Review Solid Mechanics & Finite Elements

Structural Dynamic Modeling Techniques & Modal Analysis Methods
[ Mn ] [ Ma ] [ ω2]
[ Kn ] Ö [ Ka ] [Ea]
Review
Solid Mechanics
&
Finite Elements
Peter Avitabile
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Massachusetts Lowell
22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 1 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Modal Analysis & Controls Laboratory
Solid Mechanics Background
Basic understanding of Solid Mechanics is reviewed
This material is needed for refresher to support

finite element model development

Stress
The state of stress in an elemental volume is given

as
{σ}T = [σ x σ y σ z τ xy τ yz τ xz ]
If the coordinates are principal axes then
{σ}T = [σ1σ 2 σ 3 000]

Strain
The state of strain in an elemental volume is given

as
{ε}T = [ε x ε y ε z γ xy γ yz γ xz ]
If the coordinates are principal axes then
{ε}T = [ε1ε 2 ε 3 000]

Strain-Displacement Equations
The strain displacement relations are

∂u 1  ∂u   ∂v   ∂w  
2 2 2
εx = +   +   +   
∂x 2  ∂x   ∂x   ∂x  
∂v 1  ∂u   ∂v   ∂w  
2 2 2
εy = +   +   +   
∂y 2  ∂y   ∂y   ∂y  
 
∂w 1  ∂u   ∂v   ∂w  
2 2 2
εz = +   +   +   
∂z 2  ∂z   ∂z   ∂z  
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
γ xy = + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂w ∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
γ yz = + + + +
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂w ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
γ zx = + + + +
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x

Strain-Displacement Equations
Retaining only the first order (or linear) terms and

neglecting the second order terms gives
∂u ∂u ∂v
εx = γ xy = +
∂x ∂y ∂x
∂v ∂u ∂w
εy = γ xz = +
∂y ∂z ∂x
∂w ∂v ∂w
εz = γ yz = +
∂z ∂z ∂y

Linear Constitutive Equations
The generalized Hooke's Law can be written as
 σ x   C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16   ε x 

 σ  C C 26   ε y 
 y   21 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25

 σ z  C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36   ε z 
{σ} = [C]{ε}⇒  =  
τ xy  C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 C 45 C 46  γ xy 

τ xz  C 51 C 52 C 53 C 54 C 55 C 56   γ xz 
    γ 
τ yz  C 61 C 62 C 63 C 64 C 65 C 66   yz 

The generalized Hooke's Law can be written as
 ε x   D11 D12 D13 D14 D15 D16   σ x 

 ε  D D 22 D 23 D 24 D 25 D 26   σ y 
 y   21 
 ε z   D 31 D 32 D 33 D 34 D 35 D 36   σ z 
{ε} = [D]{σ}⇒  =  
γ xy  D 41 D 42 D 43 D 44 D 45 D 46  τ xy 

 γ xz   D 51 D 52 D 53 D 54 D 55 D 56  τ xz 
   τ 
 γ yz  D 61 D 62 D 63 D 64 D 65 D 66   yz 

The [C] and [D] matrices are symmetric and

therefore only 21 constants are required to define
a material in general
 σ x  C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16   ε x 

σ   C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26   ε y 
 y  
 σz   C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36   ε z 
  =  
τ xy   C 44 C 45 C 46  γ xy 

τ xz   C 55 C 56   γ xz 
    γ 
 τ yz   C 66   yz 

Certain materials exibit symmetry with respect to

certain planes within the body so that the number
of material constants can be reduced from the
general number of 21 material constants required
for the anisotropic case.

For instance, an orthotropic material can be

expressed using only 9 constants
 σ x  C11 C12 C13 0 0 0  ε x 

σ   C 22 C 23 0 0 0   ε y 
 y  
 σz   C 33 0 0 0  ε z 
  =  
τ xy   C 44 0 0  γ xy 

τ xz   C 55 0   γ xz 
   γ 
 τ yz   C 66   yz 

The stress-strain relations for an orthotropic

material may be written in terms of Young's
Modulus and Poisson's Ratio as
σ x υ yx υ zx
εx = − σy − σz
Ex Ey Ez
σy υ xy υ zy
εy = − σx − σz
Ey Ex Ez
σ z υ xz υ yz
εz = − σx − σy
Ez Ex Ey
τ xy τ yz τ zx
γ xy = ,γ yz = ,γ zx =
G xy G yz G zx
Linear Isotropic Elasticity
Simpliest form of the generalized Hooke's Law

where the material is linear, elastic and isotropic
(1 − ν ) ν ν 
σx   ν (1 − ν ) ν  ε 
σ    x 
  y  ν ν (1 − ν )  ε y 
 σz    1 − 2ν   ε 
E     z 
  =  2 
τ
 xy (1 + ν )(1 − 2 ν )   γ xy 
  1 − 2ν  γ 
τ xz   
    2    xz 
τ
 yz    1 − 2ν   γ yz 
  
  2 
 1/ E − ν / E − ν / E 
 ε x  − ν / E 1 / E − ν / E  σ x 
ε    
 y  − ν / E − ν / E 1 / E  σ y 
 εz   2(1 + υ)  σ z 
  =  
γ xy  
E
2(1 + υ)  τ xy 
 γ xz    τ xz 
   E  
 γ yz   2(1 + υ)   τ yz 
 E 

Two Dimensional Elasticity - Plane Strain
Typically used for very long bodies where the

loading and boundary conditions do not vary in the
longitudinal direction and that there are no
displacements in the longitudinal direction. For
this case,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
ε x = , ε y = , γ xy = +
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Two Dimensional Elasticity - Plane Strain
The constitutive law reduces to
 
σx  (1 − ν ) ν  ε x 
  E  ν  ε 
σ
 y = (1 − ν )  y 
τ  (1 + ν )(1 − 2 ν ) 
 1 − 2ν  γ xy 
 xy      
  2 

Two Dimensional Elasticity - Plane Stress
A condition of plane stress exists when the

longitudinal direction is very small in comparison to
the other two directions with only inplane loading
considered. For this case,
υ
ε z =− (ε x + ε y ); τ yz = τ zx = 0; σ z = 0
1− υ

Two Dimensional Elasticity - Plane Stress
The constitutive law reduces to
 
σx  1 ν  ε x 
  E    
σy  = ν εy 
( )
2 
1 

τ  1 − ν   1 − ν  γ 
 xy     xy 
  2 

Elementary Plate Theory
When the thickness is small to the other two

dimensions assumed displacements can be
approximated by
∂w ∂w
u = u o ( x , y) − z , v = v o ( x , y) − z , w = w o ( x , y)
∂x ∂y

The strain-displacement equations becomes
∂u o ∂2w ∂2w
εx = − z 2 = εx − z 2
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂v o ∂2w ∂2w
εy = − z 2 = εy − z 2
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂u o ∂v o ∂2w o ∂2w
γ xy = + − 2z = γ xy − 2z
∂y ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x∂y

Convention is to express the stress-strain

relations as
t/2 t/2 t/2 t/2 t/2

Nx = ∫ σ x dz,N y = ∫ σ y dz,N xy = ∫ τ xy dz,Q x = ∫ τ xz dz,Q y = ∫ τ yzdz
−t / 2 −t / 2 −t / 2 −t / 2 −t / 2
t/2 t/2 t/2
Mx = − ∫ zσ x dz,M y = − ∫ zσ y dz,M xy = ∫ τ xy zdz
−t / 2 −t / 2 −t / 2

Finite Element Types
An assortment of different element types exist
ui uj
A, E
Fi Fj
L
θ i θj
J, G
Ti Tj
L
ν i νj
θ i θj
E, I
Fi L Fj

Finite Element Types - TRUSS
Slender element (length>>area) which supports

only tension or compression along its length;
essentially a 1D spring
ui uj
A, E
Fi Fj
L
The truss strain is defined as ε = du

dx
The stiffness and lumped/consistent mass matrices

1 − 1
[k ] = AE  [ml ] = ρAL 
[mc ] = ρAL
1/ 2 1 / 3 1 / 6
 ;  ; 
L − 1 1   1 / 2 1 / 6 1 / 3

Finite Element Types - TRUSS
Similar to truss but supports torsion

θ i θj
J, G
Ti Tj
L
The torsional stiffness is

1 − 1
[k t ] = JG 
L − 1 1 

Finite Element Types - BEAM
Slender element whose length is much greater that

its transverse dimension which supports lateral
loads which cause flexural bending
Beam assumptions are
- constant cross section
- cross section small compared to length
- stress and strain vary linearly across
section depth

The beam elastic curvature due to lateral loading

is satisfied by 4 4
EId υ / dx = q
The longitudinal strain is proportional to the

distance from the neutral axis and second
derivative of the elastic curvature given as
ε = yd 2 υ / dx 2
ν i
νj
θ i
θj
E, I
Fi L Fj

The stiffness and consistent mass matrices are
 12 6L − 12 6L   156 − 22L 54 13L 

 − 6L 2L2   − 13L − 3L2 
2 2
EI  6L 4L ρAL − 22L 4L
[k ] = 3  [m] = 
L − 12 − 6L 12 − 6L  420  54 − 13L 156 22L 
 2   2 2 
 6L 2L − 6L 4L   13L − 3L 22 L 4 L 
ν i
νj
θ i
θj
E, I
Fi L Fj

The full beam stiffness matrix can be assembled

using the truss, torsion and two planar beam
elements
 AE − AE 
 L L 
 12EI Z − 6EI Z − 12EI Z − 6EI Z 
 3 2

 L L L3 L2 
 12EI Y − 6EI Y 12EI Y − 6EI Y 
 3 2 3 
 L L L L2 
 JG − JG 
 L L 
 − 6EI Y 4EI Y 6EI Y 2EI Y 
 2 L 2 L 
 L L 
 6EI Z 4EI Z − 6EI Z 2EI Z 
 L2 L L2 L 
 − AE AE 
 
 L L 
 − 12EI Z − 6EI Z 12EI Z − 6EI Z 
 L3 L2 L3 L 
2
 − 12EI Y 6EI Y 12EI Y 6EI Y 
 3 2 3 
 L L L L2 
 − JG JG 
 L L 
 − 6EI Y 2EI Y 6EI Y 4EI Y 
 2 2 
 L L L L 
 6EI Z 2EI Z − 6EI Z 4EI Z 
 L2 L L2 L 

Finite Element Types – PLANE STRAIN
Element whose geometry definition lies in a plane

and applied loads also lie in the same plane
∆u
∆v
∆u
∆y ∆y ∆y ∆y
∆v
∆x
∆v
∆x ∆x ∆x
∆u
Stress-strain relations are

 ε x  ∂ / ∂x 0 
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v     u 
εx = , εy= , γ xy = +  εy  =  0 ∂ / ∂y  ⇒ε = ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x 
γ  ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂x   v 
 xy   

Displacements in the finite element are

interpolated from nodal displacements using the
element shape function
 u1 
v 
u   N1 0 N2 0 L  1 
 = u 
v   0 N1 0 N2 L  2 
v
 2
 M 

Strain displacement matrix is

 u1   u1 
 εx  v  v 
   1  1 
ε = ∂u⇒ ε y  = ∂N u 2  = Bu 2 whereB = ∂N
γ  v  v 
 xy    2  2
 M   M 
The element matrices are then given by

[M ] = ∫∫∫V [N ]ρ[N ]T ∂V
[K ] = ∫∫∫V [B]T [C][B]∂V

Constant Strain Triangle - Probably one of the

simplest and first of finite elements formulated
The displacement field is y,v
v3
given by
3 u3
v2
u = β1 + β 2 x + β 3 y v1
u2
v = β 4 + β5 x + β 6 y 1
u1
2
x,u
The resulting strain field

is given by
ε x =β 2 , ε y =β 6 , γ xy =β3 +β5

Constant Strain Triangle – y,v

v3
The strain field can be 3 u3
expressed in terms of shape v1

v2
functions as
u2
2
1
u1
x,u
 u1 
v 
 εx   y 2 − y3 0 y 3 − y1 0 y1 − y 2 0  1 
  1  u 
 εy  = 0 x3 − x 2 0 x1 − x 3 0 x 2 − x1   2 
  v2
γ  2A  x − x y 2 − y3 x1 − x 3 y 3 − y1 x 2 − x1 y1 − y 2   
 xy   3 2 u 3 
 
v3 

Linear Strain Triangle - Adding midside nodes to

the constant strain triangle provides for a
quadratic displacement field y,v
3
v3
u3
v5
2 2
u = β1 + β 2 x + β 3 y + β 4 x + β 5 xy + β 6 y v6
6
u6
5 u5
v4 v2
u2
2 2 2
v = β 7 + β8 x + β 9 y + β10 x + β11xy + β12 y v1 4

u4
1 u1
x,u
and a resulting strain field is given by

ε x =β 2 + 2β 4 x + β5 y
ε y =β9 + β11x + 2β12 y
γ xy =β3 +β8 + (β5 +2β10 ) x + (2β6 +β11 ) y

Bilinear Quadrilateral - Extending from the

triangular element to a y,v
4 noded quadrilateral v4 v3
provides for a bilinear

u4 4 3 u3
displacement field x,u
u = β1 + β 2 x + β3 y + β 4 xy u1 1 2 u2
v = β 5 + β 6 x + β 7 y + β8 xy v1 v2

ε x =β 2 + β 4 y
ε y =β 7 + β8 x
γ xy =β3 +β 6 + β 4 x + β8 y

Bilinear Quadrilateral - Extending from the

4 noded to 8 noded quadrilateral
y,v
v3
provides for a bilinear displacement

v4
u4 4 7 3 u3
field 8
6
x,u
u1 1 5 u2
2 2 2 2
2
u = β1 + β 2 x + β 3 y + β 4 x + β 5 xy + β 6 y + β 7 x y + β8 xy v1 v2
v = β 9 + β10 x + β11 y + β12 x 2 + β13 xy + β14 y 2 + β15 x 2 y + β16 xy 2

ε x =β 2 + 2β 4 x + β5 y + 2β7 xy + β8 y 2 ;ε y =β11 + β13 x + 2β14 y + 2β15 x 2 + 2β16 xy
γ xy =β3 +β10 + (β5 +2β12 ) x + (2β 6 +β13 ) y + β 7 x 2 + 2(β8 +β15 ) xy + β16 y 2

Plane Strain Constant Strain Triangle

* good in region where little strain gradient exists
* otherwise element does not behave very well
* poor element for bending applications
* not considered a good general element
Plane Strain Linear Strain Triangle

* better than the constant strain triangle
* but not a particularly good general element

Plane Strain Bilinear Quadrilateral

* does not exactly model a cantilever beam
* can not model a state of pure bending very well
due to shear effects
* very stiff in bending
* bending stiffness improved through incompatible
displacement effects
Plane Strain Quadratic Quadrilateral
* good for modeling all states of constant strain
* good for modeling pure bending using
rectangular elements

Finite Element Types – 3D SOLID
A general 3 dimensional solid that is relativel

unrestricted with respect to shape, loading,
material properties, boundary conditions, etc.
Displacements are interpolated from nodal
displacements from shape function
 u1 
v 
 1
 u   N1 0 0 N2 0 0 L  w1 
    
v =  0 N1 0 0 N2 0 L  u 2 

w   0 0 N1 0 0 N2 L  v 2 
    
w 2 
 M 
 

Strain displacement matrix is

 u1   u1 
ε
 x v  v 
 M   1  1 
 
ε = ∂u⇒  = ∂N u 2  = Bu 2 whereB = ∂N
γ xy  v  v 
 M    2  2
 M   M 
The element matrices are then given by
[M ] = ∫∫∫V [N]ρ[N]T ∂V
[K ] = ∫∫∫V [B]T [C][B]∂V

Constant Strain Tetrahedron - Extension of

constant strain triangle plain strain element to 3D
u = β1 + β 2 x + β 3 y + β 4 z 3
v = β 5 + β 6 x + β 7 y + β8 z
w = β 9 + β10 x + β11y + β12 z 4
Also, Linear Tetrahedron, 1
Trilinear Tetrahedron and Quadratic Tetrahedron

8 7
4 3
5 6
1 2

Finite Element Types – PLATE
Classical Thin Plate – Kirchoff Thin Plate

Very similar to the beam in that flexure occurs -
but in two directions. Geometry lies in the plane
with loads acting normal to the plane. A two
dimensional state of stress
exists similar to that of w
∆w
∆x u=-z
∆w
∆x
plane stress with the

exception that there is a z
∆w
variation of tension to
∆x
compression across the x,u
plate thickness.

Governing equations are

u = − z∂w / ∂x; v = − z∂w / ∂y
The strain is given by

ε x = ∂u / ∂x = −z∂ 2 w / ∂x 2 ;ε y = ∂v / ∂y = − z∂ 2 w / ∂y 2
γ xy = ∂u / ∂y + ∂v / ∂x = −2z∂ 2 w / ∂x∂y


For thin plate theory, the governing partial
differential equation is given by
( (
∇ 4 w = q / Et 3 / 12 1 − υ2 ))
For an isotropic material,
σ x  E  1 υ ∂ 2 w / ∂ 2 x  ∂ 2w
  = − z υ 1   2 ;τ = −2zG
2  xy
σ y  1 − υ2   ∂ w / ∂ y  ∂x∂y


These stresses are very much like those found in
simple beam bending. Flexural stresses vary
linearly through the thickness while transverse
shear stresses vary quadratically. The plate
moments are given by
+t / 2 +t / 2 +t / 2
Mx = ∫ σ x zdz; My = ∫ σ y zdz; M xy = ∫ τ xy zdz
−t / 2 −t / 2 −t / 2
* transverse shear deformation is neglected

* transverse shear can be significant in thick plates
(10:1 ratio applies)
* cross section is not distorted by deformation
Thick Plate - Mindlin Plate

Extension of thin plate theory to account for
transverse shear deformations.
w w
x,u y,v

Thick Plate - Mindlin Plate

Combining the displacements for thin plate with
those shown constitute the thick plate element.
 ∂θ y ∂θ x 
γ xy = z − 
∂θ y  ∂y ∂x 
u = zθ y εx = z
∂x ∂w
v = −zθ x γ yz = − θx
∂θ ∂y
ε y = −z x
∂y ∂w
γ yzx = + θy
∂x
* transverse shear deformation is included

* cross section does not remain the same due to
shear deformation


Review Solid Mechanics & Finite Elements

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Review Solid Mechanics & Finite Elements

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Structural Dynamic Modeling Techniques & Modal Analysis Methods

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 1 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Basic understanding of Solid Mechanics is reviewed

This material is needed for refresher to support

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 2 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The state of stress in an elemental volume is given

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 3 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The state of strain in an elemental volume is given

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 4 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The strain displacement relations are

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 5 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Retaining only the first order (or linear) terms and

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 6 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The generalized Hooke's Law can be written as

 σ x   C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16   ε x 

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 7 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The generalized Hooke's Law can be written as

 ε x   D11 D12 D13 D14 D15 D16   σ x 

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 8 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The [C] and [D] matrices are symmetric and

 σ x  C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16   ε x 

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 9 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Certain materials exibit symmetry with respect to

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 10 Dr. Peter Avitabile

For instance, an orthotropic material can be

 σ x  C11 C12 C13 0 0 0  ε x 

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 11 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The stress-strain relations for an orthotropic

Simpliest form of the generalized Hooke's Law

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 13 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Typically used for very long bodies where the

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 14 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The constitutive law reduces to

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 15 Dr. Peter Avitabile

A condition of plane stress exists when the

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 16 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The constitutive law reduces to

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 17 Dr. Peter Avitabile

When the thickness is small to the other two

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 18 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The strain-displacement equations becomes

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 19 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Convention is to express the stress-strain

t/2 t/2 t/2 t/2 t/2

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 20 Dr. Peter Avitabile

An assortment of different element types exist

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 21 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Slender element (length>>area) which supports

The truss strain is defined as ε = du

The stiffness and lumped/consistent mass matrices

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 22 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Similar to truss but supports torsion

The torsional stiffness is

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 23 Dr. Peter Avitabile

Slender element whose length is much greater that

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 24 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The beam elastic curvature due to lateral loading

The longitudinal strain is proportional to the

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 25 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The stiffness and consistent mass matrices are

 12 6L − 12 6L   156 − 22L 54 13L 

22.515 – Solid Mechanics Review 26 Dr. Peter Avitabile

The full beam stiffness matrix can be assembled