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PART III: CAROTENOIDS 211

CAROTENOIDS

C
arotenoids are natural pigments found in plants, and are abundant in
deeply colored fruits and vegetables. The most prevalent carotenoids
in North American diets are a-carotene, b-carotene, lycopene, lutein,
zeaxanthin, and b-cryptoxanthin. Of these, a-carotene, b-carotene, and b-
cryptoxanthin can be converted into retinol (vitamin A) in the body and are
called provitamin A carotenoids. Lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin have no vi-
tamin A activity and are called nonprovitamin A carotenoids. The only known
function of carotenoids in humans is to act as a source of vitamin A in the diet
(provitamin A carotenoids only).
There are no DRIs specifically for carotenoids (see Part III, “Vitamin A” for
vitamin A DRIs and the contribution of carotenoids to vitamin A intake). Al-
though epidemiological evidence suggests that higher blood concentrations of
b-carotene and other carotenoids obtained from foods are associated with a
lower risk of several chronic diseases, other evidence suggests possible harm
arising from very large doses in population subgroups, such as smokers and
asbestos workers. Currently, there is insufficient evidence to recommend that a
certain percentage of dietary vitamin A should come from provitamin A carot-
enoids. However, existing recommendations calling for the increased consump-
tion of carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables for their health-promoting benefits
are strongly supported.
Based on evidence that b-carotene supplements have not been shown to
aid in the prevention or cure of major chronic diseases, and may cause harm in
certain population subgroups, b-carotene supplements are not advisable other
than as a provitamin A source and for the prevention and control of vitamin A
deficiency in at-risk populations.
Foods rich in carotenoids include deep yellow-, red-, and orange-colored
fruits and vegetables and green leafy vegetables. Carotenoids found in ripe fruits
and cooked yellow tubers are more efficiently converted into vitamin A than are
carotenoids from equal amounts of dark green, leafy vegetables. If adequate
retinol (vitamin A) is provided in the diet, there are no known clinical effects of
consuming diets low in carotenes over the short term; carotenodermia or
lycopenodermia (skin discoloration) are the only proven adverse effects associ-
ated with excess consumption of carotenoids.

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212 DRIs: THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

CAROTENOIDS AND THE BODY

Function
In plants, carotenoids function as pigments. In humans, the only known func-
tion of carotenoids is their provitamin A activity. Carotenoids may have addi-
tional functions, such as enhancing immune function and decreasing the risk of
macular degeneration, cataracts, some cardiovascular events, and some types of
cancer (particularly lung, oral cavity, pharyngeal, and cervical cancers), but the
evidence is inconclusive. The risks for some diseases appear to be increased in
certain population subgroups when large doses of b-carotene are taken.

Absorption, Metabolism, Storage, and Excretion

Dietary carotenoids are fat-soluble and are absorbed in the intestine via bile
acid micelles. The uptake of b-carotene by intestinal mucosal cells is believed to
occur by passive diffusion. Once inside the mucosal cells, carotenoids or their
metabolic products (e.g., vitamin A) are incorporated into chylomicrons and
released into the lymphatic system. Carotenoids are either absorbed intact or,
in the case of provitamin A carotenoids, cleaved to form vitamin A prior to
secretion into the lymph.
Carotenoids are transported in the blood by lipoproteins and stored in
various body tissues, including the adipose tissue, liver, kidneys, and adrenal
glands. (The adipose tissue and liver appear to be the main storage sites.) Ex-
cretion occurs via the bile and urine.

DETERMINING DRIS
Determining Requirements
Data were inadequate to estimate the requirements for b-carotene and other
carotenoids. Although epidemiological evidence suggests that higher blood con-
centrations of b-carotene and other carotenoids obtained from foods are associ-
ated with a lower risk of several chronic diseases, this evidence could not be
used to establish a requirement for b-carotene or other carotenoid intake be-
cause the observed effects may be due to other substances found in carotenoid-
rich food, or other behavioral correlates of increased fruit and vegetable con-
sumption. Other evidence suggests possible harm arising from very large doses
in population subgroups, such as smokers and asbestos workers.
Currently, there is insufficient evidence to recommend that a certain per-
centage of dietary vitamin A should come from provitamin A carotenoids. Al-
though no DRI values are proposed for carotenoids, existing recommendations
calling for the increased consumption of carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables

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PART III: CAROTENOIDS 213

for their health-promoting benefits are strongly supported. The existing recom-
mendation to consume 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day
would provide 3–6 mg/day of b-carotene.
(For vitamin A DRIs, the contribution of carotenoids to vitamin A intake,
and conversion factors of the various carotenoids to retinol activity equivalents
[RAEs], see Part III, “Vitamin A,” and Appendix F.)

The UL
There were insufficient data available on the potential adverse effects of excess
carotenoid intake to derive a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL). However, in
light of research indicating an association between high-dose b-carotene supple-
ments and lung cancer in smokers (see “Excess Intake”), b-carotene sup-
plements are not advisable for the general population. No adverse effects other
than carotenodermia (skin discoloration) have been reported from the con-
sumption of carotenoids in food.

DIETARY SOURCES
Foods
Foods rich in carotenoids include deep yellow-, red-, and orange-colored fruits
and vegetables and green leafy vegetables. Major contributors of b-carotene to
the diets of U.S. women of childbearing age include carrots (the major con-
tributor), cantaloupe, broccoli, vegetable-beef or chicken soup, spinach, and
collard greens. Major contributors of a-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin, lycopene,
and lutein and zeaxanthin, respectively, are carrots, orange juice and orange
juice blends, tomatoes and tomato products, and spinach and collard greens.
Carotenoids are not added to most infant formulas (milk- or soy-based),
and the carotenoid content of human milk highly varies depending on the ca-
rotenoid content of the mother’s diet.

Dietary Supplements
b-Carotene, a-carotene, b-cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin, and lycopene
are available as dietary supplements. However, there are no reliable estimates of
the amount being consumed by people in the United States or Canada.

Bioavailability
The extent of conversion of a highly bioavailable source of dietary b-carotene to
vitamin A in humans has been shown to be between 60 and 75 percent, with an

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214 DRIs: THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

additional 15 percent of the b-carotene absorbed intact. However, absorption of

most carotenoids from foods is considerably lower and can be as low as 2 per-
cent. Several other factors affect the bioavailability and absorption of carotenoids,
including:

Food matrix: The food matrix in which ingested carotenoids are found affects
bioavailability the most. For example, the absorption of b-carotene supplements
that are solubilized with emulsifiers and protected by antioxidants can be 70
percent or more; absorption from fruits exceeds tubers, and the absorption
from raw carrots can be as low as 5 percent.

Cooking techniques: Cooking appears to improve the bioavailability of some

carotenoids. For example, the bioavailability of lycopene from tomatoes is vastly
improved when tomatoes are cooked with oil. Steaming also improves carot-
enoid bioavailability in carrots and spinach. However, prolonged exposure to
high temperatures, through boiling, for example, may reduce the bioavailability
of carotenoids from vegetables.

Dietary fat: Studies have shown that to optimize carotenoid absorption, dietary
fat must be consumed during the same meal as the carotenoid.

Other factors: Lipid-lowering drugs, olestra, plant sterol–enriched margarines,

and dietary pectin supplements have all been shown to reduce carotenoid
absorption.

Dietary Interactions
Different carotenoids may compete with each other for absorption. This is more
likely to occur in people who take supplements of a particular carotenoid than
in people who consume a variety of carotenoid rich fruits and vegetables. For
example, b-carotene supplements reduce lutein absorption from food; and when
carotene and lutein are given as supplements, b-carotene absorption increases.

INADEQUATE INTAKE AND DEFICIENCY

If adequate retinol (vitamin A) is provided in the diet, there are no known
clinical effects of consuming diets low in carotenes over the short term.

Special Considerations
Smoking: Smokers tend to have lower plasma concentrations of carotenoids
compared to nonsmokers. It is unknown whether this is attributable solely to

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PART III: CAROTENOIDS 215

poor intake or if tobacco smoke somehow reduces the circulating levels of ca-
rotenoids. The greater the intensity of smoking (the number of cigarettes per
day), the greater the decrease in serum carotenoid concentrations. Although
smoking may result in a need for higher intakes of dietary carotenoids to achieve
optimal plasma concentrations, caution is warranted because studies have shown
an increased risk of lung cancer in smokers who took b-carotene supplements
(see “Excess Intake”). Recommendations made to smokers to increase carot-
enoid intake should emphasize foods, not supplements, as the source.

Alcohol consumption: As with tobacco, alcohol intake is inversely associated

with serum carotenoid concentrations. Those who chronically consume large
quantities of alcohol are often deficient in many nutrients, but it is unknown
whether the deficiency is the result of poor diet or of the metabolic conse-
quences of chronic alcoholism or the synergistic effect of both.

EXCESS INTAKE
Harmless skin discoloration in the form of carotenodermia (yellow discolora-
tion) or lycopenodermia (orange discoloration) is the only proven adverse ef-
fect associated with the excess consumption of carotenoids from food and supple-
ments. This condition has been reported in adults who took supplements
containing 30 mg/day or more of b-carotene for long periods of time or who
consumed high levels of carotenoid-rich foods, such as carrots. Skin discolora-
tion is also the primary effect of excess carotenoid intake noted in infants, tod-
dlers, and young children. The condition is reversible when carotene ingestion
is discontinued.

Special Considerations
Increased risk of lung cancer in smokers: In the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-
Carotene Cancer Prevention (ATBC) Trial, an increase in lung cancer was asso-
ciated with supplemental b-carotene in doses of 20 mg/day or greater (for 5 to
8 years) in current smokers. Another multicenter lung cancer prevention trial,
the Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET), which involved smokers and
asbestos-exposed workers, reported more lung cancer cases in a group supple-
mented with a nutrient combination that contained both b-carotene and retinol
than in a group that received placebos. In contrast, the Physicians’ Health Study,
conducted in the United States, reported no significant effect of 12 years of
supplementation with b-carotene (50 mg every other day) on cancer or total
mortality, even among smokers who took the supplements for up to 12 years.
Supplemental forms of b-carotene have markedly greater bioavailability than
b-carotene from foods, and the concentrations associated with possible adverse

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216 DRIs: THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

effects are well beyond the concentrations achieved through foods. So, although
20 mg/day of supplemental b-carotene is enough to raise blood concentrations
to a range associated with increased lung cancer risk, the same amount of
b-carotene in foods is not.

Individuals with increased needs: Supplemental b-carotene can be used as a

provitamin A source or for the prevention of vitamin A deficiency in popula-
tions with inadequate vitamin A nutriture. Long-term supplementation with
b-carotene in people with adequate vitamin A status does not increase the
concentration of serum retinol. For vitamin A-deficient individuals and for
people suffering from erythropoietic protoporphyria (a photosensitivity disor-
der), treatment using higher doses may be called for, but only under a physician’s
direction.

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PART III: CAROTENOIDS 217

KEY POINTS FOR CAROTENOIDS

3 Carotenoids are natural pigments found in plants, and are
abundant in deeply colored fruits and vegetables. Certain
carotenoids function as a source of vitamin A in humans.
3 There are no DRIs specifically for carotenoids.
3 Currently, there is insufficient evidence to recommend that a
certain percentage of dietary vitamin A should come from
provitamin A carotenoids.
3 Carotenoids may enhance immune function and decrease the
risk of macular degeneration, cataracts, some vascular events,
and some types of cancer. But carotenoids have also been
linked to an increased incidence of cancer in certain population
subgroups, such as smokers and asbestos workers.
3 Foods rich in carotenoids include deep yellow-, red-, and
orange-colored fruits and vegetables and green leafy
vegetables. Carotenoids found in ripe fruits and cooked yellow
tubers are more efficiently converted into vitamin A than are
carotenoids from equal amounts of dark green, leafy
vegetables.
3 Several factors influence the bioavailability and absorption of
carotenoids, including the food matrix, cooking techniques, the
presence of dietary fat, and lipid-lowering drugs and dietary
constituents.
3 If adequate retinol (vitamin A) is provided in the diet, there are
no known clinical effects of consuming diets low in carotenes
over the short term.
3 Harmless skin discoloration can result from excess
consumption of carotenoids from food or supplements.
3 Based on evidence that b-carotene supplements have not been
shown to aid in the prevention of major chronic diseases, and
may cause harm in certain population subgroups, b-carotene
supplements are not advisable other than as a provitamin A
source and for the prevention and control of vitamin A
deficiency in at-risk populations.

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TABLE 1 Dietary Reference Intakes for Choline by

Life Stage Group

DRI values (mg/day)

AIa,b ULc

males females

Life stage group

0 through 6 mo 125 125 NDd
7 through 12 mo 150 150 ND
1 through 3 y 200 200 1,000
4 through 8 y 250 250 1,000
9 through 13 y 375 375 2,000
14 through 18 y 550 400 3,000
19 through 30 y 550 425 3,500
31 through 50 y 550 425 3,500
51 through 70 y 550 425 3,500
> 70 y 550 425 3,500

Pregnancy
£ 18 y 450 3,000
19 through 50 y 450 3,500

Lactation
£ 18 y 550 3,000
19 through 50 y 550 3,500
a AI = Adequate Intake.
b Although AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a
dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle. It may be that the
choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages.
c UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents

total intake from food, water, and supplements.

d ND = Not determinable. This value is not determinable due to the lack of data of

adverse effects in this age group and concern regarding the lack of ability to handle
excess amounts. Source of intake should only be from food to prevent high levels of
intake.

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