagram and then, in 1976, recommended the nates. Figure 7 shows the CIE 1976 UCS diagram.
Figure 7
The CIE 1976 Uniform Chromaticity Scale diagram.
Fundamentals
2.9 Correlated Colour Temperature chromaticity coordinates. For light sources
While the CIE colourimetry system is the most that have chromaticity coordinates close to
exact means of quantifying colour, it is com- the Planckian locus but not on it, their colour
plex. Therefore, the lighting industry has used appearance is quantified as the correlated co-
the CIE colourimetry system to derive two sin- lour temperature, i.e. the temperature of the
gle-number metrics to characterise the colour isotemperature line that is closest to the
properties of light sources. The metric used to actual chromaticity coordinates of the light
characterise the colour appearance of the source. The temperatures are usually given in
light emitted by a light source is the correlated kelvins (K).
colour temperature. The basis of this measure
is the fact that the spectral power distribution As a rough guide, nominally-white light sour-
of a black body is defined by Planck’s ces have correlated colour temperatures
Radiation Law and hence is a function of its ranging from 2,700 K to 7,500 K. A 2,700 K
temperature only (see Chapter C, 1.1). light source, such as an incandescent lamp,
will have a yellowish colour appearance and
Figure 8 shows a part of the CIE 1931 be described as ‘warm’, while a 7,500 K
chromaticity diagram with the Planckian lamp, such as some types of fluorescent
locus shown. The locus is the curved line lamp, will have a bluish appearance and be
joining the chromaticity coordinates of black described as ‘cold’. It is important to appre-
bodies at different temperatures. The lines ciate that light sources that have chromaticity
running across the Planckian locus are coordinates that lie beyond the range of the
iso-temperature lines. When the CIE 1931 iso-temperature lines shown in Figure 8
chromaticity coordinates of a light source should not be given a correlated colour tem-
lie directly on the Planckian locus, the colour perature. The light from such light sources
appearance of that light source is expressed will appear greenish when the chromaticity
by the colour temperature, i.e. the tempera- coordinates lie above the Planckian locus or
ture of the black body that has the same purplish if they lie below it.
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Figure 8
The Planckian locus and lines of constant correlated colour temperature plotted on the CIE 1931 (x,y) chromaticity diagram.
Also shown are the chromaticity coordinates of CIE Standard Illuminants, A, C, and D65.
2.10 CIE Colour Rendering Index ween the two positions on a scale that gives perfect
The CIE colour rendering index measures how well a agreement between the two positions a value of
given light source renders a set of standard test co- 100. The CIE has fourteen standard test colours.
lours relative to their rendering under a reference The first eight form a set of pastel colours arranged
light source of the same correlated colour tempera- around the hue circle. Test colours nine to fourteen
ture as the light source of interest. represent colours of special significance, such as
The reference light source used is an incandescent skin tones and vegetation. The result of the calcula-
light source for light sources with a correlated colour tion for any single colour is called the CIE special
temperature below 5000 K and some form of day- colour rendering index, for that colour. The average
light for light sources with correlated colour tempera- of the special colour rendering indices for the first
ture above 5000 K. The actual calculation involves eight test colours is called the CIE general colour
obtaining the positions of a surface colour in the CIE rendering index (Ra). It is the CIE general colour ren-
1964, U*,V*, W*, colour space under the reference dering index that is usually presented in light source
light source and under the light source of interest, manufacturers’ catalogues. The CIE general colour
correcting for any difference in white point under the rendering index varies widely across light sources
two light sources and expressing the difference bet- (see Chapter C / 3.9).
Figure 9
The Ra8 and Ra14 colour fields
for description of colour rendering.
Fundamentals
2.11 Colour Gamut the positions of the individual test colours, the
The colour gamut of a light source is obtained extent to which the different parts of the hue
by calculating the position of the first eight CIE circle can be discriminated is apparent. From
standard test colours under the light source of its location on the CIE 1976 UCS diagram,
interest and plotting them on the CIE 1976 the appearance of colours can be appreciated
UCS diagram. When the plotted positions are to some degree. By plotting different light
joined together, the colour gamut is formed. sources on the same diagram it is easy to
The colour gamut can be reduced to a single make comparisons between light sources.
number by calculating the gamut area. Figure Further, by including the colour gamut of an
10 shows the colour gamuts for a number of ideal light source, such as daylight, it is pos-
different light sources. A great deal can be sible to evaluate how close to the ideal light
learnt from the colour gamut. From a conside- source is the light source of interest, as far as
ration of its shape and the spacing between colour rendering is concerned.
Figure 10
The colour gamuts for high pressure sodium, incandescent, fluorescent and metal halide light sources, and for the CIE Standard
Illuminant D65, simulating daylight, all plotted on the CIE 1976 uniform chromaticity scale diagram. The dotted curve is the
Planckian locus.
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Chapter B
Vision
Vision
1.0 The Structure of the Visual System 1.2 Optics of the Eye
The visual system consists of the eye and brain Figure 12 shows a section through the eye, the
working together. Functionally, the visual system is upper and lower halves being adjusted for focus at
an image-processing system that extracts specific near and far distances, respectively. The eye is basi-
aspects of the retinal image for interpretation by the cally spherical with a diameter of about 24 mm.
brain. The sphere is formed from three concentric layers.
The outermost layer, called the sclera, protects the
1.1 The Visual Field contents of the eye and maintains its shape under
Humans have two eyes, mounted frontally. Figure 11 pressure. Over most of the eye’s surface, the sclera
shows the approximate extent of the visual field of looks white but at the front of the eye the sclera
the two eyes in humans, measured in degrees from bulges up and becomes transparent. It is through
the point of fixation. The enclosed darker area can this area, called the cornea, that light enters the eye.
be seen with both eyes. The shaded area to the left The next layer is the vascular tunic, or choroid. This
is visible to the left eye only. The shaded area to the layer contains a dense network of small blood ves-
right is visible to the right eye only. sels that provide oxygen and nutrients to the next
layer, the retina. As the choroid approaches the front
of the eye it separates from the sclera and forms the
ciliary body. This element produces the watery fluid
that lies between the cornea and the lens, called the
aqueous humor. The aqueous humor provides oxy-
gen and nutrients to the cornea and the lens, and
takes away their waste products. Elsewhere in the
eye this is done by blood but on the optical pathway
through the eye, a transparent medium is necessary.
As the ciliary body extends further away from the

sclera, it becomes the iris. The iris forms a circular
opening, called the pupil, that admits light into the
Figure 11 eye. Pupil size varies with the amount of light
The binocular visual field expressed in degrees deviation from the
point of fixation. The shaded areas are visible to only one eye. reaching the retina but it is also influenced by the
Given this limited field of view for a fixed position, it is necessary
for the two eyes to be able to move. There are two ways this can distance of the object from the eye, the age of the
be done; by moving the head and by moving the eyes in the observer and by emotional factors such as fear,
head. Humans have a limited range of head movements but
a wide range of eye movements. excitement and anger.
Vision
Figure 12
A section through the eye adjusted for near and distant vision.
After passing through the pupil, light reaches shows the relative spectral sensitivity functi-
the lens. The lens is fixed in position, but va- ons of the three cone photoreceptor types,
ries its focal length by changing its shape. The called short (S), medium (M) and long (L)
change in shape is achieved by contracting or wavelength cones.
relaxing the ciliary muscles. For objects close
to the eye, the lens is fattened. For objects far
away, the lens is flattened.
1.3 The Structure of the Retina

The retina is an extension of the brain. The vi-
sual system has four photoreceptor types in
the retina, each containing a different photo-
pigment. These four types are conventionally
grouped into two classes, rods and cones.
All the rod photoreceptors are the same, con-
taining the same photopigment and hence
having the same spectral sensitivity. The other
three photoreceptor types are all cones, each
Figure 13
with a different photopigment. Figure 14 System sketch of retina section.
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Figure 14
The relative spectral sensitivities
of long wavelength (L),
medium wavelength (M)
and short wavelength (S)
cone photoreceptors.
Rods and cones are distributed differently across the retina (Figure 15). Cones are concentrated in one small
area that lies on the visual axis of the eye, called the fovea, although there is a low density of cones across the
rest of the retina.
Figure 15
shows the distribution of rod and
cone photoreceptors across the
retina. The 0 degree indicates the
position of the fovea. The three
cone types are also not distributed
equally across the retina. The L-
and M-cones are concentrated in
the fovea, their density declining
gradually with increasing eccentri-
city. The S-cones are largely absent
from the fovea; reach a maximum
concentration just outside the fovea
and then decline gradually in den-
sity with increasing eccentricity.
For more details about optics and function of eye please refer to the SLL Handbook article 2.1.3 and following ones.
Vision
1.4 The Central Visual Pathways
Signals from the retina are translated to the visual cortex of the brain over the central visual
pathways (Figure 16).
Figure 16
A schematic diagram of the pathways from the eyes to the visual cortex.
The optic nerves leaving the two eyes are movements, and to the suprachiasmatic
brought together at the optic chiasm where nucleus which is concerned with entraining
the nerves from each eye are split and parts circadian rhythms. After the lateral geniculate
from the same side of the two eyes are nuclei, the two optic nerves spread out to
combined. This arrangement ensures that supply information to various parts of the
the signals from the same side of the two visual cortex, the part of the brain where
eyes are received together on the same side vision occurs. The visual cortex is located
of the visual cortex. The pathways then at the back of cerebral hemispheres. About
proceed to the lateral geniculate nuclei. 80% of the cortical cells are devoted to the
Somewhere between leaving the eyes and central ten degrees of the visual field, the
arriving at the lateral geniculate nuclei, some centre of which is the fovea, a phenomenon
optic nerve fibers are diverted to the superior that again emphasises the importance of
colliculus, responsible for controlling eye the fovea.
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1.5 Colour Vision

Human colour vision is trichromatic. It is based on the L, M and S cone photoreceptors. Figure 17 shows
how the outputs from the three cone photoreceptor types are believed to be arranged. The achromatic channel
combines inputs from the M- and L-cones only. Its output is related to luminance. The other two channels are
opponent channels in that they produce a difference signal. These opponent channels are responsible for the
perception of colour. The red-green opponent channel produces the difference between the output of the
M-cones and the sum of the outputs of the L- and S-cones. The blue-yellow opponent channel produces the
difference between the S-cones and the sum of the M- and L-cones.
Figure 17
The organisation of the human colour system showing how the three cone photoreceptor types are believed to feed into one achromatic,
non-opponent channel and two chromatic, opponent channels.
The ability to discriminate the wavelength content of 100 such discriminations can be made. Having
incident light makes a dramatic difference to the three types of photopigment increases the number
information that can be extracted from a scene. of discriminations to approximately 1,000,000.
Creatures with only one type of photopigment, i.e. Thus, colour vision is a valuable part of the visual
creatures without colour vision, can only discriminate system, and not a luxury that adds little to utility.
shades of grey, from black to white. Approximately
Vision
2.0 Continuous Adjustments of the Visual System
2.1 Adaptation look around most lit interiors without being

To cope with the wide range of luminances to conscious of being misadapted.
which it might be exposed, from a very dark
night (10–6 cd/m2 means theoretically much 2.1.3 Photochemical Adaptation
less than 0.1 lux*) to a sunlit beach (106 cd/m2 The sensitivity of the eye to light is largely a
means theoretically more than 100,000 lux*), function of the percentage of unbleached
the visual system changes its sensitivity pigment in each photoreceptor. Under
through a process called adaptation. Adapta- conditions of steady retinal illumination, the
tion is a continuous process involving three concentration of photopigment produced by
distinct changes. the competing processes of bleaching and
regeneration is in equilibrium. When the retinal
2.1.1 Change in Pupil Size irradiance is changed, pigment is bleached
The iris constricts and dilates in response and regenerated so as to re-establish
to increased and decreased levels of retinal equilibrium. Because the time required to
illumination. The maximum change in retinal accomplish the photochemical reactions is of
illumination that can occur through pupil the order of minutes, changes in the sensiti-
changes is 16 to 1. As the visual system vity can lag behind the irradiance changes.
can operate over a range of about The cone photoreceptors adapt much more
1,000,000,000,000 to 1, this indicates rapidly than do the rod photoreceptors.
that the pupil plays only a minor role in Exactly how long it takes to adapt to a
the adaptation of the visual system. change in retinal illumination depends on the
magnitude of the change, the extent to which
2.1.2 Neural Adaptation it involves different photoreceptors and the
This is a fast (less than 200 ms) change in direction of the change. For changes in retinal
sensitivity produced in the retina. Neural illumination of about 2–3 log units, neural
processes account for virtually all the transi- adaptation is sufficient so adaptation should
tory changes in sensitivity of the eye at be complete in less than a second. For
luminance values commonly encountered in larger changes photochemical adaptation is
electrically lighted environments, i.e. below necessary. If the change in retinal illumination
luminances of about 600 cd/m2. The facts lies completely within the range of operation
that neural adaptation is fast, is operative at of the cone photoreceptors, a few minutes will
moderate light levels, and is effective over a be sufficient for adaptation to occur. If the
luminance range with a maximum to minimum change in retinal illumination covers from cone
ratio of 1000:1 explain why it is possible to photoreceptor operation to rod photoreceptor
* Conversion between cd/m2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above
Figures and based on typical experienced situations. Abu Dhabi
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operation, tens of minutes may be necessary for 2.2.2 Scotopic Vision

adaptation to be completed. As for the direction This occurs at luminances less than approximately
of change, once the photochemical processes are 0.001 cd/m2 (means approx. 0.02 lux)*. For these
involved, changes to a higher retinal illuminance luminances only the rod photoreceptors respond to
can be achieved much more rapidly than changes stimulation so colour is not perceived and the fovea
to a lower retinal illuminance. of the retina is blind.
When the visual system is not completely adapted to 2.2.3 Mesopic Vision
the prevailing retinal illumination, its capabilities are This is intermediate between the photopic and
limited. This state of changing adaptation is called scotopic states, i.e. between about 0.001 cd/m2 and
transient adaptation. Transient adaptation is unlikely 3 cd/m2 (means between approx. 0.02 lux and ap-
to be noticeable in interiors in normal conditions but prox. 0.2 lux)*. In the mesopic state both cones and
can be significant where sudden changes from high rod photoreceptors are active. As luminance
to low retinal illumination occur, such as on entering declines through the mesopic region, the fovea,
a long road tunnel on a sunny day or in the event of which contains only cone photoreceptors, slowly
a power failure in a windowless building. declines in absolute sensitivity without significant
change in spectral sensitivity, until vision fails
2.2 Photopic, Scotopic and Mesopic Vision altogether as the scotopic state is reached. In the
This process of adaptation can change the spectral periphery, the rod photoreceptors gradually come to
sensitivity of the visual system because at different dominate the cone photoreceptors, resulting in
retinal illuminances, different combinations of retinal gradual deterioration in colour vision and resolution
photoreceptors are operating. and a shift in spectral sensitivity to shorter wave-
lengths. The relevance of the different types of vision
The three states of sensitivity are conventionally for lighting practice varies. Scotopic vision is largely
identified as follows: irrelevant. Any lighting installation worthy of the name
provides enough light to at least move the visual
2.2.1 Photopic Vision system into the mesopic state. Most interior lighting
This occurs at luminances higher than approximately ensures the visual system is operating in the photo-
3 cd/m2 (seeing colours will start at approx. 0.2 lux, pic state. Current practice in exterior lighting ensures
depending on intensity of colour, age of viewer, and the visual system is often operating in the mesopic
adaption stage of eye)*. For these luminances, the state.
retinal response is dominated by the cone photore-
ceptors so both colour vision and fine resolution of All photometric quantities used by the lighting indu-
detail are available. stry are based on the CIE Standard Photopic Obser-
* Conversion between cd/m2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above
Figures and based on typical experienced situations.
Vision
ver, i.e. photopic vision. Therefore, it should 2.4 Capabilities of the Visual System
not come as a surprise when light sources The human visual system has a limited range
with different spectral content do not have the of capabilities. These limits, conventionally
same effects when used to provide mesopic called thresholds, are mainly of interest for
vision despite being matched photometrically. determining what will not be seen rather than
how well something will be seen. For the
2.3 Accommodation threshold measurements shown here the
There are three optical components involved observers were all fully adapted, the target
in the ability of the eye to focus an image on was presented on a field of uniform luminance
the retina, the thin film of tears on the cornea, and the observers’ accommodation was
the cornea itself, and the crystalline lens. The correct.
ciliary muscles have the ability to change the
curvature of the lens and thereby adjust the 2.5 Threshold Measures
power of the eye’s optical system in response The threshold capabilities of the human visual
to changing target distances; this change in system can conveniently be divided into spa-
optical power is called accommodation. tial, temporal and colour classes.
Accommodation is a continuous process, 2.6 Factors Determining

even when fixating, and is always a response Visual Threshold
to an image of the target located on or near There are three distinct groups of factors that
the fovea rather than in the periphery of the influence the measured threshold; visual sy-
retina. Any condition that handicaps the stem factors, target characteristics and the
fovea, such as a low light level, will adversely background against which the target appears.
affect accommodative ability. As adaptation Important visual system factors are the lumi-
luminance decreases below 0.03 cd/m2 nance to which the visual system is adapted,
(means approx. 0,6 lux)*. the range of the position in the visual field where the target
accommodation narrows so that it becomes appears, and the extent to which the eye is
increasingly difficult to focus objects near and correctly accommodated. As a general rule,
far from the observer. When there is no stimu- the lower the luminance to which the visual
lus for accommodation, as in complete system is adapted, the further the target is
darkness or in a uniform luminance visual from the fovea, and the more mismatched the
field such as occurs in a dense fog, the visual accommodation of the eye is to the viewing
system typically accommodates to approxi- distance, the larger will be the threshold
mately 70 cm away. values.
** Conversion between cd/m2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above
Figures and based on typical experienced situations. Abu Dhabi
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Important target characteristics are the size and that is of a similar luminance to the target and
luminance contrast of the target and the colour neutral in colour, the smaller will be the threshold
difference between the target and the immediate measure.
background. All three factors interact. For example,
the visual acuity for a low luminance contrast, 2.7 Colour Threshold
achromatic target will be much larger than for a high Figure 18 shows the MacAdam ellipses, ten times
luminance contrast, achromatic target when expres- enlarged, plotted in the CIE chromaticity diagram.
sed as minutes of arc but will be reduced if there is a Each ellipse represents the standard deviation in the
colour difference between the target and the back- chromaticity coordinates for colour matches made
ground. between the two parts of a 2–degree bipartite field
with the reference field having the chromaticity of the
As for the effect of the background against which centre point of the ellipse. The lighting industry uses
the target appears, the important factors are the four-step MacAdam ellipses as its tolerance limits for
area, luminance and colour of the background. As quality control in lamp manufacture.
a general rule, the larger the area around the target
Figure 18
The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram with the MacAdam Ellipses displayed, multiplied by ten times.
Vision
2.8 Visual Discomfort
There are four situations in which lighting installations may cause visual discomfort.
They are:
• Visual task difficulty, in which the lighting makes the required information
difficult to extract (Figure 19).
Figure 19
Visual discomfort – the beach in front is not visible, it is not possible to walk safe.
• Under- or over-stimulation, in which the visual environment is such that it

presents too little or too much information (Figure 20, 21).
Figure 20
Under-stimulation – walkways are not recognisable.
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Figure 21
Over-stimulation – glare, reflection, decorative lights, etc. – the check of the contents is sometimes required.
• Distraction, in which the observer’s attention is drawn to objects that do not contain the information
being sought (Figure 22).
Figure 22
The floor mounted lights are very bright, the parking and surrounding area is too dark to feel safe, or to recognise parking bays,
pedestrians, cars or other objects.
Vision
• Perceptual confusion, in which the pattern of illuminance can be confused with
the pattern of reflectance in the visual environment (Figure 23).
Figure 23
Confusion through different light sources, different designs, different light distribution and glare.
The occurrence of visual discomfort manifest it- 2.9 Illuminance Uniformity

self through eye strain like: Soreness, redness, Lighting recommendations almost always
blurring vision, tiredness, headaches, different include an illuminance uniformity criterion.
physical aches and pains. The most common These criteria can be direct or indirect.
aspects of lighting that cause visual discomfort Direct criteria are ratios of illuminance,
are insufficient light, too much variation in illumi- typically minimum/maximum or minimum/
nance between and across working surfaces, average measured on the relevant area.
glare, veiling reflections, shadows and flicker.
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2.10 Glare visual system being oversensitive. Adaptation glare is

The presence of a luminance much above the temporary in that visual adaptation will soon adjust
average for the visual field will produce discomfort the visual sensitivity to the new conditions. It can
and is called glare. There are fife forms of glare be avoided by providing a transition zone of interme-
associated with lighting installations. diate luminance, the transition zone being large
enough to allow the visual system time to adapt to
2.10.1 Saturation Glare the new conditions.
This occurs when a large part of the visual field is at
a very high luminance for a long time, e.g. sunlight 2.10.3 Disability Glare (mainly outdoor)
on snow. Saturation glare is painful and the beha- This occurs when high luminance is present in a low
vioural response is to shield the eyes in some way, luminance scene. Light from the source is scattered
e.g. by wearing low transmittance glasses. in the eye thereby forming a luminous veil over the
retinal image of parts of the scene adjacent to the
2.10.2 Adaptation Glare source. This luminous veil reduces the luminance
This occurs when the visual system is exposed to contrast and desaturates any colours in the retinal
a sudden, large increase in luminance of the whole image of the adjacent parts of the scene. The magni-
visual field, e.g. on exiting a long road tunnel into tude of disability glare is quantified by the equivalent
bright sunlight. The perception of glare is due to the veiling luminance. See Figure 24.
Figure 24
Disability glare makes the area darker as it is.
Vision
For glare sources within an angular range of 0.1 to 30 degrees, this is given by the equation:
En
LV = 10 T 2
n
where: LV = equivalent veiling luminance (cd/m2)

En = illuminance at the eye from the “nth” glare source (lx)
Ĭn = angle of the “nth” glare source from the line of sight (degrees)
Figure 25
Viewer in connection with luminaire producing glare.
The effect of the equivalent veiling luminance on the luminance contrast of an object can be estimated
by adding it to the luminance of both the object and the immediate background. Disability glare can be
associated with point sources and large area sources. The disability glare formulae can be applied directly
to point sources but for large area sources, the area has to be broken into small elements and the overall
effect integrated. Disability glare from point sources is experienced most frequently on the roads at night
when facing an oncoming vehicle. Disability glare from an extended source can occur when looking at
an object on a wall adjacent to a window. The sky seen through the window is the glare source.
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2.10.4 Discomfort Glare (indoor only)

This occurs when people complain about visual discomfort in the presence of bright light sources, luminaires
or windows. Discomfort glare is quantified by the Unified Glare Rating (UGR), derived from the equation:
0.25 L2s Z
UGR = 8 log10
Lb U2
where: UGR = Unified Glare Rating
Lb = background luminance (cd/m2), excluding the contribution of the glare sources.
This is numerically equal to the indirect illuminance on the plane of the observer’s eye,
divided by ʌ
Ls = luminance of the luminaire (cd/m2)
Ȧ = solid angle subtended at the observer’s eye by the luminaire (steradians)
p = Guth position index
UGR values typically range from 13 to 30, the lower the value, the less the discomfort. Luminaire manufacturers
publish UGR values for regular arrays of their luminaires in a number of standardised rooms. This enables
comparisons to be made between different luminaire types. When making such a comparison the smallest
meaningful difference is one whole unit in UGR.
Vision
2.10.5 Overhead Glare from specular surfaces that physically change
A high luminance immediately overhead can the contrast of the visual task and therefore
also cause discomfort, even when though it change the stimulus presented to the visual
cannot be seen when looking directly ahead. system (Figure 26). The two factors that deter-
The cause of the discomfort is distraction, mine the nature and magnitude of veiling
caused by high luminance reflections from reflections are the specularity of the surface
eyebrows, glasses and facial features. The being viewed and the geometry between the
UGR system can be applied to overhead glare observer, the surface, and any sources of high
to predict the magnitude of discomfort. luminance. If the surface is a perfectly diffuse
reflector, no veiling reflections can occur. If the
2.11 Veiling Reflections surface has a specular reflection component,
Veiling reflections are luminous reflections veiling reflections can occur.
Figure 26
A glossy dry street, with veiling reflections, caused by floodlights.
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Although veiling reflections are usually considered a negative outcome of lighting that can cause discomfort, they
can be used positively, but when they are, they are conventionally called highlights. Physically, veiling reflections
and highlights are the same thing. Display lighting of specularly reflecting objects is all about producing highlights
to reveal the specular nature of the surface.
2.12 Shadows
Although shadows can cause visual discomfort, it should be noted that they are also an essential element in
revealing the form of three-dimensional objects. Techniques of display lighting are based around the idea of
creating highlights and shadows to change the perceived form of the object being displayed. Many lighting
designers insist that the distribution of shadows is as important as the distribution of light in achieving an
attractive and meaningful visual environment.
The number and nature of shadows produced by a lighting installation depends on the size and number of light
sources and the extent to which light is inter-reflected around the space. The strongest shadow is produced
from a single point source in a black background. Weak shadows are produced when the light sources are large
in area and the degree of inter-reflection is high. See Figures 27, 28.
Figure 27
Shadows hiding light from above, safe walking is made more difficult.
Figure 28
Shadows through trees does not promote feeling of safety.
Vision
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Chapter C
Technology
Technology
1.0 Light Sources / Production of Radiation
1.1 Incandescence
When an object is heated to a high temperature, known as a black body, was studied by Max Planck
the atoms within the material become excited by the at the end of the 19th century.
many interactions between them and energy is
radiated in a continuous spectrum. The exact nature The values of the spectral radiant exitance are
of the radiation produced by an idealised radiator, plotted for different temperatures in Figure 29.
Figure 29
Spectral power distribution of radiation according to Planck’s Law.
Technology
1.2 Electric Discharges
An electric discharge is an electric current that flows through a gas. These discharges generally
take a high voltage to initiate but once started they can carry considerable currents with very little
voltage drop. A good example of such a discharge is the natural phenomenon of lightning. In an
electric discharge the electric current is carried by electrons that have been removed from the gas
atoms and ions that are gas atoms with one or more electrons removed. This is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30
Electric discharge through an ionised gas.
The negatively charged electrons tend to drift towards the anode whilst the positively charged ions
drift towards the cathode. As the ions are several thousand times heavier than the electrons they
tend to be less mobile.
1.3 Electroluminescence
Some materials will convert electricity into doped with other materials that it is possible
light directly. Two major physical processes to pass electricity through them. Some
account for the majority of the various electro- materials induce conduction by negatively
luminescence phenomena. They are the re- charged carriers (n-type) and some by positi-
combination of current carriers in certain vely charged carriers (p-type). When charged
semi-conductors and via the excitation of carriers of different types recombine the
luminescent centres in certain phosphors. energy released may be emitted as light.
Pure semi-conductors have intrinsically a very See Chapter 2.10 and 2.11 of this part for
high resistivity and it is only when they are more information on light emitting diodes.
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1.4 Luminescence
The term luminescence is sometimes also known as In Figure 31 image (a) represents simple lumines-
fluorescence, or photoluminescence. The process cence where the material absorbs the energy and
involves a material absorbing radiation and then the next transition is to re-radiate the energy. In (b)
reemitting light. The energy may be re-radiated some of energy in the material is lost via another
almost immediately or it may take several hours. process before re-radiation takes place. In (c) some
There are a number of ways that the material can of the energy is dissipated and the material falls into
hold the energy and this impacts on length of the a state where it cannot re-radiate until it is restored
time the energy is stored and the amount of energy to the higher energy level. This process can lock
that is re-radiated. energy into materials and is the basis of some ‘glow
in the dark’ materials.
Figure 31
Simplified representations of energy level schemes
in luminescence.
Technology
2.0 Electric Light
2.1 Incandescent
The incandescent lamp is operated by heating a filament in the lamp to a high temperature,
so that it emits light. The basic principle of the lamp may be simple but the technology required
to maintain a filament at a high enough temperature to give significant amount of light whilst
ensuring the lamp has a reasonable life is highly complex. The basic and most popular form
of the lamp is the General Lighting Service (GLS) lamp (see Figures 32, 33, 34, 35).).
Figure 32
The construction of a most typical GLS incandescent lamp.
Daylight Incandescent (white)

Figure 33
Typical spectral light distribution of incandescent lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
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E 14s
E 27 E 14 E 27 E 27 E 40
Figure 34
Standard typical incandescent lamps (230V) with E40, E27, E14, S14s socket.
The filament design is critical in setting up the

operating characteristics of the lamp. The length of
the filament wire is largely determined by the supply
voltage, whilst the thickness of the wire is deter-
mined by the operating current of the lamp.
Figure 35
The filament is coiled to reduce heat convection to A coiled coil filament (enlarged).
the filling gas. There are various forms of filament
coiling with the coiled coil being one of the most
common ones (see Figure 35).
Technology
2.2 Tungsten Halogen
The applications of conventional incandescent lamps are limited by their physical size and
luminous efficiency. Raising the filament temperature to increase the luminous output has the effect
of increasing the rate of blackening of the glass envelope, blackening which is a result of the
evaporation of tungsten from the filament. By adding a halogen to the gas fill a chemical transport
cycle involving the reaction of tungsten reduces the amount of blackening of the envelope.
It is then possible to reduce the size of lamp, increase the pressure of the filling gas and thereby
limit the loss of the tungsten from the filament. See Figures 36, 37, 38, 39.
Figure 36
A representation of the tungsten halogen cycle.
The chemistry of the tungsten halogen cycle is highly complex. However the key stages are:
• The halogen combining with the tungsten on the wall of the lamp (zone 3).
• The tungsten halide vapour mixing with the fill gas of the lamp (zone 2).
• The tungsten halide dissociating close to the filament of the lamp, leaving the
halogen free to migrate though the fill gas to the lamp wall again and the tungsten being
deposited on the filament (zone 1).
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To enable an efficient cycle it is necessary for the wall of the lamp to run at a temperature above 250°C;
this means that the bulb has to be made from quartz or hard glass.
Tungsten halogen lamps are more efficient and have longer lives compared with standard tungsten lamps.
Also they are more compact than standard lamps. However they are more expensive as it is hard to make
the quartz outer bulb and it is harder to introduce the gas fill into the lamp due to the high filling pressure.
Daylight Halogen
Figure 37
Typical spectral light distribution of tungsten halogen lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
R7s
GY9.5 2-pin G22 G22
Figure 38
Professional typical Tungsten Halogen lamps (220V/240V) with R7s, GY9.5, 2-pin (heat-sink), G22 socket – professional version.
Glass cylinder should not be touched, this will shorten the lifetime dramatically!
Technology
E14 GU10 GU10
GY6.35 E27 E27 E27 E27
Figure 39
Common use typical Tungsten Halogen lamps (220V/240V) with E14, GU10, E27 socket – glass cylinder is protected by
outer bulb; Tungsten Halogen low voltage (12V) lamp GY6.35. Glass cylinder should not be touched, this may shorten the
lifetime dramatically, as required in the case of the GY 6.35 base capsule lamp NB!
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2.3 Fluorescent
Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used into visible light by a phosphor coating on the inside
form of discharge lamp. They come in a variety of of the tube. The electric current supplied to the
shapes and sizes and are available in a wide range discharge has to be limited by control gear to
of colours. The original form of the lamp was a long maintain stable operation of the lamp.
straight tube. New forms of the lamp known as See Figures 40, 41, 42.
compact fluorescent lamps have been developed
where the lamp tube is bent or folded to produce a Traditionally this is done with magnetic chokes
smaller light source. Fluorescent lamps work by but most manufacturers now use high frequency
generating ultraviolet radiation in a discharge in low electronic control gear. Electronic control gear has
pressure mercury vapour. This is then converted a number of advantages:
• Driving the lamp at high frequency maintains the ions in the gas and thus
makes the lamp run more efficiently.
• It reduces the amount of flicker in the lamp and, finally, electronic gear
consumes less power than a magnetic choke.
Figure 40
Working principle of a fluorescent lamp.
Daylight Fluorescent (white)

Figure 41
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure mercury lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Technology
Table 3
Colours of fluorescent lamps (code may vary depending on manufacturer):
Colour appearance Triphosphor colour Multi-phosphor colour

rendering group 1b rendering group 1a
Northlight (6000–8000 K) Colour 865 Colour 965
Lumilux Plus ECO 860
Luxline Plus ECO 860
Polylux XLR 860
Skywhite 880
Daylight (5000–5500 K) Colour 950
Lumilux De Luxe 950
Cool White (4000 K) Colour 840 Colour 940
Lumilux Plus ECO 840 Lumilux De Luxe 940
Luxline Plus ECO 840 Polylux Deluxe 940
Polylux XLR 840
Intermediate White Colour 835
(3500 K) Lumilux Plus ECO 835
Polylux XLR 835
Warm White Colour 830 Colour 930
(3000 K) Lumilux Plus ECO 830 Lumilux De Luxe 930
Luxline Plus ECO 830 Polylux Deluxe 930
Polylux XLR 830
Very Warm (2700 K) Colour 827
Lumilux Plus ECO 827
Polylux XLR 827
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NOTE 1 The codes for same lamps may vary, depending on manufacturer and type of lamp e.g. for T5-54W
(samples of different company codes for 4000K colour of light):
• FQ 54W/840 HO for indoor 30° - 40°C / RA 80…89

• FQ 54W/840 HO constant for indoor 5° - 70°C / RA 80…89
• FQ 54W/940 HO RA >90
• FQ 54W/840 SPS protected against splinters / RA 80…89
• SUPREME T5 54W/840 HO long-life RA 85
• SUPREME T5 54W/840 LL HO Thermo for outdoor and indoor -15° - +20°C RA 85
• SUPREME PROTECTOR T5 54W/840 LL HO protected against splinters RA 85
• SUPREME REFLECTOR T5 54W/840 LL HO including reflector RA 85
• ULTIMATE SIGNETTE T5 54W/840 LL HO for signs RA 85
• T5 54W 4000 DFH RA >85
• LT 54W T5-HQ/840 RA 1B(>85)
• LT-XL 54W T5-HQ/840 extended life RA 1B(>85)
• LT-SPT 54W T5-HQ/840 RA 1B(>85) protected against splinters
• T5 FHO /840 RA 1B(>85)
• NL-T5 54W/840/G5 RA80…89
• F54W/T5/840/LL RA 85
• F54W/T5/840/LL/BULK RA 85
• FHO 54W/840 RA 1B
• MASTER TL5 HO Super 80 54W/840 RA 85
• etc.
In general compact fluorescent lamps are less efficient than linear lamps, but because of their small size,
they are suited to many applications where a smaller lamp is needed. Some of the lamps have the control gear
built into them and can be retro-fitted into GLS lamp sockets.
Additionally fluorescent tube and CFL lamps are available in different colours such as
(depending on power of lamp and manufacturer availability may vary):
• T8/26mm red, yellow, green, blue
• T5/16mm red, green, blue
• CFL colours available depending on manufacturers range
Technology
GR8 G23 G24q-2 G24d-1
E27 E27 E27 2G11 G13 G5
Figure 42
Common use fluorescent lamps, GR8, G23, G24q-2, G24d-1, E27, 2G11, G13, G5, etc.
2.4 High Pressure Mercury (also HID, light. The general construction of the lamp is
Mercury Vapour, MVP Technique) shown in Figure 43 below.
In this type of lamp a discharge takes place in
a quartz discharge tube containing mercury The operation of the lamp is quite complex
vapour at high pressure (2 to 10 atmosphe- and needs to be considered in three
res). Some of the radiation from the discharge phases:
occurs in the visible spectrum but part of the
radiation is emitted in the ultraviolet. The outer • Ignition
bulb of the lamp is coated internally with a • Run-up
phosphor that converts this UV radiation into • Stable running.
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The performance of these lamps is not considered to be very good today. Their efficacy is around 40 lumens
per watt. Their CIE general colour rendering index is between 40 and 50 and they can have a very long life but,
because of poor lumen maintenance and heat issues in hot environment, it is generally recommended that
the lamps are changed after 6,000 to 10,000 (from local experience) hours of use. Because of their poor
performance and the fact that better lamp types are available for almost all of the applications these lamps
are being phased out. See Figures 43, 44, 45.
E27
Figure 43 Figure 45
Construction of a high pressure mercury lamp. Typical high pressure mercury lamp E27 socket.
Daylight High Pressure Mercury (white)

Figure 44
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure mercury lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Technology
2.5 Metal Halide common practice to introduce metals into the
Metal halide lamps were developed as a way lamp as metal halides.
of improving the performance of high pressure
mercury lamps in terms of their colour appea- Metal halides are generally more volatile than
rance and light output. They work by introdu- the metals themselves and the metal halides
cing the salts of other metals into the arc do not attack the arc tube. The metal halide
tube. As each element has its own characteri- compound breaks up into the metal and
stic spectral line, by adding a mixture of diffe- halogen ions at the high temperatures in the
rent elements into the discharge it is possible centre of the discharge and reforms at the
to create a light source with good colour ren- lower temperatures near the wall of the tube.
dering in a variety of colours.
Many different combinations of elements
There are a lot of problems with introducing have been used to make metal halide lamps.
new elements into a discharge. First, the Depending on combinations of elements to-
element must be volatile and secondly it gether with the spectral output they create the
should not chemically attack the arc tube. light output and the colour of light will change.
To avoid these problems it has become See Figures 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51.
Figure 46 Figure 47
Construction of metal halide lamp E27. Arc chamber detail.
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Daylight Metal Halide (white)

Figure 48
Typical spectral light distribution of metal halide lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Fc2
RX7s
G8.5 G12 E27 E40 E40
Figure 49
Common used metal halide lamps; Fc2, RX7s (green light), G8.5, G12 (green light), E27, E40.
Technology
E27 G12
Figure 50 Figure 51
Long life (double arc) metal halide lamp E27 details. Typical ling life MH G12 system.
NOTE1 Some manufacturers provide additional metal halide lamps with light colours:
• Orange
• Red
• Magenta
• Green
• Blue
NOTE 2 Depending on manufacturers and colours, power; 70W(RX7s, G12), 150W(G12, E26,
RX7s-24; E40), 175W(E26), 250W(E39, E40), 400W(E39, E40), 1000W(E39) and socket may vary.
NOTE 3 All high pressure mercury vapour and metal halide lamps are to be used
ONLY inside enclosed luminaires! All these lamps are emitting high levels of UV-radiation!
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2.6 Low Pressure Sodium sodium metal; and the fact that sodium emits its
Low pressure sodium lamps are similar in many ways light in the visible rather than the UV frequency
to fluorescent lamps as they are both low pressure range, so there is no need for a phosphor layer.
discharge lamps. All the differences in characteristics
stem from the use of sodium in the discharge tube There used to be a range of designs for sodium
rather than mercury. The key differences are the need lamps but currently the U-tube lamp is by far the
to run the lamp hotter to maintain the vapour pres- most common type. A typical lamp of this design
sure of sodium, the need to contain the very reactive is shown in Figure 52.
Figure 52
Typical construction of a low pressure sodium lamp.
Daylight Low Pressure Sodium (yellow)
Figure 53
Typical spectral light distribution of low pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Technology
BY22d
Figure 54
Typical low pressure sodium lamp, socket BY22d.
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2.7 High Pressure Sodium

The high pressure sodium lamp generates light in a discharge through sodium vapour at high pressure.
As the vapour pressure of sodium in a lamp rises the spectrum at first broadens and then it splits in two
with a gap appearing at about 586 nm. Figure 56 shows the spectrum of a high pressure sodium lamp.
As the vapour pressure rises the colour rendering of the lamp increases. However, this is at the expense of
efficacy in terms of lumens per watt. Figure 55 shows the construction of a high pressure sodium lamp.
E27 E27
Figure 55 Figure 57
Typical high pressure sodium E27 system construction. Typical high pressure sodium lamp E27 socket.
Daylight High Pressure Sodium (orange-yellow)

Figure 56
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
E27 E40
Technology
Figure 58
Typical long life high pressure sodium lamp (double burner), E27, (opaque) E40.
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2.8 Induction
Induction lamps are essentially gas discharge lamps that do not have electrodes. Instead the electric field in the
lamp is induced by an induction coil that is operating at high frequency. The only types of induction lamps that are
currently in production are based on fluorescent lamp technology. See Figures 59, 60, 61.
Figure 59
Typical construction of a cavity type induction lamp.
Daylight Fluorescent (white)

Figure 60
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Technology
The lamp consists of a glass bottle with a cavity in it into which the induction coil is placed.
The glass vessel has a gas filling similar to a conventional fluorescent lamp and the phosphor
coating on the inside of the lamp is also similar.
The induction coil in the centre of the lamp is fed from a high frequency generator.
An alternative architecture for this type of lamp is to have the induction coil wrapped around
a toroidal lamp. Figure 61 shows a lamp of this type.
Figure 61 (inbuilt in a custom luminaire)

Standard induction lamp, depending on manufacturer shape, size and socket may vary – External coil type induction lamp.
NOTE 1 Induction type lamps cannot be used if exact directional focused light is required,
due to the large physical size of the system.
Induction lamps have many of the same from the electrodes. A number of lamps of
properties as fluorescent lamps. They are, this type have rated lives of 100,000 hours.
however, slightly less efficient. The big advan- These lamps are more expensive than con-
tage with this type of lamp is its long life. This ventional fluorescent lamps so they tend to be
is because here are no electrodes to fail and used in places where it is difficult to change
the inside of the lamp does not get coated lamps and thus long life is an important
with material that has been vaporised away requirement.
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Note 2 The lamp lifetime is to be seen in relation of the lumen depreciation. In this case (Figures 62, 63, 64)
the maintenance (exchangeability) is the more important problem as to achieve a certain light level
over all the life time.
Figure 62, 63
External coil type induction lamp in use, day – night.
Figure 64
External coil type induction lamp in use, detail.
Technology
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2.9 Conventional (non-LED) Luminaire Requirements

Within the luminaire; the light source shall be of standard proven lamp type, energy efficient with minimum lamp
efficacy as per handbook.
The lamps shall be from reputed manufacturers with standard lamp base type configuration and shall provide
class A1, A2 or A3 high efficiency (HF) electronic control gear, where available. Conventional wire-wound control
gears are only acceptable if no HF-control gear is available or for any application which is liable to extreme high
temperatures, in excess of degree Celsius ambient operation, as per DMA specifications.
NOTE 1 Acceptable lamp types include compact and linear fluorescent (tri-phosphor only), metal halide,
induction, plasma, LED and efficient electro-luminescent technologies.
NOTE 2 The CRI of above lamp types must be as per DMA specifications.
NOTE 3 Lamps and gear shall be replaceable/removable on site without any possible risk to maintaining the
luminaire photometry, the IP rating, causing any degradation and without the need to demount the luminaire for
sake of future upgrading/maintenance requirements.
NOTE 4 Whole luminaire efficacy; the optimum efficiency of the luminaire for example shall be confirmed not
below > 50llm/cct/W (@min50°C, min95%RH). Which is given as a total luminaire design (delivered) lumen output
(llm) over total luminaire circuit watts (cctW) at minimum 50°C – 60°C operating outside ambient temperature and
minimum 95% relative humidity. All parameters to be seen as examples, the relevant DMA specifications will prevail.
NOTE 5 Luminaire maximum % direct up-light shall be as per CIE 126-1997/CIE 150:2003 or less and as
required/allowed for the project for the ESTIDAMA application as applicable.
NOTE 6 The Figures given in the datasheets must provide correct lumen output for minimum 50°C-60°C
ambient temperature operation of the luminaire. Figures showing standard testing with other ambient
temperatures or laboratory conditions are not acceptable, for more information please refer to DMA specifications.
NOTE 7 The luminaire shall be fitted with optical refractors, diffusers and/or reflectors. Different optics shall be
used to suit exactly the application. Independent accredited laboratory photometric test reports shall be available
including luminaire photometric files which can be used in DIALux or Relux lighting project calculation programs.
Technology
2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
The basic operating principle behind light emitting diodes (LEDs) is covered in Chapter 1.3 of this part.
LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes, colours and power ratings and development is proceeding
at a rapid rate. Whilst LEDs come in a variety of styles, Figure 65 illustrates two common forms.
2.10.1 The Main Components of LEDs

The chip of semiconductor material in the centre of the lamp may be made of a wide variety of materials.
Differing materials result in a different colour of light being produced. Table 4 lists some of the more
commonly used materials.
Table 4
Materials used in LEDs and the radiation produced:
Materials Radiation
Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Red and infrared
Aluminum gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Green
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Orange-red, orange, yellow, and green
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
Gallium phosphide (GaP) Red, yellow and green
Gallium nitride (GaN) Green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Near ultraviolet, green, bluish-green and blue
Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Blue
Aluminum nitride (AlN), Near to far ultraviolet
Aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Diamond (C) Ultraviolet
The chip is mounted onto one of the lead in a very small area close to the actual semicon-
wires. In high power LEDs the mounting is ductor junction. The whole device is then
designed in such a way as to conduct heat potted in a plastic resin, usually epoxy.
away from the chip. The other lead wire is See Figures 65, 66, 67.
bonded to the chip generally connecting to
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Figure 65
The construction of low power (left) and high power (right) LEDs.
Daylight LED (white)

Figure 66
Typical spectral light distribution of LED in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Technology
LED “engine”
with active
cooling (COB*)
single LED + lens LED “engine” (COB*)
E14 E14 E27 E27 E27

Figure 67
Samples of common use LED lamps and LED engines (professional use). Depending on manufacturer power, shape,
size, type, colour and features may vary, some of the require ‘active cooling’ with additional fan or osculating membranes mounted
on the heat-sink (not recommended, especially in exterior use).
NOTE 1 The LED-Engines are now available in different shapes: round, array and special designed ones
to fit special applications.
LEDs generally have a long life and may last up to 100,000 hours. LEDs generally emit light in a relatively
narrow band so that most LEDs produce light that is a saturated colour. It is possible to make white LEDs
by using a blue or ultraviolet chip and putting a phosphor coat around it. White can also be achieved by
combining red, green and blue chips through colour mixing.
LEDs have a lot of applications associated with signals and signage. The use of saturated colours in these
applications is a real bonus. This coupled with the ease of producing light in a number of small units means
that LEDs are replacing a number of other light sources in these areas. It is also possible to make lamps
that are a cluster of LEDs of different colours. By controlling the outputs of the different colours it is possible
to make a lamp that can produce light in a wide variety of colours. At the time of writing, white LEDs are
making fast technical progress but have not yet proved to cover all applications in the area of general
lighting. In some cases the common lamps are still achieving better results.
* Footnote: COB - Chip On Board type

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2.10.2 LED Luminaire Requirements

(As per DMA Lighting Specifications)
As a part of the overall sustainable lighting strategy for Abu Dhabi, the DMA/DoT requires quality energy efficient
technologies and solutions which are LED or equivalent to be used on roads and put forward wherever possible
elsewhere in the public realm. Where specific tasks may indeed be proved better performed by an energy-efficient
lighting technology other than LED then either the relevant municipality or DoT will accept their inclusion as an
option in the design proposals and review the technical details before taking the final decision.
NOTE 1 Within the luminaire:

The light source shall be high brightness white light emitting Diodes (LED) with individual minimum efficacy as
per current DMA specifications arranged modularly (where possible) to provide the required light output.
All lumen Figures shall be deliver (hot) lumens and all luminaires must have certification provided to show
compliance with listed relevant standards and technical requirements of DMA or clients specifications.
NOTE 2 LEDs shall be from a reputed manufacturer of LEDs with proven past performance in accordance with
ANSI/NEMA/ANSLG C78.377-2008 (America National Standard for Chromaticity of Solid State Lighting
Products) or with a similar approved international standard.
NOTE 3 LEDs shall only be from MacAdam Ellipse Step-2, Step-3 or maximum Step-5 Bins. Other binning is not
acceptable. The CRI must be as per current DMA specifications.
NOTE 4 The LEDs shall be removable/replaceable on site by modular means, wherever possible – depending on
type and use of the luminaire. Such replacement must be possible without any risk to maintaining luminaire
photometry, the IP rating and without the need to demount the luminaire for sake of future up-grading or
maintenance requirements.
NOTE 5 Whole luminaire efficacy; the optimum efficiency of the luminaire shall be > 50llm/cctW (@min.50°C,
min95%RH). Which is given as a total luminaire design (deliver) lumen output (llm) over total luminaire circuit
watts (cctW) at minimum 50°C-60°C operating outside ambient temperature and minimum 95% relative
humidity, as per latest DMA specifications.
NOTE 6 Luminaire maximum % direct up-light shall be as per CIE 126-1997 or less and as required/allowed for
the project for the ESTIDAMA application as applicable.
Technology
NOTE 7 The Figures given in the datasheets must provide correct lumen output for a minimum
50°C-60°C ambient temperature operation of the luminaire. Figures showing standard testing with
other ambient temperatures or laboratory conditions are not acceptable, as per latest DMA
specifications.
NOTE 8 The luminaire shall be fitted with optical refractors, diffusers and/or reflectors. Different
optics shall be used to suit exactly the application. Independent laboratory photometric test reports
shall be available including luminaire photometric files used in DIALux or Relux lighting calculation
programs. For LED luminaires or LED components used within conventional luminaires, the testing
should conform to IESNA LM-79-08 standards or CIE equivalent tests. The manufacturer must
supply light distribution files as it might be required for the client’s specific approval.
NOTE 9 The LED modules shall be mounted on heavy duty heat sinks to ensure excellent heat
dissipation. The design of the heat sinks shall be such that there is a direct thermal path from the
LED junctions to the atmosphere thus providing a thermal transfer effect throughout the lifetime of
the luminaire. Active cooling through fans is not acceptable without matter of the task.
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2.11 Electroluminescence semiconductors of wide enough bandwidth to allow

Electroluminescence, including OLED, is the result exit of the light. The most typical inorganic thin-film
of radiative recombination of electrons and holes in EL (TFEL) is ZnS:Mn with yellow-orange emission.
a material, usually a semiconductor. The excited Depending on the task and colour of light required
electrons release their energy as photons - light. other materials could be used.
Prior to recombination, electrons and holes may
be separated either by doping the material to form The most common electroluminescent (EL) devices
a p-n junction (in semiconductor electroluminescent are composed of either powder (primarily used in
devices such as light-emitting diodes) or through lighting applications) or thin films (for information
excitation by impact of high-energy electrons displays.) The basic principles of electroluminescent
accelerated by a strong electric field (as with the (EL) light sources are discussed in Chapter 1.3 of
phosphors in electroluminescent displays). this part.
Electroluminescent devices are fabricated using Generally the light sources are made up as
either organic (called OLED) or inorganic electrolumi- panels with a construction similar to that shown
nescent materials. The active materials are generally in Figure 68.
Figure 68
A section through an electroluminescent panel.
Technology
Figure 69
System section through OLED (organicLED) module.
Figure 70
An electroluminescent nightlight in operation
uses 0.08W at 230V, lit diameter 59mm.
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Daylight OLED
Figure 71
Spectrum of a blue/green electroluminescent light source (similar to the one seen in the above image).
Peak wavelength is at 492 nm (blue/green) in comparison with daylight.
The EL panel is made up of the following components:
• The lower conductor carries one side of the electrical supply into the light source.
In older types of panel this conductor may have been a sheet of metal, but in the newer flexible panels
it is generally some type of foil.
• The phosphor layer contains the phosphor used to generate the light together with a medium,
usually some form of plastic resin, used to keep the grains of phosphor apart from one another.
• The top conductor is made of a transparent material that conducts electricity to the top surface
of the phosphor layer.
• The top layer of the device is a transparent medium. In older devices this layer is usually made of glass,
but in more modern units it is likely to be a flexible transparent film.
EL panels are not a particularly efficient light source. Typically they have efficacies of a few lumens per watt.
The light output of an EL panel is not that great, typically less than 300 lumens per square metre.
There are many applications for EL panels as it is relatively easy to cut them to shape and size so they can
be used for signage and to backlight displays in electronic equipment.
Technology
2.12 Plasma Lamp
Plasma lamps are a type of gas discharge lamp additional materials such as metal halides,
energized by radio frequency (RF) power. sodium, mercury or sulfur. In modern plasma
High-efficiency plasma (HEP) lamps have been lamps, a waveguide is used to constrain and
introduced to the general lighting market. focus the electrical field into the plasma.
Plasma lamps with an internal phosphor In operation, the gas is ionized, and free elec-
coating are called external electrode fluorescent trons, accelerated by the electrical field, collide
lamps (EEFL); these external electrodes or with gas and metal atoms. Some atomic elec-
terminal conductors which provide modern trons circling around the gas and metal atoms
plasma lamps are a family of light sources that are excited by these collisions, bringing them to
generate light by exciting plasma inside a a higher energy state. When the electron falls
closed transparent burner or bulb using radio back to its original state, it emits a photon,
frequency (RF) power. Typically, such lamps use resulting in visible light or ultraviolet radiation,
a noble gas or a mixture of these gases and depending on the fill materials.
Figure 72
Inside the back of the lamp, a diffuse yet highly reflective material is used to reflect all of this light to the forward direction
in a lambertian pattern. The colour of the light is tailored by the fill chemistry inside the lamp to provide a naturally white
light with good colour rendering.
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Function; short-cut description:
Step 1
An RF circuit is established by connecting an RF power amplifier to a ceramic resonator known as the ‘puck’.
In the centre of the puck is a sealed quartz lamp that contains metal halide materials and other gases.
Step 2
The puck, driven by the power amplifier, creates a standing wave confined within its walls. The electric field is
strongest at the centre of the lamp, which causes ionization of the gases, creating a glow.
Step 3
The ionized gas in turn heats up and evaporates the metal halide materials forming an intense plasma column
within the lamp. This plasma column is cantered within the quartz envelope and radiates light very efficiently.
In essence plasma lighting consists of a discharge lamp without electrodes, where the power is transferred from
outside the lamp enclosure via high frequency electromagnetic radiation. It is a lighting technique that has been
around in different forms for many years.
The first commercial plasma lamp was an ultraviolet curing lamp with a bulb filled with argon and mercury vapour.
That lamp led to the development of the sulphur lamp, a bulb filled with argon and sulphur that is bombarded with
microwaves through a hollow waveguide. The bulb had to be spun rapidly to prevent it burning through.
Sulphur lamps, though relatively efficient, have had a number of drawbacks, chiefly:
• Limited life – magnetrons had limited lives.

• Large size
• Heat – the sulphur burnt through the bulb wall unless they were rotated rapidly.
• High power demand – They could not sustain a plasma in powers under 1000W.
2.12.1 Limited Life

In the past, the life of the plasma lamps was limited by the magnetron used to generate the microwaves.
Solid state RF chips can be used and give long lives. However, using solid-state chips to generate RF is currently
an order of magnitude more expensive than using a magnetron and so only appropriate for high value lighting
niches. It has recently been shown that it is possible to extend the life of magnetrons to over 40,000 hours,
making ‘low-cost’ plasma lamps possible.
Technology
2.12.2 Size
Recently, a system was developed that concentrated radio frequency waves into a dielectric
waveguide made of ceramic, which energized light-emitting plasma in a bulb positioned inside.
This system, for the first time, permitted an extremely compact yet bright electrodeless lamp.
2.12.3 Heat and Power

The use of a high-dielectric waveguide allowed the sustaining of plasmas at much lower powers,
down to 100 W in some instances. It also allowed the use of conventional gas-discharge lamp fill
materials which removed the need to spin the bulb. The only issue with the ceramic waveguide was
that much of the light generated by the plasma was trapped inside the opaque ceramic waveguide.
This was until the optically clear quartz waveguide was invented, which appears to resolve this issue.
2.12.4 High-Efficiency Plasma (HEP)

High-efficiency plasma lighting is the class of plasma lamps that have reached system efficiencies
of 90 lumens, until now. Lamps in this class are potentially one of the most energy-efficient light
sources for outdoor, commercial and industrial lighting. This is due not only to their high system
efficiency but also to the small light source they present enabling very high luminaire efficacy.
The ‘system efficiency’ for a High Efficiency Plasma lamp is given by the last three variables, that is,
it excludes the luminaire efficacy. Though plasma lamps do not have ballast, they have an RF power
supply that fulfils the equivalent function. In electrodeless lamps, the inclusion of the electrical losses,
or ‘ballast factor’, in lumens per watt claimed can be particularly significant as conversion of
electrical power to radio frequency (RF) power can be a highly inefficient process, depending on
the type used.
Many modern plasma lamps have very small light sources, far smaller than HID bulbs or fluorescent
tubes, leading to much higher luminaire efficacies also. High intensity discharge lamps have typical
luminaire efficacies of 55%, and fluorescent lamps of 70%. Plasma lamps typically have luminaire
efficacies they can reach 90%.
2.12.5 System Efficiency

System efficiency of over 100 lumens per Watt is claimed with a usable system life of up to
40,000 hours and low lumen depreciation during life. The system is scalable from 70 watts
up to 5 kW; the lamp can be produced in mercury free versions and apparently can be easily
recycled at the end of life.
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2.12.6 CRI
The claimed CRI is in the 90 – 95 range and as it
dims the colour remains white. As the lamp dims the
CRI is said to remain constant. The colour consi-
stency from lamp to lamp is also claimed to be very
good but without seeing a whole row of pendants
or floodlights using the source it is not possible
to be sure about this yet. The light quality is very
usable for general commercial, sports and industrial
applications and large retail spaces. Figure 73
Plasma lamp 23,000 Lumens per light emitting plasma quartz
bulb size approx. 0.7mm x 0.7mm.
NOTE 1 It must be considered that there are still some very important drawbacks too:
The tiny light source with such a high power limits low-light requirement lighting applications, increases potential
glare issues, if left uncontrolled and/or shielded.
NOTE 2 The systems have many restrictions like dimming limitations, testing proof regarding useful life and lumen
stability, high investment costs, the range is limited to a small group of manufacturers which makes it difficult to
achieve a competition on the market.
Figure 74 Figure 75
High Efficiency Plasma (HEP) technology is a new and unique genre of electrodeless, RF driven lighting.
Technology
Figure 76 Figure 77
Plasma lighting architecture consists of two fundamental parts:
• Emitter: A quartz lamp embedded in a ceramic resonator

• Radio Frequency (RF) Driver: A solid-state RF generator and micro-controller
Other manufacturers are providing similar light sources and common use luminaires.
3.0 Electric Light Source Characteristics

There are a number of key properties of lamps that need to be considered when choosing which lamp
is right for a particular application. The following Chapters list these properties.
3.1 Luminous Flux

In any lighting application the amount of light that is needed is a key decision that has to be made.
From this it is then possible to work out how many lamps of given rating are needed. There are
lamps with lumen outputs less than 1 lumen through to lamps with outputs in excess of 200,000
lumens. In most applications, it is the average maintained illuminance that is important so it is
important to consider the lumen maintenance through life at the same time as the initial luminous
flux.
3.2 Power Demand

It is important in any lighting scheme to know what the total power demand is going to be so
that the electrical infrastructure can be correctly designed. The power consumed by the lamp is
important. However with many lamp types it is important also to consider the impact of the control
gear as well. In most cases it will be the total circuit watts that are important rather than the lamp
wattage.
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One further complication with some lamp types is NOTE 1 Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well
that the voltage and current waveforms are not a light source produces visible light. It is the ratio of
exactly in phase with one another. Thus the volts luminous flux to power. Depending on context, the
multiplied by the amps in the circuit may be higher power can be either the radiant flux of the source’s
than the watts. The power factor of the circuit is output, or it can be the total power (electric power,
defined by the following equation: chemical energy, or others) consumed by the source.
Which sense of the term is intended must usually be
watts
power factor= inferred from the context; sometimes the technical
volts amps
data of the manufacturers are not clear in this matter.
Most high wattage lamp circuits are designed to have The former sense is sometimes called luminous
a power factor greater than 0.85. The other factor efficacy of radiation, and the latter luminous efficacy
that may affect the sizing of the cables that supply a of a source.
lighting installation is the current required during the
run-up of the lamps. With some types of lamp this NOTE 2 Not all wavelengths of light are equally
can be over double the nominal running current. visible, or equally effective at stimulating human
When using lighting controls the power demand is vision, due to the spectral sensitivity of the human
more difficult to predict as the power consumed may eye; radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts of
be reduced at times when full output is not required the spectrum is useless for illumination. The overall
from the lamp. luminous efficacy of a source is the product of how
well it converts energy to electromagnetic radiation,
3.3 Luminous Efficacy and how well the emitted radiation is detected by the
Luminous efficacy is usually expressed in terms of human eye.
lumens per watt. Many lamp manufacturers produce
lumens per watt Figures for their lamps. However, NOTE 3 In lighting design, ‘efficacy’ refers to the
for discharge lamps and other lamps requiring some amount of light (luminous flux) produced by a lamp
form of control gear, these Figures may be misleading (a lamp or other light source), usually measured in
as they refer to the power consumed in the lamp only lumens, as a ratio of the amount of power consu-
and do not consider the power lost in the control med to produce it, usually measured in watts.
gear. All the values provided in this Chapter for This is not to be confused with efficiency which
efficacy are based on total circuit watts. Efficacy is a is always a dimensionless ratio of output divided
primary concern when selecting a lamp. In general, if by input which for lighting relates to the watts of
a range of lamps is suitable for a particular installation visible power as a fraction of the power consumed
then it is the most efficient that should be used. in watts.
Technology
3.4 Lumen Maintenance 3.6 Colour Properties
The light output of most lamps decreases as The colour of the light produced by a lamp is
the lamps get older. With some relatively short generally described by two parameters; the
life lamps this is not a problem as they fail correlated colour temperature and the CIE
before the light output has fallen significantly. general colour rendering index. These two
See Chapter L / 2.3 for further details of the terms are described in Chapter A / 2.9 and
lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF). 2.10 respectively. For most applications there
is a minimum requirement for the colour ren-
3.5 Life dering properties of the lamps used and the
It is normal when considering the life of a lamp correlated colour temperature of the source is
to talk about the percentage of lamps that will generally chosen for the atmosphere that the
survive after a certain number of hours of ope- lighting is designed to produce.
ration. This value is known as the lamp survival
factor (LSF). See Chapter L / 2.4 for further 3.7 Run-up Time
details. Other factors in a particular installation When a lamp is switched on it takes a certain
may affect the life of the lamp used. These amount of time to reach full light output. The
factors include the switching frequency, the usual measure used to assess run-up time is
supply voltage, the ambient temperature and the time that it takes for a lamp to reach 80%
presence of vibration. It is often the case that of its full output. For a GLS lamp this might be
the combined effect of the number of lamp a fraction of a second, while for low pressure
failures coupled with the reduced lumen out- sodium this could be as much as 20 minutes.
put of the lamps makes it necessary to replace For some applications such as road lighting
the lamps in an installation. Sometimes lamp the run-up time is not very important.
makers quote an economic service life for However, for some facilities, like emergency
lamps, this generally is the point where the and/or security lighting of tunnels, sports, etc.
LSF multiplied by the LLMF falls below 0.7. it is very important.
NOTE 1 For LED lighting the LLMF may differ 3.8 Other Factors
in many ways; therefore it is mandatory to There are also many other factors that
get all parameters of the used LED from the impact upon the use of lamps in a particular
manufacturer, in order to accurately determine application. These factors include the
the LLMF. following:
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• Lamp Size:
Some lamps are too large for certain applications, whilst some small lamps may produce too high a luminance
for others.
• Burning Position:
Not all lamps may be used in all orientations, for some discharge lamps, lamp manufacturers produce diagrams
similar to Figure 78 to show which burning positions are permitted.
Figure 78
A typical restricted burning position symbol.
• Dimming:
It is not possible to dim all lamp types and some types may be only dimmed down to a given percentage of
their output. Dimming for some lamps may require the use of special control gear.
• Ambient Temperature:
Not all lamps will run at a given temperature. For example some compact fluorescent lamps are not suitable for
outdoor use as they will not start if they are too cold.
• Disposal of Lamps:
Lamps may contain hazardous substances such as lead, sodium and mercury. This may mean with particular
lamps particular procedures have to be followed when disposing of the lamps. Under the WEEE Directive of the
European Commission it is the responsibility of the lamp manufacturer to provide the means of recycling used
lamps. Check local EMSA laws and regulations for more information about the recycling of lamps in the Abu Dhabi.
Technology
3.9 Summary of Lamp Characteristics
Summary of the key characteristics of the main lamp families:
Table 5
Summary of lamp characteristics.
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4.0 Other Types of Lighting
4.1 Flames 4.3 Oil

Historically flames were the first form of artificial The oil-lamp has been around for a very long time.
lighting. They are occasionally still used to create a Some of the earliest examples are hollowed out
particular atmosphere, but they are not considered stones that were filled with oil and these may be
as major sources of artificial light, as most energy 70,000 years old. There are examples of earthenware
emitted is heat. lamps made by all the ancient civilisations. In Europe
the most common oils used in these lamps were olive
and colza. The wick was generally made out of bark,
moss or plant fibres. See Figure 81, 82.
Figure 79
Flames
4.2 Candle
It is said that the ancient Egyptians invented the
candle. They made candles by soaking reeds in
molten tallow (animal fat). However this was not the
Figure 81
candle as we know it today as it had no wick as such. Ancient Oil-lamp
It appears that the Romans made the first true candle
with a wick, but it still used tallow rather than the later
wax as the fuel source. See Figure 80.
Figure 80 Figure 82
Candles ‘Modern’ Oil-lamp
Technology
4.4 Gas
Gas lighting only became possible during the industrial revolution. During the 1780s several inventors
had been working with the flammable gas that is produced when coal is made into coke and they
realised that it could be used for lighting. The problem was that it became necessary to set up a whole
infrastructure of pipes to supply the gas to where it was needed. See Figure 83.
In 1813 a company was set up in London to supply gas and by 1815 there were 26 miles of gas
pipe installed. The first gas light burners were little more than small openings at the end of a gas pipe.
Over a period of time the shape of the burners evolved so that each unit would produce more light.
However, a major improvement in performance was achieved in 1887 with the invention of the gas
mantle. The gas mantle is a cube of fabric, impregnated with thorium and cerium oxides.
When the lamp is lit, the fabric burns away and it is leaving a brittle mesh of oxides.
As study made recently showed that in

Europe approximately 70,000 Gas Street
Lanterns are still in use. Some more will be
newly introduced. These lighting systems
are mainly used for historical parts of cities
and city centres of old towns. Contrary to
most people’s assumption; gas lighting
with a mantle produces a quite cool
blue/green hued white light and not a
warm light one sees from flames or
candles.
Figure 83
Gas street lighting lantern.
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Chapter D
Luminaires
Luminaires
1.0 Basic Requirements the air temperatures inside the luminaire but also
A luminaire is the apparatus containing the light source. the surface temperatures of components that the
A luminaire is designed to: connect the light source wiring may contact, such as lamps, control gear and
to the electricity supply, protect the light source from lamp holders. PVC insulation that is heat resistant up
mechanical damage and control the distribution of to 90 °C, 105 °C and 115 °C is available. Where
light be efficient to withstand the expected conditions higher temperatures may be experienced, silicon
of use and to be safe when used in the recommended rubber (170 to 200 °C) and PTFE (250 °C) insulation
manner. To meet these design objectives it is neces- may be used. Additional thermal insulation can be
sary to consider the electrical, mechanical, optical, achieved by covering the electrical insulation with a
thermal and acoustic aspects of luminaires. glass fibre sleeve.
2.0 Electrical Connection to the electricity supply:

There are three approaches commonly used to
2.1 Electrical Wiring connect a luminaire to the electricity supply; the
The internal wiring of a luminaire has to be capable connection block, automatic connection and
of handling the electrical current and the thermal through wiring. The most common method is via a
conditions in the luminaire. The cross sectional area connection block within the luminaire. To prevent the
of the wire will determine the maximum allowable connection being accidentally broken, the supply
current. IEC 598 specifies a minimum cross section wire should pass through a cable clamp before
of 0.5 mm2 although this may be reduced to 0.4 mm2 reaching the connection block.
where space is severely restricted. In any case, local
requirements and technical descriptions of tenders 2.2 Earthing
are to be followed. Metal parts of Class 1 luminaires (see Chapter D /
7.4.3 / Table 16 and 17) that are accessible when
The wire itself can be solid or stranded. Solid wire is the luminaire is installed or open for maintenance or
easier to hold in position and to strip, making it simpler that may become live if the insulation fails should be
to install in a luminaire. However, solid wire is not permanently connected to an earth terminal. The
suitable for luminaires that are subject to vibration wire used for earthing should be at least 2.5 mm2
or for luminaires that may be frequently adjusted. in cross section. Local standards and norms to be
For such luminaires, stranded wire is better. followed as required.
Both types of wire are covered with insulating
material. The choice of insulation material is largely 3.0 Mechanical
determined by its heat resistance. The wiring of a The mechanical integrity of a luminaire depends on
luminaire has to be capable of withstanding not only the materials used and the quality of its construction.
Luminaires
3.1 Materials of different outdoor luminaires. Such housings
In general the materials are to be chosen based are light in weight and can be used in damp
on local requirements, climatic conditions at or corrosive atmospheres without any further
the place of installation, ground and irrigation treatment. Provided that the correct grade of
conditions (in-ground luminaires) and expected aluminium alloy has been used and this alloy
pollution of dirt (chemicals, salt, sand, etc.). has the correct limits or copper or other
elements as set out in a client’s brief or
3.1.1 Steel specification.
Many lighting luminaires are made from ready-
painted sheet steel, painted in different colours. 3.1.5 Plastics, PVC, Acrylic, etc.
Where corrosion is a problem, galvanised sheet There are many different forms of plastic used
steel is used. Where a very durable paint finish is in luminaires, either for complete housings or
required, enamelling or powder coating is used. components. These plastics differ in their
transparency, strength, toughness, sensitivity
3.1.2 Stainless Steel to UV radiation and heat resistance.
Stainless steel is rarely used for luminaire
bodies but it is widely used for many small, 3.1.6 Glass
unpainted luminaire components that have Three types of glass are used in luminaires:
to remain free from corrosion. soda lime glass, borosilicate glass, and very
Only certain grades of stainless steel are high resistance glass. Soda lime glass is used
suitable for external use for luminaires and where there are no special heat resistance
unless specifically stated in client briefs or demands. Where high heat resistance,
specifications, marine-grade (316) stainless chemical stability and resistance to heat
steel should be used only. shock are required, borosilicate glass is used.
High resistance glass has the advantage that
3.1.3 Aluminium Sheet it can deliver high heat resistance, high thermal
Aluminium sheet is mainly used for reflectors shock resistance and great physical strength
in luminaires. It can have good reflection even in thin sheets.
properties and the physical strength to form
stable reflectors of the desired form. 3.1.7 Ceramics
Some components of luminaires that produce
3.1.4 Cast Aluminium – very high temperatures are made of ceramics.
Extruded Aluminium
Cast aluminium is widely used for housings
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4.0 Construction 5.1 Reflectors

All luminaires should be designed to withstand the A circular reflector with a point light source at its
rigours of transport to the site, installation and pro- focus will produce a light distribution of the type
longed use. Generally, exterior luminaires need to be shown in Figure 84, reflections from some parts of
more substantial than those designed for interior use. the reflector being almost parallel while those from
Some luminaires are designed to resist the ingress of parts of the reflector away from the axis are divergent.
foreign objects, dust and moisture. Such luminaires This type of circular reflector is used in cylindrical
have a transparent front cover and all points of form for wall grazing using tubular incandescent
access to the luminaire have a seal. Front covers are and fluorescent light sources.
usually made of glass or plastic. Where there is a risk
of physical impact, as in a sports hall, glass or acrylic
front covers need to be covered with a wire screen.
If a polycarbonate front cover is used, (minimum IK07)
no such screen is necessary. As for the seals, these
come in various forms from a simple felt seal to
convoluted notched rubber seals. The effectiveness
of these seals is quantified by the IP classification
system and the IK classification of impact energy
(see Chapter D / 7.4.2 / Tables 14 and 15).
5.0 Optical Control

Optical control of the light output from a light source
is achieved by some combination of reflectors,
refractors, diffusers, baffles or filters. Several types of
reflectors are used in luminaires; specular, semi-
Figure 84
specular and mattor diffuse. Specular reflectors are The light distribution from a circular reflector with a point light
source at its focus.
used when a precise light distribution is required.
The shape of the reflector and its position relative to
the light source determine the light distribution.
The most common shapes for reflectors are circular,
parabolic and elliptical.
Luminaires
A circular reflector with a point light source at A parabolic reflector with a point light source
its centre of curvature produces a light distri- at its focus produces a parallel beam of
bution of the type shown in Figure 85. This reflected light (Figure 86). Moving the light
type of reflector is widely used in projection source in front or behind the point of focus
systems and spotlights to increase the amount will cause the beam to converge or diverge.
of light delivered to the associated lens system. The parabolic reflector is widely used in
spotlight design either exactly, when the
reflector is smooth, or approximately, when
the reflector is facetted.
Figure 85 Figure 86
The light distribution from a circular reflector with a point light The light distribution from a parabolic reflector with a
source at its centre of curvature. point light source at its focus. The beam intensity will be
greater at the centre than at the edge — compare
cones aFb and AFB.
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An elliptical reflector with a point light source at one focus will ensure that the reflected rays all
pass through the second focus (Figure 87) Elliptical reflectors in trough form are widely used for tubular
fluorescent luminaires.
Figure 87
Elliptical reflectors showing the change in light distribution as the point light source is moved relative to the first focus (F).
Spread reflectors are deliberately distorted specular reflectors. They can be circular, parabolic or elliptical in cross
section and spherical or cylindrical in form. The distortion takes the form of modulating the specular surface of the
reflector by hammering (peening) to produce a regular array of dimples, or by etching or brushing the surface.
The advantage of this distortion is that it smears out variations in light distribution caused by inaccuracies in the
manufacture of the reflector and the size of the light source. Spread reflectors are used where a well-defined but
even light distribution is required.
Diffuse reflectors are the opposite of specular reflectors. Unlike a specular reflector, the shape of a diffuse reflector
has only a small effect on the light distribution. Diffuse reflectors are used where there is a need to redirect light
with a very wide beam.
Asymmetrical and symmetrical lighting are two different principles of lighting. Asymmetrical light distribution is a
feature where the advanced reflector system directs the light sideways into a specific direction. Symmetrical light
distribution, however, spreads the light equally in all directions.
Many different materials are used in reflectors. Typical values of reflectance for these materials are given in Table 6.
Luminaires
Table 6
Typical reflectance values for materials used in reflectors according
to DIN 5036-3 or ASTM-E 1651.
Reflector type Material Reflectance

Specular(1) Commercial grade 0.70 – 0.78
aluminium
Specular(1) Aluminium with super 0.80 – 0.95
purity coating
Specular(1) Aluminium with silver 0.90
coating
Specular(1) Glass or plastic with 0.85 – 0.90
aluminium coating
Spread(2) Peened aluminium 0.90 – 0.95
Spread(2) Etched aluminium 0.82 – 0.87
Spread(2) Brushed aluminium 0.84 – 0.94
Spread(2) Satin chromium 0.60 – 0.78
Spread(2) Aluminium painted steel 0.60 – 0.70
Diffuse(3) White paint on steel Up to 0.84
Diffuse(3) Glossy white plastic Up to 0.90
NOTE 1 Specular reflection is used to provide efficient and controlled light distribution,
depending on design of luminaire and reflector, glare control might be required, surface is
polished or similar to a mirror.
NOTE 2 Spread surface means semi-specular or brushed surface, directional- or omni-directional

properties. Light distribution is less controllable as with specular reflection, depending on design of
luminaire and reflector, glare control might be less important.
NOTE 3 Diffuse reflection is based on ‘lambertian surface’ (lambert’s law) and means the light
distribution is only controlled by adjustment of the diffuse reflector in connection with the light
source. This type is mainly used for semi-direct lighting effects. It is the less efficient way of light
distribution control. The diffuse reflector may produce non-controllable glare, depending on
placement, design and point of view.
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5.2 Refractors Developments in this field are very fast and the
Refractors control light distribution by turning the different manufacturers are using different combi-
incident light ray through a desired angle following nations of lenses, reflectors, refractors and diffusors
Snell’s Law. This can be done using either prisms or to optimise the light distribution, homogenous colour-
lenses. For luminaires using large area light sources, mixing, to get rid of glare problems or efficiency of
such as a fluorescent lamp, multiple prisms are LED luminaires.
moulded in a transparent material, usually acrylic or
polycarbonate plastic. The number, location, angle of 5.4 Baffles
incidence and shape of the different types of prism Baffles can have three functions; to hide the light
determine the light distribution. For luminaires using source from common viewing angles, to reduce
a point light source a lens can be used. The position the amount of spill light, and to control the light
and shape of the lens determines the light distribu- distribution. The extent to which the light source is
tion. hidden from view is quantified by two angles, the
shielding angle and its complementary, the cut-off
NOTE 1 By using LED technology the topic of angle. The shielding angle is the angle between the
refractors became a much more important issue in horizontal and the direction at which the light source
comparison to common lamp technology refractors. ceases to be visible.
Developments in this field are very fast and the
different manufacturers are using different combi- A common example of a baffle being used to hide
nations of lenses, reflectors, refractors and diffusers the light source is the diffusely reflecting louvre. This
to optimise the light distribution, homogenous colour- louvre can take a wide variety of forms, lamellae,
mixing, to get rid of glare problems or to improve the egg-crate, concentric rings and honeycomb depen-
efficiency of LED luminaires. ding on the shape and size of the luminaire, for out-
door it is usually made of a black diffusely reflecting
5.3 Diffusers material. If the purpose is primarily to reduce spill
Diffusers are transparent materials that scatter light light, the material used for the louvre will be of low
in all directions. They provide no control of light reflectance, and mostly black. In addition to louvres,
distribution but do serve to reduce the brightness spill light can be controlled by the use of low reflec-
of the luminaire. Diffusers are commonly made of tance baffles, called barn doors (See NOTE 1) and
materials that maximise light scatter and minimise mounted on the luminaire (Figures 88, 89, 90).
absorption, such as opal glass or plastic.
NOTE 1 It is not usual to have barn doors used
NOTE 1 By using LED technology the topic of at outdoor lighting applications – the wind can
refractors became a much more important issue in easily create problems and will not allow for stable
comparison to common lamp technology refractors. adjustment.
Luminaires
Figure 88
Standard Floodlight
Figure 89
Floodlight with lamella baffle
Figure 90
Floodlight with simple anti-glare shield
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5.5 Louvres
If the purpose is to hide the light source and also to control the light distribution, the louvre is made from a
specularly reflecting material and shaped so as to direct light downwards and hence increase the shielding angle.
As a general rule, the finer the louvre and hence the more the light source is hidden, the lower will be the light
output ratio of the luminaire (see Chapter D / 5.6).
Figure 91 Source visible Figure 92 Source visible

An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the
light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector
system- power OFF. system- power ON.
Figure 93 Source invisible Figure 94 Source invisible

An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the
light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector
system- power OFF. system- power ON.
NOTE 1 Depending on the position of the viewer the luminaire will be actively glare controlled (Figure 94)
or will not have any glare control (Figure 89, 91).
Luminaires
5.6 Filters
For display and decorative lighting it is sometimes required to change the colour of light emitted
by a luminaire. This can be done by the use of filters, either absorption or interference.
Absorption filters are usually made of plastic or glass. They absorb the unwanted wavelengths and
thereby raise their temperature. Plastic absorption filters are likely to change their properties if they
get too hot. The transmittance of absorption filters is limited. Typical transmittances for different
colour filters are:
Filter Colour Transmittance Factor Result/Light

Red 20% 5 100%
Green 15% 6.5 100%
Blue 5% 20 100%
Amber 50% 2 100%
Yellow 80% 1.25 100%
Orange 40% 2.5 100%
Purple 25% 4 100%
Pink 15 6.5 100%
Table 7
Factors for calculation of light loss through filters.
NOTE 1 Above Figures are approximate and will depend on material and quality of filters and
manufacturer. Manufacturer to provide exact information about light transmittance factors of filter
used, for approval.
NOTE 2 Coloured light through filters is not designed to achieve same light levels as under white
light! The main point is to consider the environmental lighting conditions and to design the coloured
light to achieve effects, this may require to avoid white light near to coloured light effects, to allow
effects created with minimum power input.
Another type of filter is the interference filter. Interference filters are more expensive and more exact
than absorption filters and do not absorb the unwanted wavelengths. Rather, they split the light into
two beams, one transmitted and one reflected; of two different colours (hence the name dichroic
filters).
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NOTE 3 It is recommended to use instead of filters ‘coloured’ lamps wherever possible, to improve the system efficacy.
NOTE 4 It is recommended to use only glass filters, if possible, interference or ‘dichroic’ filters instead of
PVC-filters, to avoid problems caused through colour-shift (because of aging) and/or damaged filters
(aging and heat absorption). Any filter technique will require more maintenance effort in comparison to coloured
lamps or RGB-LED sources.
NOTE 5 Coloured light can never be taken as an ‘efficient’ light in comparison to white light. This is as well valid
for LED coloured light (RGB, RGBW, RGBAW, etc.).
5.7 Luminaire Efficiency

The efficiency of a luminaire is quantified by its ‘Light Output Ratio’ (LOR). This is the ratio of the total light output
of a luminaire to the total light output of the light sources used in the luminaire when operating outside the luminaire.
LOR is sometimes split into upward and downward components; this happens most of the time in the case of
indoor applications. LOR measures the efficiency of the luminaire in the sense that it quantifies how much of the
light emitted by the light source escapes from the luminaire. LOR does not measure the efficiency of a lighting
installation. Light output ratio is defined as the ratio of luminous flux emitted by the luminaire divided by the flux
emitted by the bare lamps in free air. This means that for temperature sensitive lamps the LOR is a function of the
increase in temperature of a lamp within the luminaire as well as the optical efficiency of the luminaire, especially
applicable to LED fixtures.
NOTE 1 LOR (Light Output Ratio), according to DIN/EN 13032/2, the LOR is described as ‘the ratio of the
luminous flux of the luminaire to the lumens of the lamps used’
Output Lightfixture
LOR
Output Lamp
NOTE 2 In realities the light output ratio is a Figure that shows how much light gets lost inside the luminaire.
It is abbreviated to LOR, and sometimes subdivided into ULOR (Upper Light Output Ratio) or DLOR (Downward
Light Output Ratio) – i.e. what percent shines upwards, and what percent, down. It is calculated by dividing the
total light output from the luminaire (in lumens), by the total lamp output (also in lumens) to get a percent.
For the ULOR and DLOR, it is the same, but with the light that comes from the upper and lower halves of
the luminaire. See Figure 95.
LOR = DOLR + ULOR

Luminaires
Figure 95
Light distribution of typical direct/indirect
luminaire.
NOTE 3 For outdoor Lighting applications it must be considered that ULOR is a ‘not wanted’ emission
of light due to light pollution mitigating standards, and may be only used in outdoor applications below
covered sites, e.g. car-shade structures, pedestrian underpasses, gazebos, tents, etc.
NOTE 4 Some manufacturers are claiming phenomenal LOR up to 99%.

This is because the manufacturer is being misleading with the definition of ‘lamp’
and classifying it as most of the luminaire. In fairness, it is hard to apply the term ‘LOR’ to LED
fittings because the light source and luminaire are so interlinked. The term is more
meaningful with future-proof luminaires where the LEDs come on small replaceable
modules.
Luminaire Efficacy Rating (LER) is the single Figure of merit the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association has defined to help address problems with lighting manufacturers’ efficiency claims
and is designed to allow robust comparison between lighting types. It is given by the product of
luminaire efficiency (EFF) times total rated lamp output in lumens (TLL) times ballast factor (BF),
divided by the input power in watts (IP):
LER = EFF × TLL × BF / IP
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5.8 Thermal 6.0 Luminaire Types

All luminaires increase in temperature when in The lighting industry produces many thousands of
operation. The internal temperature of the luminaire different luminaires. Given below are brief outlines of
can affect the efficiency of some light sources and the main types of luminaire used in exterior lighting.
the associated control gear. These changes in Details of any specific luminaire are best obtained
efficiency contribute to the light output ratio of the from the manufacturers.
luminaire. The external surface temperature of a
luminaire may also pose a fire hazard if mounted on 6.1 Exterior Lighting
a flammable surface (see Chapter D / 7.4.6).
6.1.1 Road Lighting Luminaires
NOTE1 Please refer to Abu Dhabi DMA Roadway & Road lighting luminaires used for lighting traffic routes
Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway are designed to deliver light toa road so that the
Project Compliance Checklist Tables; exact Figures surface is seen to be of uniform luminance and
for temperature ratings of LEDs, drivers, ballasts and objects on the road can be seen in silhouette. The
ambient climatic conditions are given. light distribution is therefore dependent on the posi-
tion of the luminaire relative to the road. Most road
5.9 Environmental lighting luminaires are mounted on columns placed
Luminaires may contain a variety of materials and at regular intervals at the side of the road or between
some of these could be hazardous to the environ- crash barriers in the median. For conflict areas and
ment when the luminaire is disposed of at the end of subsidiary roads (see Chapter G / 3.5.4 and following)
life. To stop environmental pollution there are local the luminaires are designed with a wide light distri-
regulations, for more information refer to ESMA, bution so as to give a uniform illuminance across the
ESTIDAMA, etc. It is required that all luminaires are road. The light sources used in road lighting luminaires
recycled at the end of life and are not just thrown are typically low pressure sodium, high pressure
away. To ensure that this occurs, luminaire suppliers sodium or metal halide, but LED has become more
are required to make provision for the collection and and more important for Road lighting and statutory
recycling of old luminaires in the future. Materials under the DMA Lighting Specifications. Road lighting
such as lead, mercury, cadmium and polybrominated luminaires are often provided with adjustable lamp
biphenyls are all toxic and therefore professional holders and/or reflectors so as to allow the light
recycling and/or disposal is mandatory. Abu Dhabi distribution to be optimised for the light source and
local laws and standards are to be followed in all road layout. Two broad classes of road lighting
aspects. Lamps, luminaires, parts of luminaires, luminaire are semi-cutoff and full-cutoff (see Chapter
drivers, and ballasts should not be placed along G / 3.2 / Table 28) these classes reflecting a different
with normal waste, special treatment is required. balance between luminaire efficiency and the control
Luminaires
of glare. Road lighting luminaires need protec- They are almost always fitted with a photo-
tion against dust and moisture and so are electric control package, or controlled through
classified according to the IP system a central control system. Figure 96 shows a
(see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Table 12 and 13). selection of Abu Dhabi road lighting luminaires.
Figure 96
Examples of typical road lighting luminaires Abu Dhabi.
6.1.2 Post-Top Luminaires top luminaires are available with either rotatio-
Post top luminaires are a form of road lighting nally symmetric or road lighting light distri-
luminaire but unlike the road lighting luminaires butions, so that the same luminaire can be
described above, which are intended for the used to light both roads and open pedestrian
lighting of high speed traffic routes, post top areas in a city. Post top luminaires take many
luminaires are intended for urban areas, where different forms, some mimicking traditional
pedestrians are considered as important as styles for historic areas, while others represent
drivers and the decorative aspect of the lumi- the latest design trends. Because of their use
naire is as important as the functional. Post in urban areas, low pressure sodium light sour-
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ces are not used in post top luminaires, the most com- top lanterns are often constructed of materials that
mon light sources being high pressure sodium, metal resist attacks by vandals. They are almost always
halide, compact fluorescent lamps and lately LED. fitted with a photoelectric control package or control-
led through centralised control systems. The most
Post top luminaires need protection against dust and common problem with post top luminaires is glare.
moisture and so are classified according to the IP This problem can be avoided if there is no direct view
system (see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Tables 12 and 13). of the light source. Figure 97 shows a selection of
Because of their relatively low mounting heights, post post top luminaires used in Abu Dhabi.
Figure 97
Examples of typical post top luminaires in Abu Dhabi.
Luminaires
6.1.3 Secondary Reflector Luminaires intensity discharge lamp with power in the
Secondary reflector luminaires are designed kilowatt range and a carefully shaped reflector.
for use in pedestrianised places such as city The light distribution of a floodlight can be ro-
squares and parks. In this luminaire, light is tationally symmetric, symmetrical about one
directed up from the light source in or on the axis or asymmetrical about one axis. This dis-
column and then distributed from a large sur- tribution is usually classified as narrow, me-
face at the top of the column. By changing the dium or wide beam. The light sources used in
area and tilt of the reflecting surface, the light public ground floodlights should be high pres-
distribution can be altered. Secondary reflector sure sodium, metal halide, but today more and
luminaires are inevitably inefficient compared more LED especially when having local manual
to post top luminaires, but they do not cause or coinoperated switching where instant acti-
glare, are not prone to deliberate or accidental vation is essential. Floodlights need protection
damage and can provide a pleasing ambi- against dust and moisture and so are classi-
ence. For examples of secondary reflector fied according to the IP system (see Chapter D
luminaires see Figures 98 and 99. / 7.4.1 / Tables 12 and 13) and are often soundly
constructed of materials that resist attacks by
vandals. Filters mounted in front of the flood-
light can be used to change the light colour; in
some cases coloured lamps may give a good
alternative to filters or to colour changing LED.
From case to case it must be checked for which
types of metal halide lamps a replacement with
coloured lamps is possible. Barn door baffles
Figure 98 Figure 99 mounted on the floodlight can be used to mo-
Symmetrical light Asymmetrical light
dify the beam shape. Care is necessary when
distribution-fixed. distribution-adjustable..
using floodlights to avoid glare to passers-by
6.2 Floodlights and especially to nearby residents. Figure 100
Floodlights can be used on urban ground for shows a floodlight with vandal proof cover.
public sports lighting, to wash a large surface
with light (advertising) or to pick out a specific
feature of a building. Floodlights vary enor-
mously in their size, power and light distribu-
tion. The smallest floodlights consist LED or
20 W metal halide lamp with different reflectors
and accessories. The largest consist of a high
Figure 100
Typical playground vandal proof standard
asymmetric flood light for metal halide lamp.
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6.3 Wall-mounted Luminaires

As their name suggests, wall mounted luminaires are naires need protection against dust and moisture and
designed to be mounted on walls (surface or reces- so are classified according to the IP and IK system
sed) so as to provide a low level of illumination in the (see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Tables 12,13 and 7.4.2 /
nearby area. They are widely used for security and Tables 14 and 15). Because of their relatively low
amenity lighting. The light distribution is usually wide mounting heights, they should be solidly constructed
and is achieved by a combination of reflecting and of materials that resist attacks by vandals. The most
refracting elements. The light sources used in wall common problem experienced with wall mounted
mounted luminaires are usually low wattage low luminaires is glare. This problem is much reduced if
pressure sodium, high pressure sodium, compact there is no direct view of the light source. Figure 101
fluorescent, metal halide or LED. Wall mounted lumi- shows a selection of wall mounted luminaires.
Figure 101
Examples of wall mounted luminaires used in Abu Dhabi.
Luminaires
6.4 In-Ground (Above-Ground) designs. These in-ground lights are available in
Up-Lights, Directional Lights many shapes and with many different effects
For some design needs, in-ground or above- and/or light distributions. It is to be considered
ground uplighters may be applicable. They that such orientation lights could reach the re-
could be used as tree up-lights, installed either quired lighting levels, but the uniformity will not
in ground recessing housings (mostly they are be as per standards, if unless a mass of such
part of the light fixture) or as above-ground fixtures will are used with very small distances
up-lighters on site-made base or on spike, between the fixtures. The width of the path-
fixed in the soil. way must be considered to be a limitation
when applying such installations.
By using in-ground fixtures in the UAE, the
quality of the housings and the materials used All of the above systems require a very detailed
becomes a main topic. Irrigation water can design process and a clear on-going commu-
destroy some cast aluminium composition nication with the client.
materials very fast. All these in-ground
luminaires require a proper drainage, For all types of in-ground fixtures, it is recom-
regardless of which IP5X or 6X rating they mended to use them only in cases where there
have. Only the IP 68 rating would allow a is no other way of lighting available, especially
fixture to be all the time under water. if it is required to replace lamps. The previous
past experience shows that maintenance of
In case of on-site made base plate or on spike in-ground luminaires is not being undertaken
mounting, then the problem of drainage is ob- correctly and breaching the IP resistance plus
solete. Nevertheless the material topic is of the diminishing the project lighting quality is mostly
same importance as with in-ground fixtures, a big problem in all installations worldwide.
due to not well controlled or maintained On one side, there is the problem of the
irrigation systems. lighting maintenance, plus on the other side,
there is the question of possible damage by
During the installation process, the availability cars, people, transportation of materials and,
of aiming possibilities and/or the lighting including, maintenance of other related areas,
colours ‘white’ or ‘RGB’ are parameters to as such may occur.
be considered.
One more topic concerns the ’aiming’ of
For orientation purposes ground mounted such in-ground or above-ground fixtures.
with directional lights (so called ‘path-lights’ Past experience shows that for most of the
or ‘way-markers’) could be used in some time, the design is not fully carried out up
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to the last point, as required for best practice, and As a result of the previously described facts, there is
this means that, on-site aiming and locking, or during a high risk that glare and/or light pollution may occur.
site installation, the contractors are not able to apply See Figure 102.
the aiming as required to optimize the lighting.
Figure 102
Samples of in-ground and above-Ground lights used in Abu Dhabi.
NOTE 1 Above-ground lights should be placed with care and in view to size of task. Additionally it should be
considered that especially above-ground lights can cause glare and light pollution.
Luminaires
7.0 Certification and Classification
7.1 Certification
The principal EU Directives for electrical products manufacturers are required to associate them
are the Electro-Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) Di- with controls for conformity of production.
rective and the Low Voltage (LV) Directive, sum-
marised for lighting products in Table 8. The Parallel to all the EU Standards and Certification
EMC Directive and the LV Directive both require procedures for lighting products and lighting
products put on the UAE market to be safe: parts, assemblies the US Standards known as
Compatibility being designated by the CE mark. UL Standards (Underwriters LaboratoriesTM) are
Products complying with specified Euronorm developed in a similar way. The listings and Ta-
(EN) safety standards are presumed to comply. bles below will show the main topics of both to
EN standards are based upon existing internatio- allow for orientation in view to lighting products
nal standards, e.g. an IEC standard. For a list of used for street-, tunnel- and public realm lighting.
current EN standards relevant to lighting pro- All the standards and certifications needed for a
ducts see Tables 9 and 10 (EMC and Safety), project are to be seen in close connection with
and Table 11 (Performance). In most instances, the client’s demands and/or the DMA tender
there is an equivalent British Standard (BS), procedures and requirements.
known as a BS EN. For established products a
compatible BS standard may still be used, but 7.2 European (EU) Standards and
preference should be given to the EN standards. Safety Trade Marks
Electrical EN standards are issued by the EU The Table 8 shows the different European
sponsored organisation, CENELEC (see Figure directives to allow proper certification of lighting
103). These standards are type tests, and and lighting components:
ENC Directive LV Directive

from 1st of January 1996 from 1st of January 1997
Applies to: see Table 9 Applies to:
Luminaires, Lighting Components, Lamps
EN Standards EN Safety Standards

See Table 9 See Table 10
Table 8
EU directives and lighting products.
NOTE 1 Use local Standards like ESMA 38-2012, 13-2013, 21-2013, etc. for specification in addition
to international ones.
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Responsibility for compliance of a product with the Directives and with the specified EN standards rests on
the person putting the product on the EU market, usually the manufacturer. Governmental authorities will
require additional independent test certificates from case to case. In any case local government (DMA) have
introduced new standards like the Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council’s exterior LED Luminaire
Certification Scheme, ESMA’s Lighting Regulations, ESTIDAMA, etc. These local standards and certification
requirements will prevail in all matters.
Registered Mark of CENELEC –

indicating a permanent conformity
with standards for electrical safety
Figure 103
CENELEC Logo
Table 9
EU Directives for lighting products and materials, ballasts.
Notes for Tables 8, 10 and 11:

M = CE-mark obligatory (LV Directive)
S = ENEC mark optional (safety standard only available)
SP = ENEC mark optional (to safety standard and performance standard)
V= Older standard, still valid
n/a = Not applicable
Luminaires
NOTE 1
Associated standards:
BS EN 40 Lighting columns; BS EN 60730–2–3 Thermal protectors for ballasts.
NOTE 2 The EN standards are based on IEC standards, and their numbers are the
IEC numbers plus 60,000; for example EN 60570 = IEC 570.
BS EN standards have the EN number:
like BS EN 60598–2 is linked to BS EN 60598–1
The EMC and LV Directives, in conjunction with the CE Marking Directive, require compliant
products to be accompanied by the CE-mark. CE represents Conformity European (be careful,
because especially this certification is often fake when produced in Eastern- or Far Eastern Markets.
The CE-mark should preferably be on both product and packaging. Responsibility for marking rests
on the person putting the product on the EU market.
The CE-Mark
The CE mark is not to be seen as the safest way for getting a certified product, especially since some
manufacturers are putting fake CE marks on their products. It is important to note that CE-marks on
components do not imply that a luminaire complies. The luminaire as a whole must comply and carry
the CE-mark. Further, if a luminaire is modified for use in the EU (e.g. with emergency lighting) the
modifier takes over responsibility and must make a new CE mark. A lighting product outside the LV
Directive (e.g. an ELV product) comes under the General Products Safety Directive.
Figure 104
CE Mark
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Due to the fact that the ENEC mark is to be applied by an independent certification body, it is advisable to look
for ENEC certification together with the CE mark. The ENEC mark indicates independent confirmation that the
product complies with all relevant EN safety standards and, where available, EN performance standards.
NOTE 1 The ENEC mark is not applicable to lamps or emergency luminaires. The ENEC mark is not obligatory.
Testing and approval are carried out by national Certification Bodies, e.g. in the UK by BSI. The XX in the diagram
is replaced by a number from 01 to 17 (European Country Code), e.g. 12 for the UK. The ENEC mark of each of
the Certification Bodies is valid throughout the EU. Again, it is important to note that ENEC marks on components
do not imply that a luminaire has an ENEC mark. Furthermore, if a luminaire is modified, than the modifier must
remove the ENEC mark.
XX
Figure 105
ENEC Mark
NOTE 1 Table 10:

‘X’ identifies luminaire types as follows: 1 General purpose, 2 Recessed, 4 Portable,
5 Floodlights, 6 With transformer, 7 Portable – garden, 8 Hand lamps, 9 Photo –
amateur, 17 Stage and studio, 18 Swimming pools, 19 Air-handling and 20 Lighting chains.
Luminaires
Table 10
EN Safety standards for lighting products (CE mark and LV Directive).
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Table 11
EN Performance standards and lighting products.
7.3 United States of America (US) Standards and Safety Trade Marks
Additionally to all EU Certifications, the US has introduced an independent testing procedure
which is very similar in all topics to the EU ones. It is known as UL (Underwriters Laboratories TM)
standards and testing procedure requirements.
Figure 106
UL Standards trade mark logo.
Luminaires
Following UL Standards are applicable for lighting products and assemblies:
• ANSI/UL 153
• ANSI/UL 1598
• ANSI/UL 8750
7.3.1 The ANSI/UL 153 Standard

Covers portable electric luminaires:
• These requirements cover portable luminaires and subassemblies whose primary

function is task or ambient illumination.

Covers following main topics:
• Table of contents • Factory production tests

• Body • Test procedures and apparatus
• Scope • Marking
• Reference publications • ANNEX A (normative) Standards for
• Definitions Components
• General requirements • Annex B (CAN) (normative) Markings -
• Mechanical construction French Translations
• Electrical construction • Annex C (MEX) (normative) Markings -
• Incandescent luminaires Spanish translations
• HID luminaires - • Annex D (normative) Pictograms
• Surface-mounted luminaires - • Annex E (informative) Metric Conversion
supplementary requirements Information
• Miscellaneous luminaires • Annex F (CAN) (normative)Printed Circuit
• Environmental location luminaires - Boards
supplementary requirements • Annex G (normative) Luminaires for use with
• Normal temperature tests self-ballasted compact fluorescent (CFL) or
• Abnormal temperature tests self-ballasted light emitting diode (LED)
• Mechanical tests • Annex H (CAN) (normative) LUMINAIRES
• Electrical tests FOR USE IN RECREATIONAL VEHICLES
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Covers Light Emitting Diode (LED) Equipment for Use in Lighting Products:
• Scope
• These requirements cover LED equipment that is an integral part of a luminaire or other lighting equipment
and which operates in the visible light spectrum between 400 - 700 nm. These requirements also cover the
component parts of light emitting diode (LED) equipment, including LED drivers, controllers, arrays, modules,
and packages as defined within this standard.
• These lighting products are intended for installation on branch circuits up to 600 V nominal or less and for
connection to isolated (non-utility connected) power sources such as generators, batteries, fuel cells, solar cells,
and the like.
• LED equipment which is utilized in lighting products that comply with the endproduct standards as listed below:
a) Portable Electric Luminaires, UL 153,
b) Underwater Luminaires and Submersible Junction Boxes, UL 676,
c) Emergency Lighting and Power Equipment, UL 924,
d) Luminaires, UL 1598,
e) Low Voltage Landscape Lighting Systems, UL 1838,
f) Self-Ballasted Lamps and Lamp Adapters, UL 1993,
g) Luminous Egress Path Marking Systems, UL 1994, and
h) Low Voltage Lighting Systems, UL 2108.
NOTE 1 These above listings are not intended to reflect all standards for all kind of lighting, ballasts, drivers, etc. it
shows only some the main topics related to this handbook.
Luminaires
7.4 International used Standards and Safety Trade Marks
7.4.1 Operating Conditions (IP-Rating)

The International Protection (IP) system classifies luminaires according to the degree of protection
provided against the ingress of foreign bodies, dust and moisture. The degree of protection is
indicated by the letters IP followed by two numbers. The first number indicates the degree of
protection against the ingress of foreign bodies and dust. The second indicates the protection
against the ingress of moisture. Table 12 shows the degree of protection indicated by each number.
Using Table 12 it can be seen that as an example a luminaire classified as IP55 is dust protected
and able to withstand water jets. See Table 13 for more information about IP rating.
Table 12
IP classification of luminaires according to the degree of protection against foreign bodies, dust and moisture.
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Table 13
IP rating including details of testing procedures.
Luminaires
7.4.2 IK Code and Impact Energy
The European standard EN 62262 - the equivalent of international standard IEC 62262 (2002) -
relates to IK ratings. This is an international numeric classification for the degrees of protection
provided by enclosures for electrical equipment against external mechanical impacts. It provides a
means of specifying the capacity of an enclosure to protect its contents from external impacts.
EN 62262 specifies the way enclosures should be mounted when tests are carried out, the
atmospheric conditions that should prevail, the number of impacts (5) and their (even) distribution,
and the size, style, material, dimensions etc. of the various types of hammer designed to produce
the energy levels required. See Table 14 and 15 below:
Table 14
IK Code for protection.
* not protected according to the standard

1. R100 Rockwell hardness according to ISO 2039/2
2. Fc 490-2, Rockwell hardness according to ISO 1052
Table 15
IK Code System test characteristics.
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7.4.3 Electrical Protection

Luminaires are also classified according to the protection they provide against electric shock.
Table 16 shows the luminaire classes in the IEC classification..
Table 16
The classification of luminaires according to the degree of electrical protection.
NOTE1 ‘Extra-Low-Saftey-Voltage’ means ELV, see Table 17:
IEC voltage range AC DC defining risk

High voltage (supply system) > 1000 Vrms > 1500 V electrical arcing
Low voltage (supply system) 50–1000 Vrms 120–1500 V electrical shock
Extra-low voltage (supply syst.) < 50 Vrms < 120 V low risk
Table 17
ELV standards
Luminaires
7.4.4 Separated or Safety Extra-Low Voltage (SELV)
IEC defines a SELV system as ‘an electrical system in which the voltage cannot exceed ELV under
normal conditions, and under single-fault conditions, including earth faults in other circuits’.
There exists some confusion regarding the origin of the acronym: ‘SELV’ stands for ‘separated
extra-low voltage’ in installation standards (e.g., BS 7671) and for ‘safety extra-low voltage’ in
appliance standards (e.g., BS EN 60335).
A SELV circuit must have:

Protective-separation (i.e., double insulation, reinforced insulation or protective screening) from
all circuits other than SELV and PELV (i.e., all circuits that might carry higher voltages), simple
separation from other SELV systems, from PELV systems and from earth (ground).
The safety of a SELV circuit is provided by
• The extra-low voltage.

• The low risk of accidental contact with a higher voltage.
• The lack of a return path through earth (ground) that electric current could take in case of
contact with a human body.
The design of a SELV circuit typically involves an isolating transformer, guaranteed minimum
distances between conductors and electrical insulation barriers. The electrical connectors of
SELV circuits should be designed such that they do not mate with connectors commonly used
for non-SELV circuits.
Figure 107
SELV Logo
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7.4.5 Class II Insulation

A ‘Class II’ or double-insulated electrical appliance is one which has been designed in such a way that it does not
require a safety connection to electrical earth (ground).
The basic requirement is that no single failure can result in dangerous voltage becoming exposed so that it
might cause an electric shock and that this is achieved without relying on an earthed metal casing. This is usually
achieved at least in part by having two layers of insulating material surrounding live parts or by using reinforced
insulation.
In Europe, a double-insulated appliance must be labelled Class II, double-insulated, or bear the double-insulation
symbol (a square inside another square).
Figure 108
Logo for Class II insulation products.
Luminaires
7.4.6 Flammability
The temperature of a luminaire may limit the surfaces on which it can be mounted. If the surface is
non-combustible, then any luminaire may be mounted on it. But when the surface is either normally
flammable or readily flammable, restrictions may apply. A normally flammable surface is one having
an ignition temperature of at least 200 °C and that will not deform or weaken at this temperature.
A readily flammable surface is one that cannot be classified as normally flammable or non-
combustible. Readily flammable materials are not suitable for direct mounting of luminaires.
The IEC recommends a two part classification system. For luminaires suitable for direct mounting
only on non-combustible surfaces, a warning notice may be required. For luminaires suitable for
direct mounting on normally flammable surfaces a symbol consisting of a letter F inside an inverted
triangle is required.
NOTE 1 In order to ensure all testing and safety is present and

correct, it is mandatory to check all certification and test
sheets, to ensure ESMA requirements have been met or
request fixtures are compliant with the technical criteria of the
DMA Lighting Specifications and/or (if external LED luminaires)
are ADQCC certified and marked. (www.qcc.abudhabi.ae)
Figure 109
Different marks for fire-safety rating
USA Europe testing for US-market and Europe
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7.5 ADQCC and ESMA
7.5.1 Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC)

The Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC) was established by law No. 3 of 2009,
issued by His Highness Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, President of the UAE.
For more info please refer to: http://www.qcc.abudhabi.ae
ADQCC is responsible for the development of Abu Dhabi Emirate’s Quality Infrastructure, which enables
industry and regulators to ensure that products, systems and personnel can be tested and certified to UAE
and International Standards.
Products certified by ADQCC receive the Abu Dhabi Trustmark. The Trustmark is designed to communicate that a
product or system conforms to various safety and performance standards that are set by Abu Dhabi regulators.
7.5.1.1 Abu Dhabi Certification Scheme for LED Exterior Lighting Fixtures (Luminaires)
The LED Exterior Lighting Fixture Certification Scheme, developed through consultation with regulators and
industry, enables suppliers of LED exterior lighting fixtures to obtain voluntary certification of products that meet
quality criteria designed to satisfy the standards or equivalent outlined by the Department of Municipal Affairs.
The scheme has been specified for 11 types of light fixtures to ensure their safety, performance and energy
efficiency. Relevant municipalities or the Department of Transport may impose further requirements not specified
within this certification scheme, for example regarding, aspects of design, manufacturing, installation,
calculations of road lighting contribution, in order to qualify products for use in projects.
Luminaires
7.5.1.2 Conformity Certificate
Products that achieve certification, through formal evaluation against the scheme criteria,
will be granted a Certificate of Conformity and licensed to bear the Abu Dhabi
"Trustmark for Environmental Performance" in product promotion and merchandising.
The Certificate of Conformity enables developers to present evidence of meeting standards as
specified for Abu Dhabi's built environment.
Figure 110
Trust mark environmental performance
The Trustmark indicates that select products meet Abu Dhabi specifications and, if required, UAE
standards. The Quality and Conformity Council's market surveillance inspectors actively ensure that
the integrity of the Trustmark is maintained through market sampling and testing of products bearing
the Trustmark.
7.5.2 ESMA
Emirates Authority for Standardization & Metrology, the national authority responsible for UAE standards.
The Emirates Conformity Assessment Scheme is a certification program enforced by ESMA for
regulated products. Under this scheme, products are evaluated based on requirements and
standards set by the program. As a result of the evaluation, a Certificate of Conformity is generated
to act as evidence of compliance. Mainly covering lamps the standard came into force in 2014 and
will increasingly be implemented from 2015 onwards for all relevant products being sold in the UAE.
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7.5.2.1 Scope
The regulation covers non-directional lamps, luminaires and control gears traded and
use in UAE that include the following:
• Incandescent lamps ≥ 16W (watts)

• Linear fluorescent lamps (excluding energy efficiency and functionality requirements); i.e. just safety is covered
• Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)
• Halogen lamps
• Light emitting diode (LED) lamps
• Control gears for general lighting purposes
• Luminaires for general lighting purposes. (only Electrical Safety Requirements apply)
General exemptions for lamps, luminaires and control gears are listed in Annex 1 of the ESMA Standard.
7.5.2.2 Emirates Quality Mark

A quality mark granted by ESMA indicating that the given product complies with the requirements stated in the
accredited standard.
Figure 111
Emirates Quality Mark Logo
Additionally a certificate is issued by ESMA to the given product ensuring that the product complies the
requirements of this scheme.
Luminaires
7.5.2.3 Energy Efficiency Label
Documents issued by ESMA show the stars classification for lighting products according to their
efficiency in energy consumption, up to a maximum five stars.
Figure 112
Emirates Quality Mark Logo
NOTE 1 In order to ensure all testing and safety is present and correct, it is mandatory to check all
certification and test sheets, to ensure ESMA requirements have been met or request fixtures are
compliant with the technical criteria of the DMA lighting specifications and/or (if external LED
luminaires) are ADQCC certified and marked.
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8.0 Road Lighting Luminaires
8.1 Luminous Intensity Distribution intensity per 1000 lamp lumens at different
Road lighting luminaires have traditionally been angles from the downward vertical in any di-
classified as full-cutoff or semi-cutoff, accor- rection as a criterion.
ding to their luminous intensity distribution.
BS EN 13201: Part 2: 2003 has introduced Table 18 shows the limits based on EU Stan-
a finer classification designed to give better dards for each of the six classes (G levels) and
control of disability glare and obtrusive light. their relationship to the traditional semi-cutoff
This classification uses the maximum luminous and full-cutoff terms:
Table 18
BS EN 13201: Part 2: 2003 road lighting luminaire classification.
NOTE 1 The ‘G’-Classes are to be found in manufacturer’s data sheets or catalogues, in case missing the
manufacturer to provide the correct classification.
Luminaires
The US Standards for road lighting are covered under by RP-08-00 which is valid for lighting
designs developed for Abu Dhabi areas.
The Classification of street lighting fixtures analogue to the EU ones above is covered by the
TM-15-07(-11) Standard as shown in the following Tables and explanations:
As shown in the addendum A to IESNA TM-15-07(-11); backlight, up-light, and glare (BUG) Ratings
should be shown in data sheets or on products as follows in Tables 19, 20, 21, 22. In no sufficient
info is provided, the manufacturer to provide accurate info about back-light, up-light and glare.
The following back-light, up-light, and glare ratings may be used to evaluate luminaire optical
performance related to light trespass, sky glow, and high angle brightness control. These ratings are
based on zonal lumen calculations for secondary solid angles defined in TM-15-07(-11) standard.
The zonal lumen thresholds listed in the following three Tables are based on data from photometric
testing procedures approved by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) for outdoor luminaires.
Table 19 (A-1)
Back-light ratings (maximum zonal lumens).
Table 20 (A-2)
Up-light ratings (maximum zonal lumens).
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Table 21 (A-3)
Glare ratings (maximum zonal lumens).
For explanation of capital letter codes (e.g. UH, UL, etc.) shown in Tables 19, 20, 21 and 22 see Figure 110.
Notes to Tables 19 (A-1), 20 (A-2) and 21( A-3):
NOTE 1 Any one rating is determined by the maximum rating obtained for that Table. For example,
if the BH zone is rated B1, the BM zone is rated B2, and the BL zone is rated B1, then the backlight rating
for the luminaire is B2.
NOTE 2 To determine BUG ratings, the photometric test data must include data in the upper hemisphere unless
no light is emitted above 90 degrees vertical (for example, if the luminaire has a flat lens and opaque sides),
per the IES Testing Procedures Committee recommendations.
NOTE 3 It is recommended that the photometric test density include values at least every 2.5 degrees vertically.
If a photometric test does not include data points every 2.5 degrees vertically, the BUG ratings shall be
determined based on appropriate interpolation.
Luminaires
NOTE 4 A ‘quadrilateral symmetric’ luminaire (see Figure 110) shall meet one of the following
definitions:
• A Type V luminaire is one with a distribution that has circular symmetry, defined by the IESNA
as being essentially the same at all lateral angles around the luminaire.
• A Type VS luminaire is one where the zonal lumens for each of the eight horizontal octants
(0-45, 45-90, 90-135, 135-180, 180-225, 225-270, 270315, 315-360) are within ±10 percent
of the average zonal lumens of all octants
‘BUG’ Rating example for a 250-watt MH area luminaire, Type IV forward throw optical distribution
(see Figure 110):
Table 22
Example of BUG rating for sample luminaire shown in Figure 110.
Figure 113
250-watt MH area luminaire, Type IV forward throw optical distribution.
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Based on the photometric test data, the sample luminaire (Figure 110) has the following zonal lumen distribution:
• Back-light Rating:
Determine the lowest rating where the lumens for all of the secondary solid angles do not exceed the
threshold lumens from Table 19 (A-1). In this example the backlight rating would be B2 based on the BL
lumen limit.
• Up-light Rating:
threshold lumens from Table 20 (A-2). In this example the uplight rating would be U1 based on the FVH and
BVH lumen limits.
• Glare Rating:
threshold lumens from Table 21 (A-3) for a Type IV distribution. In this example, the glare rating would be
G2 based on the FH lumen limit.
Therefore, the BUG rating for this sample luminaire type IV would be: B2 U1 G2
Figure 114
Light distribution sections of a type IV light for BUG rating process.
Luminaires
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Chapter E
Electrics
Electrics
1.0 Control Gear

A wide range of lamps and LED requires control gear of some kind to ensure correct running and, in some cases,
starting of the lamp. With discharge lamps it is the job of the control gear to limit the current through the lamp
whereas with some incandescent lamps the gear is there to reduce the voltage. Some low voltage tungsten
lamps need units to supply them with the correct voltage and LEDs need electronics to limit the current going
through them.
1.1 Ballasts for Discharge Light Sources – General Principles

The control gear of discharge lamps has to perform a number of functions:
• Limit and stabilises the lamp current: Due to the negative resistance characteristic of gas discharge lamps
(see Chapter C / 1.2) it is necessary to control the current in the lamp circuit.
• Ensure that the lamp continues to operate despite the mains voltage falling to zero at the end of each half cycle.
• Provide the correct condition for the ignition of the lamp: This generally requires the gear to provide a high
voltage and in the case of fluorescent lamps requires a heating current to be passed through the electrodes.
As well as these basic functions, the control gear may also have the following additional requirements:
• Ensure a high power factor.
• Limit the harmonic distortion in the mains current.
• Limit any electromagnetic interference (EMI) produced by the lamp and ballast.
• Limit the short-circuit and run up currents to protect the lamp electrodes and to help the supply wiring system.
• Keep the lamp current and voltage within the specified limits for the lamp during mains voltage fluctuations.
With electromagnetic control gear several separate control components may be needed; these may include
ballasts, starters, igniters, capacitors and filter-coils, power supply units, drivers, etc.
When electronic control gear is used, it is common to integrate all the components into one package.
The details of the various circuits used are discussed in the following Chapters.
Electrics
1.1.1 Electromagnetic Control Gear for Fluorescent Light Sources
Choke coils used to be the most common type of current limiting device used with linear and
compact fluorescent lamps. The most common circuit is the switch start, see Figure 112..
Figure 115
Schematic diagram of a fluorescent lamp operated using a choke ballast and a switch start.
The choke ballast is made from a large num- through the electrode at the other end of the
ber of windings of copper on a laminated iron lamp and back to neutral.
core. It works on the self-inductance principle
and is designed so that impedance of the When the mains voltage is first applied to the
choke limits the current through the circuit to lamp circuit, the total mains voltage appears
the correct value for a given lamp and supply across the electrodes of the starter and this
voltages. A range of ballasts is available for initiates a glow discharge. This discharge
different lamps and different voltages. Also the heats the bi-metallic elements within the
ballast design has to be changed if it is to starter and as the electrodes heat up they
operate at a different mains supply frequency. bend towards each other until eventually they
touch. While the electrodes are touching the
To start the lamp it is common to use a glow current passing through the lamp electrodes
starter. The glow starter switch consists of one pre-heats them. While the electrodes in the
or two bi-metallic strips enclosed in a glass starter are touching there is no glow discharge
tube containing a noble gas. The glow starter and so the electrodes cool and separate.
is connected across the lamp so it is possible At the moment that the electrodes come apart
for a current to pass through the ballast, the current through the ballast is interrupted
through the electrode at one end of the lamp, causing a voltage peak across the lamp.
Note 1 The glow starter does not always create the conditions for the lamp to start and sometimes
the starting cycle has to be repeated a number of times.
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Figures 116 to 118 illustrate the starting process:
Figure 116
The heat from the discharge in the starter causes the bi-metallic electrodes to bend together.
Figure 117
The bi-metallic electrodes touch and a current flows through the circuit preheating the electrodes of the lamp.
Figure 118
The electrodes cool and separate, causing a voltage peak which ignites the lamp.
In addition to the ballast and the starter most fluorescent lamps circuits have a capacitor connected across
the supply terminals to ensure a high power factor for the circuit.
Electrics
1.1.2 Electromagnetic Control Gear for HID Light Sources
There are a number of different types of circuits used for high intensity discharge (HID) lamps which
vary according to the type of lamp and its requirements for starting.
The most common type of ballast used is a choke or inductive ballast in series with the lamp.
The choke, which is a coil of copper wire wound on a laminated iron core, limits the current through
the lamp. Figure 119 shows a typical circuit using a choke.
Figure 119
Schematic diagram of a HID lamp circuit using a choke.
This type of circuit is used for all high intensity discharge lamps apart from the low pressure sodium
lamp. The low pressure sodium lamp has a long run-up during which time the voltage across the
lamp needs to be greater than normal mains voltage; this has given rise to a number of circuits for
running the lamp that provide the necessary voltage.
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1.1.3 Low Pressure Sodium Lamp

The most common of these circuits is the autoleak transformer (Figure 120).
The autoleak transformer works like an autotransformer increasing the supply voltage, but by careful design of the
secondary winding it can also act as a choke to control the current through the lamp.
Figure 120
Schematic diagram of a low pressure sodium lamp circuit using an autoleak transformer.
1.1.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamp

Most high pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps require a high voltage pulse to start the arc in the lamp.
This is usually provided by an electronic ignitor. There are several types of ignitor circuits, the two most common
are the semi-parallel and the superimposed pulse type (Figures 121 and 122).
Figure 121 Figure 122

A semi-parallel ignition system. A superimposed ignition system.
Electrics
The semi-parallel ignitor relies on the tapped ballast coil to generate the ignition pulse whereas
the superimposed type ignitor has its own coil to generate the pulse. The semi-parallel has many
advantages in that it consumes no power when the lamp is running, it is cheaper and lighter but,
as it relies on the ballast, it may only be used with the ballast for which it has been specifically
designed.
Ignitors sometimes have other features built-in such as self-stopping ignitors that will not continually
try to restrike a lamp that has come to the end of its life. There are also some that are designed to
produce extra high voltages that can restrike hot lamps.
1.1.5 Electronic Control Gear for Fluorescent Light Sources

Operating fluorescent lamps at high frequency has a number of advantages (see Chapter C / 2.3)
and most modern control gears are now of this type. Most electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps
are integrated into a single package that performs a number of functions.
These functions are:
• A low pass filter: this limits the amount of harmonic distortion caused by the ballast.
• Also controls the amount of radio frequency interference, protects the ballast against high voltage
mains peaks and limits the inrush current.
• The rectifier: This converts the AC power from the mains supply into DC.
• A buffer capacitor: This stores the charge from each mains cycle thus providing a steady voltage
to the circuits that provide the power to the lamps.
• The HF power oscillator takes the steady DC voltage from the buffer capacitor and using
semi-conductor switches controlled by the ballast controller creates a high frequency
square wave.
• The output of the power oscillator is fed through a small HF coil that acts as a stabilisation
coil to the lamp.
Figure 123 shows the main components in typical HF fluorescent lamp ballast.
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Figure 123
A circuit diagram of an electronic ballast for two fluorescent lamps.
In some ballasts the electronics that control the power oscillator can vary the frequency at which the power
oscillator runs; as the frequency increases the current passing through the coils decreases and thus it is possible
to dim the lamps. Some types of ballast have a 0 to 10 volt input that is used to regulate the output while
some have digital interfaces. See Chapter E / 2.0 for further information on controls.
1.1.6 Electronic Control Gear for HID Light Sources

Making electronic control gear for HID light sources is a complex process. There are many different lamp types
each with different electrical requirements and a limited range of frequencies in which they can be operated.
Also many lamp types do not show a significant gain in efficiency when operated on high frequencies. For these
reasons electronic control gear has been developed more slowly for HID lamps than for fluorescent lamps.
However, it is possible to gain a number of benefits from electronic gear for HID lamps. These include:
• Increased lamp life.

• Elimination of visible flicker.
• Better system efficacy.
• Less sensitivity to mains voltage or temperature fluctuations.
• The possibility of dimming with some lamp types.
Not all these benefits are possible for all lamp types and all control gear combinations. However, the availability
and quality of electronic gear available for HID lamps is rapidly increasing.
Electrics
1.1.7 Iron-Core Transformers for Low-Voltage Light Sources
Many tungsten halogen lamps are designed to run on low voltages the most common of which is
12 volts. Thus they need a device to reduce the supply voltage. The traditional way to do this was
by using a transformer. Figure 124 shows the various currents and voltages in a transformer and
gives the approximate relationship between the voltages, currents and the number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils and all low-wattage lamp sizes are covered today and increasing into
the larger wattages.
Figure 124
A circuit diagram for a transformer.
As well as reducing the voltage the transformer also isolates the lamp supply from the mains.
This means that even under a fault condition the voltage in the secondary circuit will not rise
significantly above the nominal output voltage and so it will always be safe to touch the conductors
on the low voltage side.
Most modern transformers for halogen lamps involve electronics. They usually contain high
frequency oscillators to permit the use of smaller transformers that have smaller power losses.
With the introduction of electronics it is possible to introduce additional features such as constant
voltage output and soft starting of the lamps.
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1.1.8 Electronic Transformers for Low-Voltage Light Sources

The Figure 125 shows a typical, switched-mode power supply for a halogen lamp, commonly known as an
electronic transformer. Such devices have some limitations, such as its inability to dim the lamp. The simplified
schematic of a typical low-voltage halogen-lamp transformer comprises a classic, half-bridge topology that works
in selfoscillating mode. The circuit provides positive feedback by placing the primary windings of transformer T1 in
series with the bridge output. To achieve a high powerfactor value, a rectified but unfiltered mains voltage supplies
power to the circuit. The working frequency is approximately 30 to 40 kHz. Many electronic transformers need a
minimum ballast for stable operation without flickering. It is advised to check if dimming is required and which
dimming system is applied in order sure that the right type of electronic transformer is used in the application.
Figure 125
Schematic of non-dimmable electronic transformer.
Electrics
1.1.9 Drivers for LEDs
LEDs need to be run at a controlled current to ensure proper operation. To provide this drivers are
used. Most drivers take mains power and provide a constant current output. However, it is possible
to control some drivers so that the output current is varied and so that the LED may be dimmed.
In more complex systems it is possible to dim three different channels separately, so that when red,
green and blue LEDs are used together it is possible to make colour changes. Most LED drivers can
maintain their constant current output over a range of voltages so it is often possible to connect a
number of LEDs in series on one driver.
Figure 126
System sketch of LED with current constant driver on 1-10V dimming.
Figure 127
System sketch of LED with voltage constant driver on DALI dimming.
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2.0 Lighting Controls 2.2.2 Presence Detectors

Most presence detectors are based on passive infra-
2.1 Options for Control red (PIR) detectors; however some devices are
There are a number of factors that need to be based on microwave or ultrasonic technology. PIR
considered in any control system; these are the devices monitor changes in the amount of infra-red
inputs to the system, how the system controls the radiation that they are receiving. The movement of
lighting equipment and what the control process is, people within an area will be detected by them and
that decides how a particular inputs will impact on this can be signalled to a control system. Thus, if a
the light setting. device detects the presence of a person this can be
used to signal the control system to switch the lights
Thus for a control system to work it must have: on, but if the device has not detected anybody for
some time this can be used to signal that there is
• Input devices: Such as switches, presence nobody there and that the lights can be turned off.
detectors, timers and photocells.
• Control processes: These may consist of a simple 2.2.3 Timers
wiring network through to a computer based Most computerised control systems have timers built
control system. in so that they can turn the lighting on and off at
• Controlled luminaires: The system may control particular times. However, there are also a large
luminaires in a number of ways, from simply number of time switches available that can turn
switching them on and off to dimming the lamp lamps on an off at given times. There are also timers
and in more complex systems causing movement used for exterior lighting that change the time that
and colour changes. they switch at throughout the year so that the lamps
are always switched at dawn and dusk.
2.2 Input Devices
2.2.4 Photocells
2.2.1 Manual Inputs There are many different types of photocell used to
These vary from simple switches used to turn the control lighting. The simplest to use are those that
lights on, through dimmer switches and remote con- switch on at one illuminance value and switch off at
trol units that interface to a control system, to lighting another; these are commonly used to turn exterior
control desks that are used in theatres. The point of lights on at dusk and off at dawn, by threshold
these units is to allow people to control the lighting adjustment and in some cases additional with time-
and care is always needed in the application of such period selection. Some photocells communicate the
devices to ensure that users of the system can illuminance value to the central control system, which
readily understand the function of any such control. uses the information to adjust the lighting in some
Electrics
way. Some photocells are mounted on Such solutions could have following features:
constructions with shields around them so
that they only receive light reflected from the • Central control
surface nearby. This makes them act like • Complete monitoring
luminance meters and, provided the • Dimming
reflectance of the surface remains constant, • Remote metering
they can be set up to follow the illuminance • Power quality metering
of that surface. • Voltage stabilization
• Control room installation
2.2.5 Advanced Lighting Control
Systems Following Cost Savings could be achieved:
Some new advance lighting control systems A centralised lighting control solution that can
can help to control 24-hour, 7-days a year perfectly combine cost saving and less emis-
thousands of light points. In combination with sion without compromising quality and safety
astronomical timers it is possible to dim and issues. Energy and cost savings may result
to take care about threshold adjustments from:
when used in conjunction with computerised
control stations. Additional manual override • Dimming at off-peak traffic hours
can be provided in case of emergency or if • Reduced maintenance costs
maintenance is on-going. • Burn hour optimization
• Accurate switch on/off
In case of new systems a centralized solution • Real-time control
may be implemented as this requires less • Load balancing and Load shedding
equipment and may allow for a simpler instal- • Area-specific settings
lation than a pole-based standalone solution. • Fast reaction to special traffic or weather
Figure 128 shows a simple system sketch of conditions
a centralised lighting control system.
Depending on the system and the manu-
facturer the control signals can be distributed
through a power bus system (signal is modu-
lated on the power-cables supplying the
cabinets and lights) or through IP addresses
with IP interfaces at each pole or if simpler
systems are applied at the control cabinets.
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Additional Benefits may be caused by implementing centralised Lighting Controls:
• Control cabinet fault monitoring

• Automated reading of digital power meters in control cabinets
• Burn hour reports for proactive bulb change
• High up-time and immediate fault rectification
• One central photocell ensuring uniformity
• Improved quality of light
• Simplified maintenance
• Reducing the costs and CO2 emissions
• Get rid of increasing electricity costs
• Follow CO2 reduction requirements
• Learn about growing electricity demands
• Ease planning of infrastructure
Figure 128
System elements of a centralised lighting control system.
Electrics
2.3 Control Processes and Systems
2.3.1 0-10V or 1-10V Dimming Systems

0-10 V is one of the earliest and simplest elec-
tronic lighting control signalling systems; sim-
ply put, the control signal is a DC voltage that
varies between zero and ten volts. The con-
trolled lighting should scale its output so that
at 10 V, the controlled light should be at 100%
of its potential output, and at 0 V it should at
0% output (i.e. ‘Off’). Dimming devices may be Figure 129
1-10V Dimming without relay.
designed to respond in various patterns to the
intermediate voltages, giving output curves
that are linear for: voltage output, actual light
output, power output, or perceived light
output.
For dimmable fluorescent lamps, where it
operates instead at 1-10 V, where 1 V is
minimum of approximately 5 to 10% of the
lumen package and a separate switching relay
is required to turn the luminaires off.
For the entire analogue dimming systems it is
mandatory that cabling and connections are
done in a high quality, otherwise problems of
connections may cause different light levels
or flickering. In fact that these systems are
Figure 130
operate at a very low voltage the cable length 1-10V Dimming with relay.
and voltage drop must be considered to allow

optimum signal performance.
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In the case of simple control systems these are generally configured as some form of automated switching in the
power supply to a luminaire or group of luminaires. However, more complex systems are generally configured as a
network of devices including luminaires, sensors and control inputs. In most systems the devices are physically
connected using some form of cabled network but, in principle, devices can be controlled using wireless or
infrared communication.
There are several systems in common use for lighting systems and care needs to be taken to specify the
correct type for each component in the system. Two of the most common systems available are DALI
(Digital Addressable Lighting Interface) and DMX 512 (Digital Multiplex).
The basic specification for DALI systems is contained in BS EN 60929: 2006:

AC-supplied electronic ballasts for tubular fluorescent lamps — Performance requirements.
The DALI system is largely used for lighting systems in buildings but has been extended so that it can be used
more widely. It controls luminaires via the ballast used to control the lamps. The system is designed to run multiple
luminaires on one circuit but there are devices that can control a series of different DALI clusters thus making it
possible to control all the lights in a large building.
2.3.2 DSI / DALI Lighting Control / Dimming System Description

Based on IEC 60929 and IEC 62386 as these are technical standards for network based systems that control
lighting in building automation, they were established as a successor of 0-10 V lighting control systems, and as
an open standard alternative to Digital Signal Interface (DSI), on which it is based.
IEC 60929 is the first version of the standard and will be withdrawn by the 23rd June 2014. Members of the AG
DALI are allowed to use the Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) trademark on devices that are compliant
with the current standard.
Each lighting device is assigned a unique static address in the numeric range from 0 to 63, making possible up to
64 devices in a standalone system. Alternatively, DALI can be used as a subsystem via DALI gateways to address
more than 64 devices.
Data is transferred between controller and devices by means of an asynchronous, half-duplex, serial protocol over
a two-wire bus, with a fixed data transfer rate of 1200 bit/s.
Electrics
DALI requires a single pair of wires to form the bus for communication to all devices on a single
DALI network. The network can be arranged in a bus or star topology, or a combination of these.
The DALI System is not classified as SELV (Separated Extra Low Voltage) and therefore may be run
next to the mains cables or within a multicore cable that includes mains power.
The DALI data is transmitted using manchester-encoding and has a high signal to noise ratio which
enables reliable communications in the presence of a large amount of electrical noise. DALI employs
a diode bridge in the interface circuitry so that devices can be wired without regard for polarity.
Figure 131
DALI Dimming system diagram.
2.3.3 DMX 512 or DMX 512-A Lighting Control System Description

DMX 512 was designed to control lights and other equipment in the entertainment industry.
In a typical spotlight that has its aiming controlled, three channels may be used, one to dim the
luminaire and one for each axis of rotation. The system has traditionally been used in theatres but
is increasingly being used in architectural feature lighting where the lighting equipment is more
complex.
DMX 512-A is the current standard and is maintained by ESTA (Entertainment Service and
Technology Association). The DMX 512 signal is a set of 512 separate intensity levels (Channels)
that are constantly being updated.
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One DMX link of 512 channels is defined as a XLR-5 pinout

universe; typical theatrical control consoles have 1. Signal Common
multiple universe outputs. Each Level has 256 steps 2. Data 1- (Primary Data Link)
divided over a range of 0(zero) to 100 percent. 3. Data 1+ (Primary Data Link)
4. Data 2- (Optional Secondary Data Link)
The DMX 512 follows the RS-485 standard (similar 5. Data 2+ (Optional Secondary Data Link)
to QS digital link).
XLR-3 pinout
Since 1998 the Entertainment Services and Techno- 1. Ground
logy Association (ESTA) started a permanent revision 2. Data 1- (Primary Data Link)
process to develop the standard as an ANSI stan- 3. Data 1+ (Primary Data Link)
dard. The resulting revised standard, known officially
as ‘Entertainment Technology—USITT DMX512-A; NOTE 1 This connector is prohibited by ANSI - E1.11
‘Asynchronous Serial Digital Data Transmission Stan- standard; DMX+ and DMX- are often swapped.
dard’ for Controlling Lighting Equipment and Acces-
sories, was approved by the American National RJ-45 pinout
Standards Institute (ANSI). It was revised recently and 1. Data 1+
now is the current standard known as ‘E1.11 - 2008, 2. Data 1-
USITT DMX512-A’, or just ‘DMX512-A’. 3. Data 2+
4. Not Assigned
Connectors 5. Not Assigned
DMX512 1990 specifies that where connectors 6. Data 2-
are used, the data link shall use fivepin XLR style 7. Signal Common (0 V) for Data 1
electrical connectors (XLR-5), with female connectors 8. Signal Common (0 V) for Data 2
used on transmitting (OUT) ports and male connec-
tors on receiving ports.
The use of a 3-pin XLR connector is specifically NOTE 2 The 8P8C modular connector pinout
prohibited. matches the conductor pairing scheme used by
Category 5 (Cat5) twisted pair patch cables.
DMX512-A (ANSI E1.11-2008) allows the use of The avoidance of pins 4 and 5 helps to prevent
eight-pin modular (8P8C, or ‘RJ-45’) connectors for equipment damage, if the cabling is accidentally
fixed installations where regular plugging and unplug- plugged into a single-line public switched telephone
ging of equipment is not required. network phone 2.3.3 DMX 512 or now DMX
Electrics
Figure 132
DMX Dimming system sample.
2.3.4 LON (Local Operating Network) The communications protocol (known as

Lighting Control Systems LonTalk) is specified by ANSI and accepted
LON is a networking platform specifically as a standard for control networking known
created to address the needs of control appli- as ANSI/CEA-709.1-B; and under EN 14908
cations. The platform is built on a protocol for (European building automation standard).
networking devices over media such as twi- The protocol is also one of several data
sted pair, power-lines, fiber-optics, and RF link/physical layers of the BACnet
(radio frequency). It is used for automation of ASHRAE/ANSI standard for building
lighting to serve cities, governments with bet- automation. ‘Building automation’ does not
ter control of their streetand public realm only mean ‘inside buildings’, such systems
lighting; this may include feed-back from the are now very common and in different areas
lights about their operation status or failures of applications based upon specific controls.
as they are happening.
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GB/T 20299.4-2006; and in 2007 CECED, the local requirements. Such street lighting control
European Committee of Domestic Equipment Manu- promotes traffic safety and, also, contributes to a
facturers, adopted the protocol as part of its House- reduction in energy consumption, light pollution and
hold Appliances Control and Monitoring – Application operating costs; Control and monitoring systems
Interworking Specification (AIS) standards. of individual luminaires according to needs, could
During 2008 ISO and IEC have granted the commu- control and monitor up to thousands of light points.
nications protocol, twisted pair signaling technology, Modern street lighting control will help to reduce
power line signaling technology, and Internet Protocol energy consumption, in order, to have less emission
(IP) compatibility standard numbers ISO/IEC 14908- of greenhouse gases, less light pollution as well as
1, -2, -3, and -4. to improve the planning of maintenance.
Additionally manufacturer based systems are availa- By using LED or dimmable MH lamps/ballasts more
ble with different functions and applications, most of flexibility, energy efficiency and cost savings for out-
them running on one of the above explained systems door lighting could be achieved. Dimming concepts
or protocols. for LED modules and high pressure discharge lamps
can work with different control and dimming variants
These systems are developed for innovative indoor in one electronic control unit. According to the type
and street lighting control systems; Outdoor lighting and extent of the control task, the control unit can be
installations can be controlled and monitored operated in different modes, like DALI.
individually in a dynamic way, according to the
Electrics
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Chapter F
Applications
Applications
s
1.0 Lighting Design Businesses use lighting to promote their brand and
attract customers. Most lighting installations have to
1.1 Objectives and Constraints serve multiple functions. When designing lighting it is
Lighting design can have many different objectives. always desirable to identify all the functions that the
Ideally, these objectives are determined by the client lighting is expected to fulfil.
and the designer in collaboration and cover both
outcomes and costs (Figure 133). As for constraints, an important aspect of lighting
The most common objective for a lighting installation design is the need to minimise the amount of
is to allow the users of a space to carry out their work electricity consumed, for both financial and
quickly and accurately, without discomfort. However, environmental reasons. It is also necessary to
this is a rather limited view of what a lighting installa- consider the sustainability of the lighting equipment.
tion can achieve. For traffic routes, the objective of This means using materials that can be easily repla-
lighting is to facilitate the safe and rapid movement of ced and considering to what extent the equipment
vehicles after dark. For urban areas where people can be recycled at the end of its life. The financial
and traffic may come into conflict, safety is the pri- costs, particularly the capital cost, are always an
mary concern although the appearance of people important constraint. No one wants to pay more for
and buildings is also important. In areas where crime something than is absolutely necessary so the
is rampant, lighting can be used to enhance security. designer needs to be able to justify the proposal in
Sport facilities are lit at night to encourage their use. terms of value for money..
Figure 133
Objectives, outcomes and costs.
Applications
1.2 A Holistic Strategy for Lighting and situation. Also there is no particular order
A holistic strategy for lighting design is neces- in which they should be considered. The
sary because without it important benefits will important issue is that all the elements are
be lost and money and human resources will considered, perhaps more than once, for a
be wasted. The starting point is an in-depth satisfactory solution to emerge.
conversation with the client and other mem-
bers of the design team to formulate a design 1.3 Legal Requirements
brief. There are a number of legal requirements that
apply to all lighting installations. Some are
At such a discussion, it will be necessary to general, e.g. Municipal Standards, the Con-
address such fundamental questions as what struction (Design and Management) Regula-
do you want to see and what do you not want tions. Some are specific about the type and
to see, what is the function of the space, what form the lighting that should be provided, e.g.
is the proposed architectural style and what is emergency lighting in buildings, based on the
the budget? DMA Lighting Specifications and/or the client’s
briefs. Others influence lighting design by the
More formally, nine distinct aspects of lighting limits they place on the type or amount of
need to be considered. equipment that can be used, e.g. ESTIDAMA,
They are: Building Regulations. Details of the require-
ments of the construction (Design and
• Legal requirements Management) regulations can be obtained
• Visual function from the local authorities publications.
• Visual amenity
• Architectural integration Details of the significance of provision for the
• Energy efficiency and sustainability ‘Abu Dhabi Street- and Public Realm Lighting’
• Maintenance can be found in the latest edition of ‘DMA Ro-
• Costs adway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications
• Photopic or mesopic vision and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist
• Light trespass and sky glow for outdoor Tables’, additional information and details
about streets and other public realm areas can
All these aspects will contribute to the success be found in ‘Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design
of a design, but they may not all carry equal Manual’ as well as in ‘ESMA Ministerial
weight depending on the particular application Decrees’.
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1.4 Visual Function

This aspect is related to the lighting required for carrying out tasks without discomfort. Chapter B has shown
how the illuminance incident on the task will affect the level of achievable visual performance. Recommended
illuminances for different areas and applications are given in the ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting
Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’.
Such values apply most of the time to the specific area and do not necessarily need to apply to the whole area.
The traditional way of lighting an exterior place or exterior area has been by the provision of a regular array of
luminaires. For this approach, the average maintained illuminance uniformity is recommended. This approach has
the benefit that the different areas and situations can be carried-out on the horizontal plane anywhere in the urban
environment.
In some cases there may be a need to have a colour recognition element. In such cases it will be necessary to
use lamps with a high general colour rendering index (CRI). For such areas it will be appropriate to use lamps
with up to CRI ≥80 for some applications.
Figure 134
Poor colour rendering produced by sodium lamps; approx. RA 40 depending on manufacturer and type.
Applications
Figure 135
Good colour rendering approx. RA 70 through LED luminaires with newest technique.
The human visual system can adapt to a wide range of luminances but it can only cope with a
limited luminance range at any single adaptation state. When this range is exceeded, glare will
occur. If a field of view contains bright elements that cause glare, it is likely that they will affect
performance or at least cause stress and fatigue which in turn will cause problems.
To avoid this, luminaires that have limited luminances within the normal fields of view relative to the
adaptation level should be used. Glare limits for different areas and applications are given in the local
norms and standards. For more details please refer to Chapter G / 2.0 and Chapter G / 3.0 and
following pages for samples calculations of different typical streets and areas.
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Studies have shown that people respond to the

lit appearance of a space on two independent
dimensions:
• visual lightness
• visual interest
Visual lightness describes the overall lightness of the

space, which is related to the average luminance of
vertical surfaces. Visual interest refers to the non-
uniformity of the illumination pattern or the degree
of ‘light and shade’.
People prefer some modulation in the light pattern
rather than an even pattern of illumination, and is it
the magnitude of the modulation depending on the
application. There is some evidence that visual
lightness and visual interest are inversely correlated
(Figure 137).
Visual interest of light; non-uniformity

Low => => => => => => => => => High
Leisure
Leisure
Commercial
Figure 136 Commercial
Sample of glare from high pole luminaire which is used to
light the road but supplies high level of light to the pedestrian
underpass area.
Industrial
Industrial
1.5 Visual Amenity

High => => => => => => => => => Low
There is no doubt that lighting can add visual amenity Visual lightness (brightness)
to a space, which can give pleasure to the occupants, Figure 137

but whether this provides a tangible increased perfor- Map showing the possible locations of three application
areas on a schematic diagram linking subjective impressions
mance benefit is uncertain. of visual interest and visual lightness.
Applications
Although variation in the light pattern is desirable, it has to be seen as meaningful in terms of the
application and the architecture or landscape. To provide patches of light in an uncoordinated way
for no reason other than to provide light variation would be a poor design solution. Acceptable
examples could be highlighting seating areas, walkways in a sensitive way or playgrounds and
gates, to allow visitors/users proper orientation and understanding of the space.
Figure 138
Patches of light in well balanced lighting environment.
There are two further principles of visual amenity that need to be considered and these are in the
colour rendering and colour appearance of lighting. The required colour rendering will depend on
the functions the lighting is designed to fulfil. Where good colour discrimination is required,
light sources with a CIE general colour rendering index of at least 80 should be used.
Where a natural appearance is required for people and objects, light sources with a CIE general
colour rendering index of at least 60 and preferably higher should be used.
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Figure 139
Good colour rendering in a well-balanced lighting environment, technical street lighting luminaires are part of the overall design approach,
and the buildings are lit through hidden, glare free flood lights.
As for colour appearance, a light source with a correlated colour temperature (CCT) of +/- 3000K will appear
warm and, one with +/- 5300K, it will appear cool (see Chapter A / 2.9). Where, on this scale from warm to cool,
the colour appearance should be, will depend on the nature of the space or area. The designer and the client
should be, aware of the names and types applied in such a design; light source descriptions and data can be
misleading and differ among manufacturers. It is mandatory to apply correct light colour and colour rendering
during implementation and maintenance.
Applications
4000K
3000K
Figure 140
Two types of colour of light are used within the same space; in this case to mark a conflict zone in the front part of the picture.
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1.6 Lighting and Architectural Integration

All elements of a lighting installation contribute to the architecture or the exterior design of a space, area,
street and/or facility. Understanding the use of space will be important when deciding what sort of lighting
is to be employed. The dimensions, finishes, texture and colour of the materials forming the space and the
appearance of the luminaires, lit and unlit, should be considered if the desired atmosphere is to be achieved.
Figures 141, 142

Lighting as integrated element of architecture and space.
Applications
1.7 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability lighting is left on when it is not required. This
It is the responsibility of the lighting profession may be because there are inadequate lighting
to use energy as efficiently as possible but at controls (for example: sensors of tunnels or
the same time to provide lit environments that streets are not working or are not well adju-
enable people to operate effectively and com- sted) or because people are not present
fortably. (parks and other facilities are left on until early
Energy use involves two components: morning without use, as they are closed and
lit) and therefore the lighting is unnecessary.
• The power demand of the equipment
• Its hours of use. This aspect of lighting design and ownership
needs a dramatic change in attitude to
The lighting industry has worked hard to deve- improve the energy efficiency of all lighting in-
lop equipment that has reduced the demand stallations. This requires changes as to how
for electricity for lighting by producing more the lighting is controlled both manually and
efficient light sources and their related control automatically as well as how lighting is
circuits, as well as more efficient luminaires. provided in terms of the distribution of light,
Then there are design options to be con- particularly with respect to the daylighting
sidered, such as the use of area/ambient availability in some cases. It is also necessary
lighting rather than a blanket provision of light for the lighting industry and its customers to
by a regular array of the space. use equipment that is sustainable.
The savings for the area/ambient approach This means that the used materials should
have been estimated to be up to 50%. whenever possible, come from renewable
sources and that at the end of its life, the
Good energy efficient lighting design is not just redundant equipment can be disposed of
about equipment; it is also about the use of safely with most of the base materials being
lighting. There are many examples where recycled.
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1.8 Maintenance
It must be recognised that electric light within an
installation will depreciate with time. To minimise the
effect of this a maintenance programme will need to
be designed and implemented. The maintenance
programme will also affect the lighting design and
the designer will need to state the maintenance
programme on which the design has been based,
otherwise, there could be problems when a client is
comparing different design proposals. It will also be
important for the client to be provided with a
maintenance schedule so that they know what will
need to be done. Chapter L discusses the various
factors that need to be considered when developing
a maintenance program for outdoor installations. It is
mandatory to apply the correct maintenance factors
in all light calculations and designs. Figure143
See Figures from 143 onwards as samples of long Damaged street light if left unresolved can be potentially
dangerous as well as not performing its task which is an additional
term poor maintenance undertakings. risk for car drivers and pedestrians.
Figures 144, 145

Damaged glass globe above street, pedestrian walkway.
Applications
Figures 146, 147
Post top lanterns which are damaged by wind may cause danger for nearby pedestrians, loose elements could fall down.
Figures 148, 149, 150

Figure 148: The in-ground light is not performing as it was designed, replacement would be required.
Figure 149: The electrical circuit looks like still in use and may cause fatalities in case someone may touch it.
Figure 150: In fact of poor quality or maintenance humidity is shown inside this path luminaire.
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Figures 151, 152

Figure 151: Bollard showing dirt and wildlife inside an IP rated environment.
Figure 152: The luminaire is filled with sand and not performing anymore as designed. A replacement would be required.
The above samples are found in Abu Dhabi city, all the fixtures are in use and/or the circuits switched on during
the night. The maintenance gets more and more difficult for a client as more luminaires are installed. Therefore it is
advised to design carefully and not to use more luminaires than needed. This will ease the maintenance efforts
of the client dramatically.
Applications
1.9 Lighting Costs
Costs are always a major concern for any budgeted for the disposal of redundant
project and it is important to consider these equipment although this may be borne by
before any work is undertaken. Both the capi- the supplier or manufacturer.
tal cost and the running, or operational, costs
must be considered at the outset. If the two 2.0 Photopic or Mesopic Vision
cost elements are not considered together in The photometric quantities used to characte-
terms of life cycle costing, then a solution rise lighting are all based on photopic vision
which has a low capital cost but a high (see Chapter B / 2.2 and following). This
operational cost could be more costly overall makes sense for interior lighting where the
than an installation with a more expensive luminances are usually high enough to ensure
capital cost but a low operating cost. the visual system is operating in the photopic
A conflict of interests may arise if the two cost state but there may be problems for exterior
elements are paid for from different budgets lighting. This is because for adaptation
or organisations. Here the designer needs to luminances below about 2-3 cd/m2 (this means
present a balanced view of the options to approx. 15-50 lux) peripheral vision is opera-
enable the clients to decide on the best ting in the mesopic state (see Chapter B /
approach. The capital costs include the cost 2.2.3) and exterior lighting sometimes pro-
of the design process, the equipment and the duces luminances below this level.
installation process, both physical and electri-
cal. It also includes the commissioning and This is a problem because the spectral sensiti-
testing of the installation. Allowance must also vity of the peripheral retina changes continually
be made for any builder’s work that forms part during mesopic vision depending on the adap-
of the lighting installation. Any other costs that tation luminance, the peak sensitivity moving
are particular to the lighting design need to be from the 555 nm to 507 nm as the adaptation
included. It is important that the capital cost is luminance decreases to the scotopic state.
agreed upon an early stage if a lot of time is
not to be wasted. The operational costs There is no CIE mesopic observer and, there-
include the cost of the electricity consumed, fore no system of mesopic photometry. In this
which comprises items such as network char- situation, the simplest approach to ensuring
ges, maximum demand charges and electricity good mesopic vision in exterior lighting is to
unit costs. They will also include the cost of use a light source with a scotopic/photopic
maintenance, which comprises cleaning and (S/P) ratio greater than 1.5. Such light sources
relamping throughout the life of the installation. provide stimulation to both the cone and rod
In some cases charges may have to be photoreceptors of the retina.
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The ratio of scotopic luminance (or lumens) versus photopic luminance in a lamp is called the ‘S/P ratio’, which is
a multiplier that determines the apparent visual brightness of a light source as well as how much light a lamp
emits that is useful to the human eye, referred to as visually effective lumens (VELs).
See Figure 153 for examples of light sources with S/P greater than 1.5:
Figure 153
Examples of lamps with different S/P ratio, this diagram is valid for all lamps including LED, the higher the Kelvin rating
(colour temperature, e.g. > 4000°K) the better.
Scotopic and Photopic Ratios:

Generally, lamps with high S/P ratios provide sharper vision both outdoors and indoors. So, a 200-watt magnetic
induction lamp would appear just as bright as, or brighter than a sodium vapour or metal halide of twice the wattage.
In the mesopic region the spectral sensitivity of the human visual system is not constant, but changes with light
level. This is due to the changing contribution of the rods and cones on the retina. Thus, we need not only one
mesopic spectral sensitivity function, but instead several functions, together with a defined procedure for using
these functions in a photometric measurement system.
Applications
The new mesopic system describes spectral Due to their fast development, LEDs are
luminous efficiency, Vmes(λ), in the mesopic increasingly penetrating the lighting markets.
region as a linear combination of the photopic LEDs offer new solutions to various mesopic
spectral luminous efficiency function, V(λ), and applications, too, not least because of the
the scotopic spectral luminous efficiency possibilities of producing light sources with
function, V’(λ). varying spectral properties. Depending on the
LED spectra, their ranking on a luminous
For applying the mesopic photometry, the efficiency scale may be subject to significant
S/P-ratio of the light source, derived from changes if mesopic luminous efficiency
its spectral data, is needed as input value. functions are used instead of the photopic.
This is the ratio of the luminous output
evaluated according to the scotopic V’(λ), A CIE system for mesopic photometry will
to the luminous output evaluated according give manufacturers foundations on which
to the photopic V(λ). The higher the S/P-ratio to develop LEDs that are optimised for low
the higher the luminous efficacy of the light light level applications. Consequently, the
source in terms of the mesopic design. coming CIE publication on mesopic photo-
metry may also have a major impact on the
The use of mesopic dimensioning changes evolution and adoption of LEDs as the future
the luminous output and consequently the light sources.
luminous efficacy orders of lamps. Many of
the ‘white light’ sources currently used for As mesopic dimensioning favours ‘white’ light
applications such as road lighting have S/P- sources with high S/P-ratio, the extra benefits
ratios between about 0,65 (high pressure from using the mesopic design are good
sodium, for example) and 2,50 (certain metal colour rendering characteristics of the lighting.
halide lamps, for example). This is expected to further pave way for the
use of white LEDs in outdoor lighting.
The S/P-ratios of warm white LEDs are around
1.15 and those of cool white LEDs around The use of mesopic photometry will promote
2.15, depending on their CRI. The use of the the development of mesopically optimised
new mesopic system to calculate the effective lighting products. It will give the manufacturers
luminance of these white light sources results foundations on which to develop light sources
in significant changes in their apparent efficacy. that are optimised for low light level applications.
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This will result in better energy efficiency and visual For example, the roads are affected very often by over-
effectiveness in outdoor lighting conditions. The loaded lighting scenarios, as people (drivers and, in
accuracy of photometric instrumentation used in different ways, pedestrians) are subjected to headlights,
mesopic applications can be increased by taking into brake lights, indicators, dashboard lighting, shop-fronts
account the actual spectral sensitivity at these levels. and many other sources overlaying the lighting from
Industry and users should be strongly motivated to street fixtures. A visual environment which is often mo-
use a photometric method that is valid and functio- ving, with the observer also moving at the same time.
nally relevant. Only when all lights applied are designed, placed, in-
stalled and maintained as they should be, the lighting
It must be highlighted that the whole visual environ- environment may become a simpler and nicer, more
ment is often full of different lighting and lighted ad- efficient substance. See Figures 154, 155, 156 to learn
vertising affecting the people’s eyes, means SP ratios about overly bright light levels and very high light
are to be applied very carefully. pollution because S/P ratios and use of luminaires is
not always are controlled as it should be.
S/P ratio
above 1.5
S/P ratio
below 1.5
Figure 154
Birds-eye view of Abu Dhabi; S/P ratios below and above 1.5 are applied to the scene.
Applications
Figure 155
Shop lighting with moving Cold-Cathode effects
and 400W MH lamps without housing, no IP rating
and without any protection against UV-Radiation.
NOTE 1 Such lighting is with high S/P ratios, but in full conflict with other, more safety relevant
lighting issues for cars or traffic lights and it causes a high level of light pollution.
NOTE 2 As per the manufacturers data sheets for such lamps; it is strictly forbidden to use such
lamps outside luminaires, or without UV-protection glass!
Figure 156
Recent street lighting in Abu Dhabi with S/P ratio below 0.5, the decorative lighting has a S/P ratio above 1.5.
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3.0 Light Trespass and Skyglow The Institution of Lighting Professionals (ILP) has
Light can be considered a form of pollution. This produced general guidance, which is used in this
is implied by the inclusion of light as a statutory handbook to cover this item for all Abu Dhabi Public
nuisance as described in local standards like Realm areas as follows:
‘Abu Dhabi Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Speci-
fications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist The maximum vertical illuminance that should be
Tables’, ‘Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual’, allowed to fall on windows, the maximum luminous
‘Abu Dhabi UPC Manuals’ or ESTIDAMA, etc. intensity of any obtrusive light source and a maxi-
mum allowed building luminance for floodlighting is
Exterior lighting is the major source of light pollution. summarised in the Tables below.
Complaints about light pollution from exterior lighting
can be divided into two categories, light trespass and These limits are different for different environmental
skyglow. zones. The idea behind environmental zones is that
some locations are more sensitive to light pollution
Light trespass is local in that it is associated with than others. Table 23 shows the four environmental
complaints from individuals in a specific location. zones identified by the CIE and how they are in line
The classic case of light trespass is a complaint with local standards like the Abu Dhabi Urban Street
about light from a road lighting luminaire entering a Design Manual.
bedroom window and keeping the occupant awake.
Light trespass can be avoided by the careful selec- The limits recommended for Abu Dhabi for limiting
tion, positioning, aiming and shielding of luminaires light trespass are given in Table 23.
and by operating a curfew system where lighting is
only available during specified times, all solutions The environmental zoning system of the CIE and
applied should be within latest ESTIDAMA require- referenced to local Abu Dhabi environmental zones
ments. as follows:
Applications
Environmental zone:
E1 => Areas with intrinsically dark landscapes: National Parks, areas of
outstanding natural beauty (where roads are usually unlit)
NOTE - E1 This area is not used in the Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual.
E2 => Areas of ‘low district brightness’: outer urban and rural residential areas
(where roads are lit to residential road standard)
NOTE - E2 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Residential / Emirati Neighbourhood’.

E3 => Areas of ‘middle district brightness’: generally urban residential areas
(where roads are lit to traffic route standard)
NOTE - E3 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Residential / Emirati Neighbourhood’ when
mixed with some ‘Commercial’ areas.
E4 => Areas of ‘high district brightness’: generally, urban areas having mixed recreational and
commercial land use with high night-time activity
NOTE - E4 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Town’, ‘City’, ‘Commercial’ and ‘Industrial’.
Table 23
Environmental zones
Maximum vertical illuminance on windows, maximum luminous intensity for obtrusive luminaires and
maximum building luminance produced by floodlighting, for four environmental zones (Table 24):
Table 24
Environmental zones - levels illuminance and luminance.
NOTE 1 For Abu Dhabi "curfew" means 24:00hours unless stated otherwise in
Estidama or other client's documentation.
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The values in Table 24 are for general guidance only water vapour and aerosols in the Earth’s atmosphere,
and may need to be adjusted for specific circum- and light produced by a chemical reaction of the
stances; in any case the requirements of ESTIDAMA upper atmosphere with ultra-violet radiation from the
take precedence. For example, the criteria given sun. The luminance of the natural Skyglow at zenith
under zone E1 would not preclude the installation is of the order of 0.0002 cd/m2 (meaning approx.
of lighting to meet health and safety requirements. 0.004 lux)*. The contribution of human activity is
As for the maximum building luminance, this is produced by light traversing the atmosphere and
given to avoid over-lighting but should be adjusted being scattered by dust and aerosols in the atmo-
according to the general district brightness. sphere.
Skyglow is more diffuse than light trespass in that Skyglow can be reduced by limiting the amount of
it can affect people over great distances. Skyglow light used for exterior lighting, by using full-cutoff lu-
is caused by the multiple scattering of light in the at- minaires that have no upward component (see Chap-
mosphere, resulting in a diffuse distribution of lumi- ter D / Table 18) and by adopting a curfew in which
nance. The problem this causes is that it reduces the the exterior lighting is either extinguished or reduced
luminance contrast of all the features of the night sky to a lower level when there are few people using it.
thereby reducing the number of stars and other For each environmental zone the maximum installed
astronomical phenomena that can be seen. Skyglow upward light output ratio of the luminaires used
has two components, one natural and one due to should be limited as shown in Table 25. Again, this
human activity. Natural Skyglow is light from the is general guidance only and may need to be
moon, planets and stars that is scattered by interpla- overturned in specific circumstances.
netary dust, and by air molecules, dust particles,
Maximum installed upward light output ratio; luminous flux emitted above the horizontal plane as a percentage of
the total luminous flux emitted by the luminaire
Environmental Zone Maximum upward light output ratio (%)

E1 => 0
E2 => 5
E3 => 15
E4 => 25
Table 25
* Lux level is indicative and only applied to show relation of figures described.
Applications
Figure 157 shows simple systems sketches of the street lighting luminaires that will help to reduce
the light trespass and Skyglow.
Figure 157
Luminaire systems
Figure 158 shows the principles of light distributed from a street lighting luminaire to the illuminated
surface and its associated light reflections (distributions of light reflected by surfaces).
Figure 158
Light distribution and associated reflections of distributed light.
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4.0 Basic Design Decisions
4.1 Choice of Electric Lighting System

The selection of the luminaire, light source and control system to be used is an important one, if electricity is not
to be wasted and an efficient lighting installation achieved. The first choice to be made will be to determine the
technique to be employed.
For exteriors, the techniques, in order of decreasing energy consumption, can be

sometimes simply categorised as:
• General system:
Providing a uniform illuminance over the whole area/space as required.
• Localised system:
Using luminaires located adjacent to places of interest to provide the illuminance for safety or use,
whilst the overall ambient lighting is provided by the spill light from other luminaires nearby.
Figure 159
Location where spill light from the high mast pole lighting supports the decorative lighting of a pedestrian underpass.
Applications
NOTE 1 Lighting design should be carried out every time under consideration of available light
levels, to allow lowest energy and investment for new installations.
Shadows caused by spill light from adjacent luminaires
Figure 160
Location where the shadows of a person are produced by adjacent street and flood lighting. The spill light of these invisible flood lighting
(in the back) and, street lighting luminaires providing 98% of the illuminance level on the pavement. The wall mounted luminaires are only
for decorative use.
For exteriors, a general system is the usual choice where the provision of the required light levels on
different areas like streets, walkways, cycle routes, parks, etc., is to be carried out but much greater
degrees of non-uniformity are acceptable where the function of the lighting is essentially decorative.
The second decision to be made will be the choice of the light source and the luminaire.
The characteristics of available light sources and luminaire types are set out in Chapters C and D
respectively. It is important to appreciate that light sources differ in their luminous efficacy, life, colour
properties, run-up and restrike times and in their ability to be dimmed. Luminaires differ in the
distribution of light and the efficiency with which they emit the light produced by the light source.
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The third choice to be made is the type of control system. Switching luminaires used to be the only viable
approach to take, but now, with high frequency electronic dimmable ballasts dramatically reducing in price,
dimming is a realistic option in some cases. For exterior today especially with LED and also some cases with
fixtures with fluorescent light sources, dimming can be used to reduce energy consumption even when daylight is
absent. This is due to the fact that all lighting is designed for average maintained illuminance, which provides
more light to start with, than is required. For exteriors, switching and dimming can be used to match the
lighting to the patterns of use, for example a supermarket car park does not need to be completely lit at 3 a.m.
Experience has shown that any users at that hour will likely park near the entrance.
There are basically two different forms of lighting control systems: analogue and digital (see Chapter E / 2.0):
• Analogue systems typically use a 1–10 volt protocol providing continuously variable dimming,
not recommended for exterior installations; because of the fact that it is an old technology and switch off
must be provided by additional power relays.
• The digital systems most widely used are DALI and DMX 512(-A) (see Chapter E / 2.3). Both of these systems
provide continuously variable dimming. The advantages of digital over analogue control are many, one of the
most important being the ability to monitor an installation through a two-way communication capability.
This transfer of information makes preventative maintenance and energy monitoring possible, additionally it is
possible to make a ‘zero’ setting, having the fixtures on ‘zero energy’ mode, but in standby. Making them ‘off’
power would sometimes, depending on the system used, require a separate switching module. During design
attention must be put on the fact that ‘power off’ may cause problems during re-start because some fixtures
may not be able to get their addresses as needed/wanted. This problem could be resolved by to choosing the
right fixtures (for example with manual address element) or by programming so that all fixtures in groups are
governed by DALI which instant addresses during every start-up phase.
Control systems can provide the possibility of individual or group addressing, zoning and scene setting.
The recording of energy consumption is also highly desirable if the installation is to provide the information for
monitoring required by the authorities.
Some control systems allow remote monitoring via the internet. This can be of great benefit to cities, governments
with large areas. By monitoring centrally in a region or area, preventative maintenance can be undertaken such as
the anticipation of bulk lamp replacement from the hours-run data.
Applications
4.2 Integration
Integration of a lighting installation takes four forms:
• Integration within the space, architecture, landscaping, exterior design, use of space.
• Integration with other services.
• Integration with daylight; on/off execution of exterior installations.
• Integration with the surroundings.
4.2.1 Integration within the Space

A lighting installation can be visible and express the exterior design or it can disappear into the
background with only its effect being seen. Both approaches rely heavily on attention to detail,
specifically, attention to the appearance of the luminaire, lit and unlit, it is necessary for a design
that is intended to express the exterior design, while attention to the designer’s details is required,
during execution, if the intention is to hide the luminaires.
Figure 161
Lights found well integrated in the space, considering the use of space.
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Figure 162
Lights found which are not well integrated; the green area is overloaded with different types of luminaires,
some of them surplus to requirements.
NOTE 1 The big flood lights mounted on poles are aimed to light the flag,
for safety reasons they must be out of reach.
NOTE 2 Low grade buildings do not require any façade lighting.
NOTE 3 Maintenance issues are covered in Chapter L of this handbook.

Applications
The other aspects of the space, what can inter- uninteresting. The use of saturated colours
act with the lighting are the reflectances and over small areas provides some interest
colours of the exterior décor and surroun- without distorting the lighting.
dings. Large areas of low reflectance or widely
open spaces reduce the amount of inter-re- 4.2.2 Integration with the Surroundings
flected light. If interreflected light is planned to For exterior lighting, the lighting of the
make a significant contribution to the amount surrounding area has an impact on the
of light delivered, large areas of high reflectance perception of the brightness of the installation.
surfaces or covered areas are needed. As The same installation in rural and urban
for surface colour, the extent to which they settings will look very bright in the former
interact with the lighting depends on the and very dim in the latter. This means that
saturation of the colour and the area it covers. the maintained illuminance selected needs
Large areas of saturated colour can distort the to be matched to the illuminances of the
colour of the light delivered. However, spaces surroundings if the expected appearance
without any colour elements can be very is to be achieved.
Figure 163
Lighting and surroundings are not balanced, due to the glare of the high mast street lighting, the nearby wall mounted ones are not
able to provide the light as needed or as it should be to reach a ‘pleasant’ environment.
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NOTE 1 The camera lens shows in this case, the real impression; and the human eye will add some information
required in previous visits during day and night. Therefore, the pedestrians are able to move around safely.
But the environment is not as pleasant as it should be in order to enjoy the place and the panorama.
4.2.3 Integration with other Services

Especially in outdoor areas, the coordination with all in-ground and sometimes above-ground services as well is
very important. Services like irrigation, storm-water, drainage of grounds in connection with drainage of in-ground
fixtures, power cabling, foundations of planters, or heavily used pedestrian routes (for example glare of inground
lights, surface temperature of in-ground lights, risk-factors of in-ground lights if they are not flush with surface for
pedestrians, children and/or cycle riders), etc. are to be considered and the design shall reflect their interaction
and the required coordination thereof.
Figure 164
Floor mounted pathway lights placed in a way that causes danger for bicycle riding children or elderly people walking along to the bench.
Applications
Creating a landscape design, in general, requi- sors are not working correctly, which could be
res the overlay all of the previously mentioned caused by shadows of buildings or trees nearby,
parameters. The aim of achieving a harmonious the tunnel lighting will service a wrong set-up
view together with an attractive landscape de- and supply higher light levels as required.
sign including all functions will requires compro- This may result on one side in huge additional
mise. amounts of energy costs, but more important is
the fact that the safety of the tunnel is not any-
4.2.4 Integration with Daylight more guaranteed. Additionally the maintenance
Daylight is only in some parts of the exterior may require more efforts and additional costs.
lighting design, a matter for which integration or
coordination is possible; like street tunnels en- If daylight sensors in connection with astronomi-
trances and exits, pedestrian underpasses or un- cal-time controllers are used for example to light
derground car-park facilities entrances and exits. up pedestrian underpasses, during day and
One of the very important topics, besides provi- night times, reductions on energy bills may be
ding the right light levels and other technical pa- achieved.
rameters as per local standards, are the controls Automatic photo-electric controls can be used
of such lighting systems. These controls should to switch-control electric lighting in response to
be able to provide artificial light levels in correla- daylight. Figure 165 shows the percentage of a
tion with the daylight levels outside. This means normal year during which the luminaires would
the people, drivers and/or cyclists should have be off, as a function of the orientation-weighted
no fear when walking or driving into a ‘dark’ hole daylight factor and of the illuminance at which
or when approaching a street tunnel which may the luminaires are control-switched; known as
cause problems of adaption for the eyes of the the ‘design’ illuminance. These curves assume
driver. All tunnel lighting is therefore designed that ‘on’ and ‘off’ switching will occur at the
with adaption zones and brightness manage- same illuminance levels. Where this is not the
ment to make sure that in relation to the daylight case, and the luminaires are switched-off at an
the internal lighting of the tunnel is well balanced. illuminance level considerably greater than that
at which they are switched -on, the mean of
The control elements (sensors) are shall be pla- the two illuminances should be taken as the
ced in safe areas, where no problems are cau- ‘design’ illuminance. Such scenarios are to be
sed for the function or for the programming be- developed with care and by applying all parame-
cause of vandalism or planting. Control elements ters which are important to allowing the maxi-
(daylight sensors) are to be placed carefully to mum reduction of energy and maintenance but
make sure operation of sensors and tunnel light at the same time to providing maximum safety
will follow the designed parameters. If such sen- to the users.
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Figure 165
The percentage of the working year in which that electric lighting will be switched-off; plotted against orientation-weighted daylight factor for
different ‘design’ illuminances, assuming only an on/off photo-electric switching system.
Automatic photoelectric controls can also be used to dim the electric lighting in response to daylight. Figure 166
shows the percentage of a normal year during which the luminaires would have to be switched-off in order to
ensure that the energy saving obtainable by continuous photo-electric dimming to be achieved. It applies to
Project Lighting Management Systems (PLMS) that can control down to 10 percent light output or less. This
could be achieved by most of the luminaires with tube fluorescent and with all LED light sources.
Figure 166
The percentage of the normal year that electric lighting will be switched-off, for different ‘design’ illuminances, assuming a top-up
photoelectric dimming system is applied and controlled through an orientation weighted daylight sensor.
Applications
4.3 Equal and Approved
One problem that frequently affects lighting designs is the substitution with a cheaper luminaire of
the one specified in the original design. Such substitutions are usually made if a project undergoes a
value engineering process. Sometimes, substitutions are justified, sometimes they are not.
The key in determining if a substitution is justified, is a review carried out by the original designer
and/or a fully qualified and experienced third-party to determine if the substitute luminaire is the
same as the originally specified luminaire and approved according to the relevant standards,
i.e. if it is equal and approved. The factors to be considered in the review are the photometric
characteristics, the construction and the aesthetics of the substitute luminaire. In addition, attention
should be paid to the electrical characteristics, conformity to the relevant standards and the impact
on maintenance. Further details of these elements of the review can be found in the ‘DMA Roadway
& Public Realm Lighting Specifications’.
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Chapter G
Road Lighting
Road Lighting
ng
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1.0 Road – Public Realm Classification

Road lighting is generally divided into three classes; traffic routes where the needs of the driver are dominant,
subsidiary roads where the lighting is primarily intended for the pedestrian and the cyclist, and urban centres,
where the lighting is designed to do what can be done for public safety and security, while also providing an
attractive night-time environment. The photometric recommendations for all types of road and public realm
lighting in Abu Dhabi are given in this document. Additionally local standards like the ‘Abu Dhabi Urban Street
Design Manual’ to be seen as an global guideline, meaning light levels may differ in the latest local standards
from ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’
in latest version issued which will take precedence.
1.1 Lighting for Traffic Routes

Lighting for traffic routes is lighting designed primarily to meet the requirements of the driver of a motorised
vehicle. Road lighting recommendations identify three distinct situations:
• Traffic routes where motorised vehicles are dominant and move without conflict.
• The edges of roads where pedestrians and cyclists may be at risk, and conflict.
• Areas where streams of motorised vehicles intersect with each other or with pedestrians and cyclists.
2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial
2.1 Short-Cut Tutorial for DIALux 4.12.0.1- for Standard Street Lighting Calculations
This Tutorial is intended to explain the basic features of the lighting calculation program ‘DIALux’ and how to
design a simple ‘Typical Road with Luminaires’, starting from designing the road to achieving the final luminance
results.
NOTE 1 The lighting calculation program Relux will help to work out results in a similar way. Both programs
(DIALux and Relux) are quite similar in quality of results and in technical, programming and support features.
NOTE 2 The designer should only use luminaires of which light distribution files in formats (*ldt, *uld, *ies)
are available. It is highly recommended to use only luminaires from trusted manufacturers.
Road Lighting
Please start DIALux - see Figure 167.
Figure 167
To begin, please choose ‘New Standard Street’- see Figure 168.
Figure 168
Select ‘Street 1’ in the Project Tree. Under the ‘General’ tab above the Project Tree, whereby the
Standard can be selected on which the lighting calculation will be based. The two options are:
• the European Standard CIE 140 / EN 13201

• the US Standard IESNA RP-8-00 (to be used for Abu Dhabi)
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For this tutorial, please select IESNA RP-8-00 - see Figure 169.
Figure 169
Under the „Maintenance plan method’ tab of ‘Street 1’ whereby the ‘Maintenance Factor’ can be specified -
see Figure 170.
Figure 170
The default maintenance factor for exterior installations in DIALux is 0.57.
NOTE 1 This value needs to be discussed and confirmed by the client. Other maintenance factors are only possible
by reaching an agreement, and must correspond to a specific maintenance plan, as basic input of the design!
Road Lighting
By selecting ‘Roadway 1’ in the Project Tree, this can edit the characteristics of the road:
• The total width of the road

• The number of lanes
• Specifying the road as a „One-way street’
See Figure 171.
Figure 171
Under the ‘Street Coating’ tab may be specify the street coating. The standard reflection factor of
the surfaces (R3 is the default option in DIALux) is determined by the q0 value, which is also given
as default for each surface (q0 for R3 is 0.070) -
see Figure 172.
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Figure 172
NOTE 1 This value needs to be discussed and confirmed by the client. Other reflection factors are possible -
the exact information about the surface material and quality of reflection should be obtained, in order to use the
actual design parameters of the project.
In the Project Tree, expand the folder ‘Roadway 1’, by clicking the ‘+’ sign next to it. By selecting ‘Valuation Field
Roadway 1’, which may specify the evaluation class according to the design parameters - see Figure 173.
Figure 173
Road Lighting
In this tutorial example the road will be categorised as a ‘Local high pedestrian conflict’,
which is comparable to a ‘Street’ as described in ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting
Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’.
Under the ‘Calculation Grid’ tab, above the Project Tree, you may choose the Illuminance Class may
be chosen from the drop-down menu. Please choose ‘Local High Ped. Confl.’ - see Figure 174.
Figure 174
The next step is to specify the evaluation method according to IESNA RP-8-00. For standard roads,
the ‘Luminance Method’ is recommended, and is also the default in DIALux (the second drop-down
menu of the ‘Illuminance Class’) - see Figure 175
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Figure 175
Right-click ‘Street 1’ in the Project Tree, and choose ‘Insert Street Arrangement’ from the menu - see Figure 176.
Figure 176
The options for the street arrangement appear above the Project Tree. The first tab is called ‘Luminaire’ and
shows the type of luminaire to be used. The luminaire calculation files must be imported in DIALux before they are
available in the drop-down menu of this tab. Different ‘Luminaire Calculation Files’ are available from the different
manufacturers websites or through DIALux Plugins - see Figure 177.
Road Lighting
Figure 177
The ‘Pole / Boom’ tab shows different options of the boom (bracket) and the pole arrangement to
be selected - see Figure 178.
Figure 178
NOTE 1 It is important to specify the ‘Distance Pole to Roadway’, the ‘Mounting Height’
of the Luminaire and the „Pole Distance’.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Under the ‘Arrangement’ tab, the typical pole arrangement may be chosen:
• Single row on the bottom placed.

• Double row opposing.
• Etc.
See Figure 179.
Figure 179
Please click ‘Insert’ to select the configured luminaire arrangement. Right-click ‘Street 1’ and choose
‘3D Standard View’ from the pop-up menu - see Figure 180 and Figure 181.
Road Lighting
Figure 180
Figure 181
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Handbook
Within the menus above the 3D View, the tools are located for navigating around the 3D model.
These are ‘Zoom’, ‘Rotate View’ and ‘Move view’ - see Figure 182.
Figure 182
Also, by clicking the button ‘Start Calculation’(see Figure 183), a pop-up window appears and the lighting
program starts to calculate the scene - see Figure 184.
Figure 183
Road Lighting
Figure 184
After the program has completed calculation data may be selected as should be extracted and
printed as PDF file – see Figure 185. At the bottom of the project tree, click on the ‘Output’ tab.
Figure 185
In the Output Project Tree, expand ‘Street1’, then ‘Valuation Fields’ and then ‘Valuation Fields
Roadway 1’ under it. By double-clicking on the first sheet, ‘Results overview’, the results will appear.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
In this example the requirements are met – see Figure 186.
Figure 186
NOTE 1 Please note, that however the value for Lav is 1.11 cd/m² instead of 0.6 cd/m², as per the DMA Lighting
Specifications.
NOTE 2 The aim is, to try, to get as close as possible to the given values of the applicable standards, to design the
lighting as efficient as possible.
NOTE 3 All needed safety is implemented by using correct parameters for design of road, luminaires and poles,
including maintenance factor. This means that there is no need to ‘over-design’ or to provide more luminance as the
values required by the DMA Lighting Specifications. This will only cause higher investment costs, higher energy and
running costs!
NOTE 4 In this case (sample calculation of tutorial) the value of 1.11 cd/m² in comparison to the required value of
0.6 cd/m² would end up with approximately 75% higher cost in all aspects, as described under NOTE 3!
NOTE 5 The ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist
Tables’ requirements for ‘Streets’ asks for:
• Average maintained luminance Lav = 0.6 cd/m²
• Uniformity ratio u0 = Lmin/Lav = 0.4
NOTE 6 The ‘RP-8-00 method’ will not show the uniformity ratio, therefore the sheet with
‘Isolines (L, IESNA RP-8-00)’ will be helpful – see Figures 187, 189.
Road Lighting
Figure 187
In this example calculation Lmin = 0.65 cd/m² and Lav = 1.11 cd/m²; This means that u0 = Lmin/Lav = 0.59.
In order to achieve a more efficient result in this example, the pole distance is to be increased.
By applying a pole distance of 28m it is possible to fulfil all the requirements (see Figure 188)
without having values which are much higher than the standard ones – see Figure 189.
Figure 188
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Figure 189
In developing the skills, different configurations and situations can be calculated, as it is explained under the
following paragraphs in this handbook.
3.0 Lighting Recommendations for Traffic Routes

The primary function of the lighting of traffic routes is to make other vehicles on the road visible. Road lighting
does this by producing a difference between the luminance of the vehicle and the luminance of its immediate
background, the road surface. This difference is achieved by increasing the luminance of the road surface
above that of the vehicle so that the vehicle is seen in silhouette against the road surface.
3.1 Design Criteria used to define Lighting for Traffic Routes

Average Road Surface Luminance:
The luminance of the road surface averaged (maintained) over the carriageway (cd/m2).
3.1.1 Overall Luminance Uniformity (U0) means Lmin/Lav

The ratio of the lowest luminance (maintained) at any point on the carriageway to the average luminance
of the carriageway.
Road Lighting
3.1.2 Longitudinal Luminance Uniformity (U\)
The ratio of the lowest to the highest luminance (maintained) found along a line along the centre of a
driving lane. For the whole carriageway, this is the lowest longitudinal luminance uniformity found for
the driving lanes of the carriageway.
3.1.3 Threshold Increment

A measure of the loss of visibility caused by disability glare from the road lighting luminaires.
Quantitatively, percentage threshold increment is given by the expression
TI = 65 (Lv / L0.8)
where:
Lv = equivalent veiling luminance (cd/m2) (see Chapter B / 2.11)
L = average road surface luminance – maintained – (cd/m2)
3.1.4 Surround Ratio

The average illuminance (maintained) just outside the edge of the carriageway in proportion to the
average illuminance just inside the edge of the carriageway.
Traffic routes are divided generally into different classes. The different classes normally are based on
the type of road, the average daily traffic flow (ADT), the speed of vehicles, the type of vehicles in the
traffic and the frequency of conflict areas and pedestrians. Table 26 specifies the different classes
and identifies the recommend lighting criteria for Abu Dhabi. Details of the recommended lighting
criteria for dry roads are given in Table 27 (IESNA standard adopted, see notes below).
These are the lighting criteria adopted for Abu Dhabi as given in the ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm
Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’. The aim of this table is
to understand that the values given specifically as adapted to the needs of Abu Dhabi road and
traffic safety.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
For all Tables 26 to Table 27 following notes are to be considered:
(1) ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’
comprise the strict standard for all values given within this Handbook.
(2) Lighting classes are adopted to fit into the Abu Dhabi standards.
(3) Lighting Class ME2 is to be adopted as per DMA Lighting Specifications either to 1.3 cd/m2 or 1.5 cd/m2,
this means either approximately 20 lux or 25 lux, see item (6).
(4) Lighting Class ME4a is to be adopted as per DMA Lighting Specifications to 1.0 cd/m2,
this means approximately 15 lux, see item (6).
(5) DMA Lighting Specifications are not referring to ‘S’-classes, the ‘Surrounding Factor’ for all areas near or
beside streets should be approximately 0.5 (50%) of the relevant street illuminance, depending on the location.
Outside cities a maximum width of the adjacent area is to be confirmed, to allow sustainable design.
The designer must obtain approval by the client for all values used in the design.
(6) Lighting calculations with results given as luminance values (cd/m2); as output of lighting calculation
programs e.g. DIALux are only possible for straight standard streets, this is valid for all types of streets as per
DMA Lighting Specifications. For all other areas, like conflict zones, curvy roads, pedestrian crossings, etc.
the results out of the different calculation programs are given as illuminance values (Lux). Therefore the tables
are sometimes fitted with approximate illuminance values to show correlation between luminance and
illuminance values. These values are not to be understood as strictly correct mathematically, and are only
applied for a better understanding of the relationship between the different units.
Road Lighting
3.2 Lighting Classes for Traffic Routes
Road classification as per DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specification and
Roadway Compliance Checklist Tables (1):
Table 26
Lighting recommendations for traffic routes.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Road classification as per DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specification and
Roadway Compliance Checklist Tables (1):
Table 27
Lighting recommendations for traffic routes.
NOTE 1 A 5% increase in minimum threshold increment is permitted where low luminance light sources,
such as low pressure sodium and fluorescent, are used.
NOTE 2 The surround ratio criterion should only be applied where there are no traffic areas with their own criteria
adjacent to the carriage way.
In some situations, it may not be possible to calculate the maximum threshold increment. An alternative method
to limit disability glare is to select a luminaire according to the classes given in Table 28 The different classes are
defined by the luminous intensity of the luminaire, in candelas/1000 lumens of bare light source output,
at 70, 80 and 90 degrees from the downward vertical, in any direction, and the luminous intensity above
95 degrees, in any direction. Class G3 corresponds to a cut-off luminaire. Class G6 corresponds
to a full-cutoff luminaire.
Road Lighting
Luminaire classes to control the disability glare:
Table 28
Luminaire classes for the control of disability glare.
NOTE 1 The higher the ‘G’-class the better! Luminaires with low G-classes should not be used in
general for street lighting.
3.3 Samples of Street Lighting Calculations

The following street lighting calculations are developed based on latest DMA Lighting
Specifications for street and public realm lighting.
The following street lighting calculations are done by using the DIALux lighting calculation software in
latest version. The tutorial (see Chapter G / 2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial) shows the exact
way how to set up and calculate all the samples shown in this part of the handbook.
The sample street lighting calculations are divided into following parts:
The samples below are the basic input for design and layout of the all streets including bends
and conflict zones as follows:
• Typical Highway
• Typical Boulevard
• Typical Avenue
• Typical Street
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
NOTE 1 It is to be considered that these ‘typical’ street lighting calculations are done to determine the luminance in
cd/m², the pole spacing, the set-back of poles, the pole height, the length of the bracket used, the power of
luminaires and the light distribution.
NOTE 2 To receive results in cd/m² the street lighting calculation must be done on a straight piece.
NOTE 3 All other types or combinations, like conflict zones, sidewalks and landscaping zones will show results
only as illuminance in lux (lx).
NOTE 4 All street lighting calculations are to be done based on confirmed factors for:
• Maintenance
• Type of source – Discharge (MH) or LED
• CRI
• Colour of light (K)
Road Lighting
3.3.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Highway Layout
Figure 190
3D Rendering of a typical highway street lighting layout.
Figure 191
3D false-colour rendering of a typical highway street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Table 29
Table of results for a typical highway lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
3.3.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Boulevard Layout
Figure 192
3D Rendering of a typical boulevard street lighting layout.
Road Lighting
Figure 193
3D false-colour rendering of a typical boulevard street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 30
Table of results for a typical boulevard street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
3.3.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Avenue Layout
Figure 194
3D Rendering of a typical
avenue street lighting layout.
Figure 195
3D false-colour rendering of
a typical avenue street
lighting layout, including
approximate lux (lx) levels
shown by different colours.
Road Lighting
Table 31
Table of results for a typical avenue street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
3.3.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Street Layout
Figure 196
3D Rendering of a typical street lighting layout.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Figure 197
3D false-colour rendering of a typical street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx)
levels shown by different colours.
Table 32
Table of results for a typical street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
Road Lighting
3.3.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a curvy Street Layout
Figure 198
3D Rendering of a curvy street lighting layout.
Figure 199
3D false-colour rendering of a curvy street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Table 33
Table of results for a curvy street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in lx.
3.4 Lighting Recommendations for Areas Emergency lanes on motorways should be lit to
adjacent to the Carriageway lighting class ME5 (see Table 27).
People and objects adjacent to the carriageway need
to be seen by the driver. Such locations include 3.5 Lighting Recommendations
unmade verges, footways and cycle paths and the for Conflict Areas
emergency lanes of motorways. For all traffic routes A conflict area is one in which traffic flows merge or
other than heavily used footways and cycle tracks cross, e.g. at intersections or roundabouts, or where
and the emergency lanes of motorways, lighting of vehicles and other road users are in close proximity,
the area adjacent to the carriageway should conform e.g. on a shopping street or at a pedestrian crossing.
to the surround ratio of at least 0.5, means 50% of Lighting for conflict areas is intended for drivers
street luminance or illuminance values, if no other rather than pedestrians. The criteria used to define
carriage way is adjacent with its own given values. lighting for conflict areas are based on the illuminance
on the road surface rather than road surface lumi-
For traffic routes with heavily trafficked footways and nance. This is because drivers’ viewing distances
cycle tracks an appropriate lighting criterion should may be less than the 60m assumed for traffic routes
be selected. Which criterion is selected will depend and there are likely to be multiple directions of view.
on the lighting class used for the carriageway. The criteria used for the lighting of conflict areas are:
To ensure adequate illuminance uniformity, the actual
maintained average horizontal illuminance should not 3.5.1 Average Road Surface Illuminance
be more than 1.5 times greater than the minimum The illuminance (maintained) of the road surface
maintained average horizontal illuminance. averaged over the carriageway (lx).
Road Lighting
3.5.2 Overall Illuminance Uniformity (U0)
The ratio of the lowest illuminance (maintained) at any point on the carriageway to the average
illuminance (maintained) of the carriageway.
The recommendations for the lighting class for conflict areas are given in ‘DMA Roadway & Public
Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’. These recom-
mendations can be applied to all parts of the conflict area or only to the carriageway when separate
recommendations are used for pedestrians or cyclists.
The lighting recommendations for crosswalks are given with 30 lx, conflict areas are
to reach 2.0 cd/m2. The uniformity should stay with U0 0.4 for both.
A specific form of conflict area is the pedestrian crossing. Where a pedestrian crossing is close to a
junction it is treated simply as part of the conflict area but where it occurs in isolation there are two
possibilities for lighting.
• To use the normal lighting of the traffic route with the crossing positioned at the midpoint between
luminaires.
• Or to use additional local lighting. The local lighting approach is recommended when the traffic
routes are lit to less than lighting class ME3 (see Table 27) or the crossing is located on a bend,
on the brow of a hill or where the relative positions of the crossing and road lighting luminaires
cannot be coordinated. The local lighting should illuminate the crossing to a higher illuminance
than is provided on the roads approaching the crossing. The suitable lighting class for horizontal
illuminance one step higher as the one used for the street. The local lighting should have strong
vertical component to ensure that pedestrians are positively illuminated but care must be taken
to control glare towards drivers (Chapter G / 3.1 / Table 28).
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Lighting
Handbook
3.6 Samples of typical Conflict Area Lighting Calculations
3.6.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Two Lane Roundabout Layout
Figure 200
3D Rendering of a typical two
lane roundabout street lighting
layout.
Figure 201
3D false-colour rendering of a
typical two lane roundabout
street lighting layout, including
approximate lux (lx) levels shown
by different colours.
Road Lighting
Table 34
Table of results for a typical two lane roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in lx.
3.6.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical

One Lane Roundabout Layout
Figure 202
3D Rendering of a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Figure 203
3D false-colour rendering of a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout,
including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 35
Table of results for a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
Road Lighting
3.6.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Street (mini)
Roundabout Layout
Figure 204
3D Rendering of a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Figure 205
3D false-colour rendering of a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout,
including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 36
Table of results for a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
Road Lighting
3.6.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Junction of
Boulevard / Boulevard Layout
Figure 206
3D Rendering of a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Figure 207
3D false-colour rendering of a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting
layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 37
Table of results for a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
Road Lighting
3.6.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Junction of
Street / Street Layout
Figure 208
3D Rendering of a typical junction of street/street lighting layout.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
Figure 209
3D false-colour rendering of a typical junction of street/street lighting layout, including
approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 38
Table of results for a typical junction of street/street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
Road Lighting
3.7 Coordination
It is obviously important that the lighting of conflict areas should be coordinated with that of the
traffic routes. Where two traffic routes, which are lit to different classes lead into the same conflict
area, the match should be made to the higher traffic route class.
3.8 Traffic Route Lighting Design Fundamentals

The design process for traffic route lighting consists of the following stages:
3.8.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition of relevant Area

The lighting class of the carriageway is selected (Chapter G / Table 26 and 27). The nature and
extent of adjacent areas and any conflict areas are identified and the lighting approach to be used
chosen. The compatible lighting classes for adjacent areas and conflict areas are selected.
Please see also recent applicable local DMA Lighting Specifications for detailed information about
selection lighting classes for all areas.
3.8.2 Collection of Preliminary Data

The following data is required before calculation can start:
• Mounting height
• Luminaire type and optic setting
• Lamp type
• Initial luminous flux of lamp
• IP rating of luminaire
• Cleaning interval planned for luminaire
• Pollution category for location
• Luminaire maintenance factor
• Lamp replacement interval
• Lamp lumen maintenance factor at replacement interval
• Maintenance factor
• Luminaire tilt
• Width of carriageway
• Width of driving lane
• Width of adjacent areas
• Luminaire transverse position relative to the calculation grid
• Luminaire arrangement
• other client specific data.
Abu Dhabi
Lighting
Handbook
The emphasis given to maintenance factors in this list arises from the fact that the lighting recommendations are
made in terms of minimum maintained average values. Table 39 sets out typical luminaire maintenance factors to
be applied for different locations, luminaires and cleaning intervals. In this table, high pollution generally occurs in
the centre of large urban areas and heavy industrial areas; medium pollution occurs in semi-urban, residential and
light industrial areas while low pollution occurs in rural areas. Luminaires are classified by the protection against
foreign objects and dust number used in the IP system (see Tables 12, 13).
Table 39
Typical luminaire maintenance factors.
The reflection properties of a road surface are quantified by an r-Table. This consists of a matrix of values
of q cos3y, where q is the luminance coefficient of the pavement material and y is the angle of incidence of light
from the upward vertical, in degrees (see Table 40). This quantity is called the reduced luminance coefficient (r).
The two dimensions of the r-Table are the angle ß, the angle between the vertical plane of incidence and
the vertical plane of observation and the tangent of the angle y, the angle of incidence from the upward
vertical (see Figure 207). Each cell in the r-Table contains a value for the reduced luminance coefficient
multiplied by 10,000.

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LightingRZ_1:LightingRZ_1 12.11.

2014 12:06 Uhr Seite 1

Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 3

4 Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook

His Highness Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan His

Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 5

His Highness General Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan

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Printed in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi

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H.E Saeed Eid Al Ghafli

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Department of Municipal Affairs:

Municipality of Abu Dhabi City:

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Foreign Lighting Consultant:

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4.0 Luminaire Manufacturers Design Data 402

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1.1 The Nature of Light

The commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE)

In 1990, in the interests of greater photometric

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2.0 The Measurement of Light – Photometry

2.1 Luminous Flux

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Measure Definition Units

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For a non-diffuse surface, for a specific direction and lighting geometry:

(illuminan ce u luminance factor)

2.6 Typical Values

Situation Illuminance (lm/m2) Typical surface Luminance

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2.7 The Measurement of Light — considered as another form of standard observer.

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As the ciliary body extends further away from the

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