Saudi Aramco GT Course PDF

http://boilersinfo.
com
Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
GAS TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS,

MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS, AUXILIARY SYSTEMS,
CONTROL SYSTEMS, AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-214.02 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
http://boilersinfo.com
Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Gas Turbine Mechanical Components, Material Requirements,
Auxiliary Systems, Control Systems, and Protection Systems
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 6
GAS TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS ............................................................. 8
CASING .................................................................................................................. 8
INTERNAL COMPONENTS.................................................................................. 12
COMPRESSOR SECTION ................................................................................... 14
Centrifugal Compressor ................................................................................ 15
Axial Compressors ..................................................................................... 15
Inlet Guide Vanes.......................................................................................... 20
Blades ........................................................................................................... 20
Stator ............................................................................................................ 21
Stator Vanes ................................................................................................. 21
Rotor / Shaft .................................................................................................. 21
COMBUSTION SECTION ..................................................................................... 22
Combustion Chambers.................................................................................. 23
Combustor Design Factors............................................................................ 26
Combustion efficiency ................................................................................... 27
LHV vs HHV .................................................................................................. 27
Combustor Emissions ................................................................................... 28
Fuel Nozzles ................................................................................................. 30
Combustion Liners ........................................................................................ 32
Transition Pieces........................................................................................... 33
Ignitors and Crossfire Tubes ......................................................................... 34
Flame Scanners ............................................................................................ 34
TURBINE SECTION ............................................................................................. 35
Nozzles and Blades ...................................................................................... 37
Seals ............................................................................................................. 39
Bearings ........................................................................................................ 43
Bearing Life ................................................................................................... 44
Hydrodynamic Bearings ................................................................................ 44
Journal Bearings ........................................................................................... 46
Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings ........................................................................ 47
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i


Thrust Load Bearings .................................................................................... 49

Flat Land Thrust Load Bearing...................................................................... 51
Tapered Land Thrust Load Bearing .............................................................. 51
Tilting-pad Thrust Load Bearing ................................................................... 53
Anti-Friction Thrust Load Bearing................................................................. 54
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS .......................... 56
CASING ................................................................................................................ 58
COMPRESSOR .................................................................................................... 59
COMBUSTION CHAMBER ................................................................................... 60
TURBINES ............................................................................................................ 62
Turbine Nozzles ............................................................................................ 62
Turbine Blades .............................................................................................. 63
Nozzle and .................................................................................................... 64
GAS TURBINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS ........................................................................ 66
AIR FILTERS/INLET AIR SYSTEMS .................................................................... 67
COOLING AIR/SEALING AIR SYSTEMS ............................................................. 73
COMPRESSOR CLEANING SYSTEMS ............................................................... 78
FUEL TREATMENT SYSTEMS ............................................................................ 81
Centrifuge Fuel Contaminant Separator....................................................... 84
FUEL SYSTEMS................................................................................................... 87
Fuel gas boost compressor system.............................................................. 88
STARTING SYSTEMS.......................................................................................... 94
Air Expansion Turbine ................................................................................... 96
Electric Motor Systems ................................................................................. 96
Diesel Starting Systems ................................................................................ 97
Hydraulic Starting Systems ........................................................................... 98
Static Start System........................................................................................ 99
LUBE OIL SYSTEMS.......................................................................................... 100
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 105
ACCESSORY GEARBOX ................................................................................... 108
Couplings .................................................................................................... 110
Rigid Couplings ........................................................................................... 111
Flexible Couplings ....................................................................................... 111
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii


Gear Couplings ........................................................................................... 111

Diaphragm Coupling.................................................................................... 113
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS ........................................... 114
GAS TURBINE CONTROL - SEQUENCING, TURBINE AND FUEL CONTROL,
AND PROTECTION FEATURES ................................................................................ 116
CONTROL SYSTEM - SEQUENCING FEATURE ...................................................... 117
Starting........................................................................................................ 117
Purging........................................................................................................ 118
Flame Ignition and Indication ...................................................................... 118
Controlled Acceleration ............................................................................... 119
Surge Protection ......................................................................................... 119
Idle Mode .................................................................................................... 119
CONTROL SYSTEM - TURBINE AND FUEL CONTROL FEATURES ....................... 120
TURBINE CONTROL FEATURE ........................................................................ 120
Speed/Load Control System ....................................................................... 121
Temperature Control ................................................................................... 122
Compressor Differential Pressure Control................................................... 124
Fuel Control Feature ................................................................................... 124
Liquid Fuels Control ................................................................................... 124
Gas Fuels Control ...................................................................................... 128
Dual Fuel Control System .......................................................................... 130
CONTROL SYSTEM - PROTECTION FEATURE............................................... 132
Overspeed Bolt ........................................................................................... 135
Electronic Overspeed Control ..................................................................... 137
Hot Gas Path Temperature Trip System ..................................................... 137
Vibration ...................................................................................................... 139
Bearing Temperature Trip ........................................................................... 139
Driven Equipment Trip................................................................................. 140
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................ 141
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii


LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Simple Open-Cycle Gas Turbine (Cross-sectional View and Schematic

Diagram)..................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2. Regenerative-Cycle Gas Turbine (Cross-Sectional View and Schematic
Diagram)..................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3. Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine Cross-Sectional View............................................. 13
Figure 4. Compressor Performance Curves.................................................................. 18
Figure 5. Cross-Sectional View of a Gas Turbine Axial Compressor ............................ 19
Figure 6. Typical Combustion System Components...................................................... 24
Figure 7. Typical Combustion Zones (Aero-derivative combustor)............................... 25
Figure 8. Effects of Flame Temperature on NOx Emission............................................ 29
Figure 9. Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio on Emissions .......................................................... 29
Figure 10. Typical Combustion System Arrangement ................................................... 31
Figure 11. Typical Combustion Liner............................................................................. 33
Figure 12. Typical Flame Scanner................................................................................ 35
Figure 13. Cross-Sectional View of Typical Turbine...................................................... 36
Figure 14. Cooled Turbine Blade (GE) .......................................................................... 39
Figure 15. Typical Buffered Labyrinth Seal ................................................................... 41
Figure 16. Brush Seal................................................................................................... 42
Figure 17. Floating Type Ring Seal ............................................................................... 43
Figure 18. Journal Bearing Cross-Section and Oil Pressure Distribution ..................... 45
Figure 19. Typical Tilting Pad Bearing........................................................................... 48
Figure 20. Typical Thrust Bearing ................................................................................. 50
Figure 21. Tapered-Land Thrust Bearing ..................................................................... 52
Figure 22. Typical Kingsbury (Tilting Pad) Thrust Bearing ............................................ 53
Figure 23. Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing (Rotech) ............................................................. 54
Figure 24. Anti-friction Bearings .................................................................................... 55
Figure 25. Typical Gas Turbine Inlet Air Filter .............................................................. 68
Figure 26. Typical Gas Turbine Self-Cleaning Filter Action........................................... 70
Figure 27. Typical engine internal secondary airflow distribution (GE LM2500) ........... 75
Figure 28. Convection Cooling (GE Turbine Blade) ...................................................... 76
Figure 29. Transpiration Cooling .................................................................................. 77
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv


Figure 30. Effects of Water Washing on Turbine Efficiency ......................................... 79

Figure 31. Typical Compressor Water Wash System.................................................... 81
Figure 32. Centrifugal Separator Sectional View.......................................................... 85
Figure 33. Centrifuge Separation Process .................................................................... 86
Figure 34. Typical Fuel Gas System ............................................................................. 89
Figure 35. Typical Fuel Oil System................................................................................ 92
Figure 36. Gas Turbine wth a Starting Turbine ............................................................. 96
Figure 37. Typical Hydraulic Start System .................................................................... 99
Figure 38. Typical Gas Turbine Lube Oil System (GE Frame 5) ................................. 103
Figure 39. Typical Fire Detection System of a Turbine-Driven Generator Set............. 106
Figure 40. Typical CO2-Based Fire Protection System of a Turbine-Driven
Generator Set ........................................................................................... 108
Figure 41. Typical Accessory Gear Box ...................................................................... 109
Figure 42. Typical Gear Coupling................................................................................ 112
Figure 43. Double Diaphragm Coupling ..................................................................... 113
Figure 44. Conventional Liquid Fuel Control System for a Heavy-Duty Gas
Turbine ..................................................................................................... 126
Figure 45. Typical Gas Fuel Control System for a Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine ............. 130
Figure 46. Typical Dual-Fuel System Fuel Nozzle Cross-Sectional View.................... 132
Figure 47. Overspeed Bolt Assembly .......................................................................... 136
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Turbine Components ...................................................................................... 12

Table 2. Materials Commonly Used in the Manufacture of Gas Turbines .................... 57
Table 3. Typical Combustion Chamber Alloys............................................................... 62
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v


INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
The design of major gas turbine components has evolved over
the last fifty years into machines with high reliability and
availability in addition to increased output. In order to achieve
these advances, all of the major gas turbine systems and
components have been analyzed and designed to ensure the
required performance characteristics. For example, compressor
designs incorporated more efficient blade profiles, turbine
designs adopted higher firing temperatures by using better
materials and cooling techniques, and overall reliability has
been improved by adding redundant equipment. Additional
standards have been established to ensure that minimum
criteria are met when designing and constructing gas turbines.
One such standard is the American Petroleum Institute (API)
Standard 616, Gas Turbines for Refinery Service. Additionally,
Saudi Aramco has a separate Engineering Standard, SAES-K-
502, Combustion Gas Turbines that also covers gas turbine
design and construction requirements. Both of these standards,
along with other Saudi Aramco standards will be referenced
throughout this module.
The overall gas turbine design procedure involves a complex

interrelated design effort between thermodynamic,
aerodynamic, mechanical and control disciplines; furthermore,
the manufacturing feasibility of the design is considered. The
design typically starts with a specification based on market
research, and not simply to a statement of required power and
efficiency. Other potentially contradictory factors involving
weight, cost, volume life, emission noise must also be
considered during the design phase of an engine.
Because of the tremendous costs involved in designing a gas

turbine, all new designs are carried out with consideration for
future growth. Engines continue to be upgraded to meet
customer’s additional power demands. For example, the Rolls
Royce RB211 engine started as a 20 MW engine with its latest
version rated at 35 MW. Similarly, the Westinghouse 501 gas
turbine was initially rated at 42 MW by late 1960’s, and was
upgraded to deliver 160 MW by the mid 1990’s. Along with the
power increase, engines pressure ratios and efficiencies
continued to increase due to the steady increase in gas
temperatures permitted by new exotic material and intricate
cooling technologies.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6


As an example, the Westinghouse 501 engine efficiency

increased from 27.1% to 35.6% within the same time span, as
that of the power increase. Additionally, continuous
improvements have been made over the years in gas turbine
reliability.


GAS TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

The nature of the engineering process requires that serious
consideration be given to the relationship that exists between
the performance characteristics of a gas turbine and the
capability of the mechanical aspects of the gas turbine to
withstand operating conditions. This section discusses the
following mechanical aspects:
• Casing
• Internal Components
Casing
The casings of heavy-duty gas turbines are typically large
fabrications that are often constructed from carbon steel plate or
forgings. Aircraft-derivative gas turbine casing materials may
vary with the section of the gas turbine. Aircraft-derivative
turbine casings may use aluminum alloys for the air intake, the
low pressure compressor, and the intermediate casing. Hot
casing parts on aircraft-derivative turbines may be constructed
of molybdenum steel, 12 to 14 percent chromium steel or high
temperature Nickel based alloys (Inco 625).
The gas turbine casing functions include:
1. Enclosing the rotor sections of the compressor and turbine,
2. Providing the support for the stationary compressor and

turbine components
3. Locating the bearings that provide the support for the rotor
assemblies, and forms the path for the air and gas flows.
Heavy-duty gas turbine casings are generally separated
along a horizontal plane that passes through the turbine axis
to the combustor section. The split casing allows access to
the internal components of the gas turbine for maintenance.
Depending on the type of turbine cycle, gas turbine casing

configurations vary. Figure 1 shows a cross-sectional view of a
simple open-cycle, heavy-duty gas turbine unit and a schematic
diagram of the simple open-cycle. Figure 2 shows a cross-
sectional view of a regenerative-cycle gas turbine unit and a
schematic diagram of the regenerative-cycle. If the two
diagrams are compared, the casing construction differs at the


compressor discharge, the combustion chamber inlet, and the

turbine exhausts.
Both the simple open-cycle and the regenerative-cycle gas

turbines take suction from the atmosphere through air intakes.
In the simple open-cycle gas turbine, the compressor
discharges directly to the combustion chamber, and the exhaust
gases from the simple open-cycle gas turbine are directed to the
atmosphere. The gas stream never leaves the gas turbine
casing from the inlet of the compressor to the exhaust of the
turbine.
In the regenerative cycle gas turbine, however, the discharge of

the compressor exits the turbine casing at the compressor
discharge, through an annular section that is fabricated into the
casing .The discharged air flows through the regenerator heat
exchanger, where it is preheated before re-entering the turbine
casing through another annular section of the casing, into the
combustor. The turbine exhaust exits the turbine casing and
flows through the regenerator to preheat the compressor
discharge air. The turbine exhaust gas that exits the regenerator
is exhausted to the atmosphere. For safety, SAES-B-009
requires that atmospheric exhausts from gas turbines be located
at least 3 meters higher than any platform or access within a
horizontal distance of 7.5 meters.
In the regenerative-cycle gas turbine, the compressor discharge

air flows through an annular section of a regenerator that is
fabricated into the casing. The regenerator is a heat exchanger
that is designed to preheat the compressed air before the air
enters the combustion chamber. The heated compressed air
returns to the combustion chamber through another annular
section that is also fabricated into the casing. The preheated air
that enters the combustion chamber requires less fuel to heat to
its operating temperature, resulting in improved engine
efficiency. The exhaust gases from the regenerative-cycle gas
turbine are directed to the regenerator through an annular
section that is fabricated into the casing, which are then directed
to the atmosphere.


Figure 1. Simple Open-Cycle Gas Turbine

(Cross-sectional View and Schematic Diagram)


Figure 2. Regenerative-Cycle Gas Turbine

(Cross-Sectional View and Schematic Diagram)


Internal Components
Figure 3 is a cross-sectional view showing key internal
components of a two-shaft, heavy-duty, gas turbine with a high-
pressure (HP) turbine and a power turbine. The following table
describes turbine components called out in Figure 3:
Table 1. Turbine Components
1. Accessory Gear Shaft 19. Transition Piece

2. Magnetic Speed Pickup 20. Turbine Casing
3. HP Turbine Thrust Bearing 21. High-Pressure Turbine Nozzle
4. Air Inlet Plenum 22. High-Pressure Turbine Blade
5. Compressor Inlet Casing (Bell) 23. High-Pressure Turbine Rotor
6. #1 Bearing 24. Power Turbine Nozzle
7. Inlet Guide Vanes 25. Power Turbine Blade
8. Compressor Vane 26. #3 Bearing
9. Compressor Blade 27. Exhaust Frame and Diffuser
10. Forward Compressor Casing 28. Power Turbine Rotor
11. Aft Compressor Casing 29. Exhaust Plenum
12. Fuel Nozzle 30. Power Turbine Thrust Bearing
13. Spark Plug 31. #4 Bearing
14. Combustor Assembly 32. After Support
15. Compressor Discharge Casing 33. Power Turbine Section
16. Exit Guide Vanes 34. High-Pressure Turbine Section
17. Combustion Liner 35. Unit Base
18. #2 Bearing 36. Forward Support


Figure 3. Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine Cross-Sectional View


Compressor Section
The function of the gas turbine compressor is to provide
pressurized air to the gas turbine combustion section. In
addition to supplying primary and secondary combustion air, a
small portion of the compressed air is supplied to cooling and/or
sealing air systems.
There are two types of compressors available for gas turbine

applications: centrifugal and axial flow types. Depending on the
manufacturer and the design rating, both centrifugal and axial
compressors may be used as single stage or multiple stage, or
in a combined design. Both types compress air by imparting
momentum to the air through use of rotating elements. The
momentum is then converted to pressure in suitable stationary
passages by decreasing the gas velocity. Because of the high
energy (head capacity), centrifugal compressors generally
compress more air per stage than axial flow compressors.
However, the axial flow compressor systems are the most often
used because of their ability to pump large volumes of air at
higher efficiency levels than the centrifugal-type compressor.
Typical compression ratios range from 10:1 to 15:1 for heavy-

duty industrial gas turbines and higher, up to 35:1, for aircraft-
derivative gas turbines. The mass flow rate of air handled by a
typical industrial gas turbine compressor ranges from 115
pounds per second to 1,400 pounds per second (415,000 to
4,900,000 pounds per hour). Furthermore, the centrifugal
compressor efficiency is typically around 80 to 84 percent,
whereas the axial-type compressor efficiency is frequently better
than 85-92 percent.
In addition to efficiency considerations, size and durability are

important factors in compressor selection. Axial flow
compressors are generally smaller in diameter and longer for a
given output, while centrifugal compressors are generally larger
in diameter and shorter. The more streamlined shape of the
axial compressor is better suited for aircraft purposes. Large
aircraft and aircraft-derivative engines almost exclusively utilize
axial flow compressors for efficiency and size reasons.
Centrifugal compressors are typically used for more rugged
operations and smaller size applications. At Saudi Aramco
installations, centrifugal compressors are limited to applications
where the power is less than 2,000 hp. The Dresser-Rand DC-
990 gas turbine is an example of a gas turbine that uses a
centrifugal compressor.


Centrifugal
Compressor
A centrifugal compressor consists of an impeller enclosed in a

casing that contains a diffuser. In the centrifugal-type
compressor, air is drawn in at the center, or “eye,” of a rapidly
rotating impeller at the center or hub. Centrifugal action on the
rotating air mass forces it to the tips of the impeller, where it is
flung off at high tangential velocity. The air is then discharged at
this higher pressure and increased velocity into the stationary
diffuser. In the diffuser, the air decelerates and this kinetic
energy (energy due to velocity) provides an additional pressure
rise. The pressure rise through centrifugal impellers is great
enough so that more than two stages are rarely needed for gas
turbines. A centrifugal impeller may be single-entry or double-
entries. A double-entry compressor simply increases the flow
capability necessary for some applications. The main difference
between the single-entry and double-entry centrifugal
compressor impeller is the site of the impeller and the ducting
arrangement. Single-entry impellers are slightly more efficient
then double-entry impellers; however, single-entry impellers
require a larger impeller to provide a sufficient amount of air.
The larger impeller increases the engine diameter.
Centrifugal compressor efficiencies are lower because of the

losses of the involved diffuser passages. Gas turbine
centrifugal compressor pressure ratio typically ranged around
5:1. However, the advent of titanium alloys permitting much
higher speeds along with advances in aerodynamics now
permits the pressure ratios to reach the 8:1 levels. When higher
pressure ratios are required, either all axial compressors, or
axial in conjunction with centrifugal compressors (WI FJ44), or
multiple centrifugal compressor stages are used (P&W 100
Turboprop). However, the centrifugal staging design
arrangement ends up being rather complex.
Axial Compressors
Axial flow compressors are so named because the air flows

parallel to the rotor axis. During compression, the air passes
through a series of stages. Each stage consists of a row of
moving blades, which are attached to the rotor, followed by a
row of stationary blades, which are attached to the casing. The
rotor blades impart momentum to the air and increase its
pressure. The stationary blades convert that momentum to an
additional pressure rise. As in the centrifugal compressor, some


of the kinetic energy imparted to the air by the moving blades is

recovered as a pressure rise through the stationary blades. The
stator also serves to direct the flow into the next rotor stage at
an optimum angle. The air passage becomes narrower through
the compressor, which is necessary to maintain velocity, as the
air becomes denser (compressed). In contrast to a centrifugal
compressor, as many as 17 stages may be necessary to
achieve the desired operating pressure in an axial flow
compressor. Most axial flow compressors used with gas
turbines are designed to deliver air at pressures 10-35 times the
inlet absolute total pressure. The air flow requirement is also
dependent on the physical size and the speed of the machine.
The power to drive a compressor varies with air flow and

pressure rise. At full load, a compressor uses roughly two thirds
of the power produced by the associated turbine section. The
remaining third is used to drive the gas turbine load or to
produce electrical power. A one percent gain in compressor
efficiency produces a two percent gain in load-shaft output;
Therefore, it is extremely important that the compressor blading
be kept clean and maintained in good physical condition so that
maximum overall efficiency and capacity can be maintained at
all times.
One primary compressor design consideration is the goal of

increasing the pressure ratio. An increase in the pressure ratio
can increase the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle.
Pressure ratio increases are achieved by adding compressor
stages, by improving the aerodynamic design of the rotating and
stationary blades, by reducing the blade tip clearances, and by
increasing rotational speeds, inlet air cooling, and intercooling.
With increasing pressure ratios, the temperature of the
compressed air leaving the last stage of the compressor also
increases. The last stage temperature can be as high as
approximately 550º F for a compression ratio of 14:1. For higher
pressure ratios, the compressor exit temperature may reach up
to 1,200º F. Because of these high temperatures, high-
temperature-resistant alloys such as Ti-Al or Nickel based alloys
(INCO718) must be used in the last compressor stages to
ensure significant design life.
Another method of increasing gas turbine output is to increase

air mass flow. An increase in air mass flow requires larger
compressor blade dimensions and loads; therefore, stronger
materials are selected for these blades, and the blading is
designed to withstand the higher stresses generated by the
higher component speeds.


Compressor blading is carefully designed based on

aerodynamic theory and experimental data, not only for
efficiency reasons, but also to prevent blade stalling and
compressor surge. For aerodynamic stability reasons, it is
desirable to keep the axial velocity approximately constant
throughout the compressor. With the density increasing with
pressure as the flow proceeds through the machine, it becomes
necessary then to reduce the flow area and hence the blade
height. This is based on the flow equation:
Flow = Density * Area * Velocity.
Furthermore, quite often the number of engine shaft spools is

dictated by the pressure ratio and compressor surge and
aerodynamic vibration concerns at low off-design power
operating conditions.
Sophisticated computerized aerodynamic design programs are

presently available throughout the industry to design gas turbine
compressors and turbines. With enhanced computing
capabilities, aerodynamic designs utilize three dimensional,
viscous flow, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis tools
to design and optimize these components. The key issues to be
considered into the aerodynamic designs include: Aerodynamic
optimization to avoid blade stalling and compressor surge,
blade/stator vibrations, available materials, structural integrity,
and manufacturing limitations. Many design iterations between
these various disciplines are processed prior to achieving a final
design. Upon design completion, component rig testing is
performed to verify design capability and efficiency. Rig testing
also provides blade stalling and surge margin characteristics
which are typically presented in plot form as shown in Figure 4.
Final design compressor surge and performance curves are
always generated based on actual hardware tests.


Figure 4. Compressor Performance Curves


Figure 5 shows a cross-sectional view of an axial-type

compressor with the key components identified.
Figure 5. Cross-Sectional View of a Gas Turbine Axial Compressor


Inlet Guide Vanes
The inlet guide vanes of heavy-duty gas turbines provide a

means to adjust the compressor air flow capacity during startup.
Adjustment of the air flow capability permits smooth, fast
acceleration of the gas turbine without compressor surge. The
term “surge” refers to large scale fluctuations in mass flow and
pressure in the compressor. The magnitude of the fluctuations is
a function of the pressure ratio or the rotational speed of the
operating compressor. At startup, the inlet guide vanes are
partially closed to restrict air flow to the compressor in order to
reduce start-up load. When the turbine reaches approximately
95 percent of rated speed, the vanes are rotated to an open
position, which opens the air inlet path and directs the flow of
the inlet air stream into the compressor.
During partial-load operation in a combined-cycle configuration,

gas turbine exhaust temperatures decrease as a result of
decreased fuel consumption. The lower exhaust temperature
results in decreased steam temperature generated in the heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG), which leads to a drop in
steam cycle efficiency. The variable inlet guide vanes control
compressor inlet air flow during this partial load operation to
maintain gas turbine exhaust temperature and consequently
main steam temperature close to the design value.
Blades
The compressor blades are either precision forged or machined.

The leading and trailing edges of the blades are very thin to
improve the aerodynamic efficiency of the blade. The
compressor blades are generally fabricated from heat-treatable
12 percent chromium steel, such as Type 403 or Type 410
stainless steel. Type 403 and Type 410 stainless steel provide
tensile strength at ambient temperatures and strength retention
and creep resistance that are needed for the entire temperature
range of compressor airfoil service. The temperature ranges up
to about 900º F. The following are other qualities of the Type
403 and Type 410 alloys that are attractive for compressor
blades:
• Fracture toughness to impact that is caused by foreign

objects.
• Good mechanical damping.


• Resistance to atmospheric corrosion in a variety of

environments.
• Due to high pressure ratios, and consequently higher

temperatures, the aircraft gas turbines tend to use higher
temperature alloy materials for the compressor blades.
These materials include high strength steels, titanium (Ti-
Al) and nickel based alloys.
Stator
The stator is the stationary portion of the compressor. The stator

assembly normally includes the casing (also known as the stator
carrier) and the stator vanes. The stator is considered the
structural backbone of the gas turbine compressor.
Stator Vanes
Stationary vanes are attached to the stator and project radially

toward the rotor axis. The stationary vanes are close fit on either
side of each stage of the rotor. The stationary vanes receive air
from the air inlet duct or from each previous stage of the rotor
vanes, and they redirect the air to the next stage of the
compressor or to combustors. The stationary blades convert the
air's velocity energy into pressure energy. The control of the
direction of the air flow helps to obtain the maximum
compressor blade efficiency and pressure rise.
The stationary vanes may be manufactured as individual pieces,

or as multiple vane segments. Individual stationary vanes are
sometimes bolted directly to the casing. Multiple vane segments
are usually manufactured as precision castings, or machined,
that contain several airfoils in a single segment. The segments
are then welded to curved shroud strips that are embedded in
the stator.
Some gas turbine designs utilize variable stator vanes in the

first few stages of the compressor. These variable vanes
function in a manner similar to the inlet guide vanes to control
air flow through the compressor during startup and low loads to
prevent compressor surge.
Rotor / Shaft
The rotor assembly consists of the blades that are mounted on

the shaft, the journal surfaces for radial bearings, and the thrust
collar. The rotor assembly provides support and alignment for


the compressor and turbine blades. The rotor shaft is built up

with a number of individual forged discs that are held concentric
by spigot fits or curvic couplings. Either of the forged disc design
features (spigot fits or curvic couplings) allows relative
movement of each disc without excessive friction. Relative
movement without friction is necessary because the gas turbine
rotor experiences rapid temperature changes and thermal
expansion/contraction during startup and shutdown. The forged
discs are held together by through bolts. The shaft ends are
bolted to the discs.
API Standard 616 requires that the rotors or single shaft gas
turbines be designed to safely withstand momentary speeds of
up to 110 percent of the turbine trip speed. High strength
hardenable steel forgings that are modifications of the AISI
4,100 and 4,300 types (Cr-Mo-V and Ni-Cr-Mo-V) are
workhorse alloys for these large forgings that may be as much
as 50 inches in diameter and weigh over 2,000 pounds. Modern
gas turbines, with high firing temperatures, have rotors that are
forged out of super alloys such as A-286 and Inconel 706. The
material property requirements for compressor rotors vary
slightly as a function of design details but include the following
as a minimum:
• High yield strength, tensile strength, and ultimate tensile

strength at temperatures that approach 750°F.
• Resistance to creep relaxation.
• Good fracture toughness at ambient temperature

conditions as well as at operational temperatures.
Combustion Section
The gas turbine combustion section is where the burning of fuel
occurs, along with its subsequent dilution with secondary air, to
reduce the flame temperatures to usable values by the turbine
section. The gas turbine combustion is a continuous process in
which the fuel is burned in the air supplied by the compressor.
This process normally occurs in a group of combustion
chambers that may be located inside the machine envelope or
externally contained in “pods” or “silos.” In a typical industrial
engine combustion system, multiple combustion cans are
placed circumferentially around the compressor discharge in a
“can annular” arrangement. Each “can” may have a single fuel


nozzle or multiple fuel nozzles. Igniters that initiate combustion

and flame scanners that establish the presence of flame are
also installed in the combustion zone. Normally, there are two
igniters that are located 180º F apart in the combustion zone.
The electric spark is required only for initiating the combustion
process; hence the flame becomes self sustaining after
initiation.
Combustion
Chambers
Air discharged from the axial flow compressor flows into each
combustion chamber. The air flow through the combustion
chambers has the following three functions:
• Oxidizes the fuel.
• Cools the metal parts.
• Adjusts the hot combustion gases to the desired turbine

inlet temperature.
As discussed in MEX 214.01, there are several types of

combustion arrangements, including an annular combustion
system, a silo-type combustion system, and a can-annular
combustion system. The following sections discuss the major
components of a can-annular combustion system.
The combustion section generally consists of an outer

combustion liner, an inner casing (or combustion liner), and the
necessary air and gas passages. A simplified version of a
typical combustion system is shown in Figure 6. As shown in
this Figure, combustion takes place inside the combustion liner.
The combustion system components shown in Figure 6 consist
of the following:
• Dual fuel nozzle with ports for fuel oil, fuel gas, and
atomizing air
• Cover
• Spark plug
• Forward and aft flow sleeves
• Combustion liner


• Transition piece
• Outer combustion liner
The combustion system is bolted to the turbine casing. The

walls of the combustion liner are cooled by air streams that flow
through louvers punched in the wall material (not shown). These
air streams flow close to the walls, providing a cooling film over
the wall to prevent the wall material from overheating.
SPARK PLUG
FORWARD FLOW SLEEVE
COVER COMBUSTION LINER
FUEL
GAS
AFT FLOW SLEEVE
TURBINE CASING
DUAL FUEL
NOZZLE
FLOW TRANSITION
PIECE
FUEL
OIL
ATOMIZING
AIR
Figure 6. Typical Combustion System Components


Figure 7. Typical Combustion Zones (Aero-derivative combustor)
Air is provided to the combustor through a series of holes

typically distributed over its length. The combustion process
inside the combustor is typically divided into three zones: 1) the
primary zone near the fuel nozzles, where most of the fuel is
burned, and the highest flame temperatures are observed, 2)
The secondary zone where the remaining unburned fuel is
consumed, and 3) the dilution zone where most of the
compressor air is injected through large holes to mix with hot
gas and reduce the gas temperature to acceptable levels before
delivery to the turbine section, as shown in Figure 7.
The amount of air necessary to cool the liner wall and to dilute
the hot gas mixture to rated firing temperature is about three to
four times the amount of air required for complete fuel
combustion. The large amount of “excess air” in the combustor
discharge makes it possible to install afterburners in the turbine
exhaust when the exhaust is supplied to a separately fired boiler
or heat recovery steam generator (HRSG).
The actual temperature rise that occurs in the combustion

section (outlet temperature minus inlet temperature) depends on


the weight ratio of fuel to air (pounds of fuel/pound of air), the

combustor inlet air temperature, the fuel lower heating value,
and the combustion efficiency of the system.
Combustor Design
Factors
There are certain basic factors that influence the design of the
combustor system. These factors include:
1. The combustor must operate reliably at extreme ambient

temperatures and different fuel flow rates from start up to full
loads.
2. At the exit of the combustor, its exit temperature levels

should be acceptable to meet the highly stressed turbine
materials limitations. Recent material developments have
permitted combustor exit temperatures to be close to 3,000º
F for aircraft engines, and 2,400º F for Industrial engines.
3. Not only the temperature level has to be acceptable, but also

the radial exit temperature profile along with any hot spots
must be limited to prevent the turbine from local overheating.
4. Although the combustor operates at very high efficiencies, it

still produces pollutants that need to be minimized, and the
amount of pollutants such as CO, UHC, and NOx must meet
more stringent emission regulations.
5. Combustion must also maintain a stable operation over a

wide range of fuel to air ratio (Stoichiometric ratio ~ 15:1)
(Typical is 60:1 to 120:1).
6. The gas turbine combustion must be capable of operating

with different type of fuels extending from natural gas
(preferred fuel) to liquid distillates, and sometimes residual
fuels.
7. Minimizing carbon deposit formation is another requirement

to avoid fuel nozzle blockage and bad flame distribution
which could cause flame deflection onto the structure
resulting in severe damage including melting.
8. Avoiding smoke in the exhaust is required in many

situations, especially in aircraft and units based near
residential areas.


9. For aircraft engines, the combustion must attain a stable

condition over a wide range of pressure and reliable
relighting capability.
Several important factors are evaluated when assessing the

performance condition of a combustion chamber. These include
the pressure loss, combustion efficiency, outlet temperature
distribution, stability limits, and combustion intensity. Few of
these factors are discussed below.
Combustion
efficiency
Combustion efficiency is the ratio of actual combustor gas

temperature rise (actual energy released) to the theoretical rise
(energy available) that would occur by complete burning of the
fuel. Calculations and measurements show this efficiency to
vary between 90 and 100 percent. Visual evidence (soot,
smoke, and carbon deposits) generally is a good indication of
reduced combustion efficiency. The lower values of “combustion
efficiency” are usually found during starting and during low
speed operations.
As the temperature increases, the efficiency and power output

also increase. A 100º F increase in combustion (firing)
temperature increases turbine output power by approximately
10 percent. Nozzle and blade materials limit the practical
temperature to an approximate range of 1,800º F to 2,300º F in
industrial gas turbines. New generation of higher firing
temperature (aircraft engine technology) industrial engines have
been introduced and running at temperatures approaching
2,700º F.
LHV vs HHV
The fuel heating value causes much confusion when computing

heat consumption or thermal efficiency for gas turbines. When
any fuel that contains hydrogen is burned in air (oxygen), a by-
product of combustion is water. The percentage of water
generated depends on the amount of hydrogen present in the
fuel. Because all gas turbine fuels contain varying amounts of
hydrogen (lighter fuels containing more than heavier fuels),
water in the form of superheated vapor is an unavoidable
product of the combustion process. The superheated vapor
phase is caused by the high flame/gas temperature, which
significantly exceeds the water boiling point. Because heat is
used to transform the water byproduct to vapor, this heat of


vapor transformation is considered lost to the atmosphere. In

turn, this reduces the "heating value" of the fuel to its "Low
Heating Value" (LHV).
If the water vapor created in the combustion reaction is
condensed, the heat of transformation (condensation) can be
recovered and the energy obtained from the combustion
process is increased. These conditions yield the "High Heating
Value" (HHV) of the fuel.
Therefore, the heat released by the water vapor accounts for

the difference between the lower and higher heating values of a
fuel. Some authorities label these two values “net” and “gross”
heating values.
For calculations involving gas turbine thermal cycles, lower

heating values are used. Proposals and guarantees, on the
other hand, generally deal in higher heating values; therefore, it
is important to specify which heating value is being used when
dealing with fuels.
Combustor
Emissions
Control of turbine emission has become one of the most

important factors in the design of industrial turbines. Although a
complete combustion process produces only CO2 and water, an
incomplete combustion can result in small amounts of carbon
monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). Also, at the
high temperatures in the primary zone, small amounts of
nitrogen oxides (NOx) are formed, and depending on the fuel
type, oxides of sulfur (SO & SO2) can be found in the exhaust.
These pollutants contribute to the green house effects (CO2),
causes ozone layer depletion and acid rain (NOx), and be
carcinogenic & toxic (UHC & CO). Typical standards require
new units to attain NOx emission levels less than 40-50 ppmvd.
The single most important factor affecting the formation of NOx

is the flame temperature. The rate of NOx formation varies
exponentially with the flame temperature, as is seen in Figure 8.
Figure 9 shows the general impact fuel/air ratio has on
emissions. Also, the NOx formation slightly depends on the
combustion fluid residence time, decreasing with a decrease in
residence time, while both CO and UHC increase with
decreasing residence time.


Figure 8. Effects of Flame Temperature on NOx Emission
Figure 9. Effects of Fuel/Air Ratio on Emissions

Many methods are being used to control emissions. These

include: water or steam injection, Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR), and Dry Low NOx.
The water injection is used to reduce the flame temperature, but

large quantity of demineralized water or steam are usually
required for emission control. Combustion efficiency is
negatively affected with the addition of water. This efficiency
reduction more than offsets the benefits of the added water
mass to the cycle. If steam is obtained from HRSG system,
when available, up to 25% of generated steam may be required
to significantly control the NOx emissions. The water and type
of required water makes this alternative unattractive.
SCR is used when extremely low emission limits are required

(<10 ppmvd). A catalyst and Ammonia (NH3) injection is used to
convert the NOx to N2 and H2O. This works only in temperature
ranges around 300-400º C, which means it can only work with
waste heat recovery system (HSRG).
Dry Low NOx method to control emission is the latest approach

being researched and currently implemented on gas turbine.
This approach does not require usage of water (dry system).
The aim of such system is to reduce the flame temperature,
hence, NOx emissions, by running either rich or lean burning in
the primary zone. Rich burning side effects include smoke
production. Most manufacturers are using the lean burning
approach. This method involves employing either multiple
zone/stage burning or pre-mixing lean burning. Both approaches
control stage fuel flow (local fuel/air) depending on the mode of
engine load and operation, and using advanced fuel delivery
control systems.
Fuel Nozzles
Each combustion chamber may be equipped with either single

or multiple fuel nozzles that spray fine droplets of fuel through
small metering orifices. The high pressure fuel is “atomized” and
injected such that it develops a vortex (swirl) inside the in the
combustor primary zone. The action of the swirl tip imparts a
swirl to the combustion air, which results in more complete
combustion. Droplet size typically ranging from 50-100 microns
are used in practice to assure that droplets are neither too
small, which will allow the fuel to penetrate far into the
combustor, nor too large since it affects the evaporation time

and influence starting and operation. A typical dual fuel nozzle is

shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Typical Combustion System Arrangement
Different configurations of combustor fuel nozzles exist for gas

turbine use. Dual-fuel nozzle types are most used in industrial
gas turbines to provide the flexibility of using either gas or oil
fuels as needed. A typical dual fuel nozzle consists of the
following components:
• Liquid fuel connection
• Automizing air connection
• Multi nozzle cover assembly
• Fuel gas connection
• Pilot
• Fuel nozzle outer tip
• Fuel nozzle transition piece
• Fuel nozzle tip assembly
• Fuel nozzle ring

Combustion Liners
The combustion liners are designed to serve the following

functions:
• To contain the flame
• To mix the combustion gases with the diluting air
• To control temperature emissions and smoke
• To channel the hot gases into the turbine
• To provide for air cooling of the metal walls
A typical combustion liner is shown in Figure 11. These liners

typically use conventional slot-cooled construction. Thermal
barrier coating is applied to the internal surfaces to reduce the
overall temperature and the thermal gradients in the liner. The
liner cap is cooled with a combination of back side impingement
and film cooling. The combustion liner shown in Figure 11
consists of the following components:
• Cap assembly
• Fuel nozzle collar
• Liner stop
• Ringed sleeve
• Spring seal
• Crossfire tube collar

Figure 11. Typical Combustion Liner
Transition Pieces
The function of the transition pieces is to direct the hot gases

from the liners to the first-stage turbine nozzles.

Ignitors and Crossfire

Tubes
The function of the ignitors is to initiate a flame in the

combustion section. As the unit starter brings the machine up to
a specified speed (15-20% of max. speed), the combustion is
initiated by two retractable electrode spark plugs in one or two
combustion chambers. At the time of firing, sparks from the
igniter plugs ignite the fuel/air mixture in those chambers. Once
flame is established, the remaining chambers are ignited
through the tubes that interconnect the different chambers’
reaction zones via flame propagation. These interconnections
are often referred to as crossfire tubes. In some designs, as
rotor speed and compressor air flow increase, rising chamber
pressure causes the spark plugs to retract, removing electrodes
from the combustion zone.
Flame Scanners
During the starting sequence, an indication of the presence or

absence of flame must be transmitted to a control system. For
this purpose, a flame monitoring system is normally used. A
typical flame monitoring system consists of multiple ultraviolet
flame scanners installed on adjacent combustion chambers and
an electronic amplifier mounted in a control panel. Each
ultraviolet flame scanner, as shown in Figure 12, contains a
gas-filled flame detector. The gas within this detector is
sensitive to the presence of ultraviolet radiation that is emitted
by a hydrocarbon flame. A DC voltage, which is supplied by an
amplifier, is impressed across the detector terminals. If a flame
is present, the ionization of the gas in the detector allows
conduction in the circuit, which activates the electronics to give
an output indicating flame. Conversely, the absence of flame will
generate an output that indicates no flame. Water connections
are provided to cool the flame detector. An isolating valve is
cased to isolate the detector from the view piping, which allows
the detector to be replaced during operation. The view piping is
bolted to the combustion case, and it extends to the liner.

Figure 12. Typical Flame Scanner
Turbine Section
The function of a turbine is to efficiently extract the energy from
the high temperature gas leaving the combustor and convert
part of that thermal energy into mechanical energy. Sufficient
mechanical energy must be generated from the gas stream to
supply the power necessary to drive the main engine
compressor and the auxiliaries to handle the bearing frictional
losses, and to provide excess power to drive a generator or
other type of equipment.
As with the compressor, there are two types of turbines: radial

flow and axial. The vast majority of gas turbines use the axial
flow turbine, so this section will only cover the axial turbine type.
In general, radial turbines handle low mass flow rates and are

used in small engines (Compact Auxiliary Power Units, APU)

and turbochargers. Axial turbines are turbines used for large
power and flow applications and are typically more efficient with
those design parameters.
Figure 13 shows a cross-section of a gas turbine with the key

components of the high-pressure and power turbines identified.
Figure 13. Cross-Sectional View of Typical Turbine

Nozzles and Blades

Turbine sections consist of stages of nozzles and blades. The
nozzles are the stationary airfoils in the hot gas turbine section.
As the air leaves the combustor it is accelerated through the
turbine inlet nozzle to velocities approaching a unity mach
number (Mn=1). Hence, the nozzle converts the gas thermal
energy into kinetic energy. The gas kinetic energy in turn is
expanded through the turbine (processed to a lower pressure
region at the turbine exit). Due to the reaction of the turbine to
the passing high velocity gases, energy is extracted from the
gases by the turbine and the temperature of the gases leaving
the turbine drops. This temperature is determined by the
energy being delivered to the combustor and that being
extracted by turbine, which is dependent on the connected load.
Depending on the design, this turbine inlet gas temperature may
range from 1,500º F to 2,500º F or higher. Finally, the gas is
discharged from the final stage at exhaust stack pressure and
temperature. While passing through the various turbine stages,
the gas has given up enough energy to turn the turbine rotor to
provide the necessary mechanical power.
The turbine blades are sometimes referred to as buckets, and

are attached to discs. The discs are usually bolted to the rotor
shaft and held concentric by a rabbet fit. The bolts clamp the
discs to the rotor to create a friction fit that holds the discs to the
rotor. The thermal energy is transferred from the gas stream to
the turbine blades as rotational energy. The rotational energy is
transferred to the load as torque through the rotor shaft.
Engines have been designed with up to three spools (engine

shafts). This is in addition to the Power Turbine typically located
after the exit of the last spool turbine. These shafts are named
as HP (high pressure), IP (intermediate Pressure), and LP (low
pressure) spools. The LP spool turbine normally consists of
multiple nozzle/blade stages. In Multi-shaft gas turbines, the
spool shafts drive the engine compressors, while the power
turbine blading (PT nozzle and blade) converts the remainder of
the gas stream thermal energy into rotational mechanical
energy. This energy is used to drive the external load.
As is the case with the compressor, sophisticated computerized

aerodynamic design programs are presently available
throughout the industry to design gas turbines. Computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis tools for both designing and
optimizing the turbine design are presently being used. Issues
considered in the design includes: turbine performance, blade

and disk temperature and stresses, blade cooling features,

blade vibrations, and blade manufacturing.
Aerodynamically, there are two types of axial turbines: Impulse

and reaction turbines. In an impulse turbine, the static pressure
decreases in the nozzle with a corresponding increase in
absolute velocity. This velocity is reduced in the rotating blade,
but the static pressure and the relative velocity remain constant.
Early industrial gas turbines use this type of impulse turbine
stage.
The axial flow reaction turbine is the most widely used turbine
type. In a reaction turbine, both the nozzles and the blades act
as expanding nozzles, hence, reducing static pressure through
both of them. The reaction turbine has a higher efficiency than
the impulse turbine. Aircraft-derivative gas turbines and the
recent industrial turbines use this reaction-type turbine
assemblies to convert the thermal energy of the gas stream into
mechanical energy. The thermal energy of the gas stream
decreases across every stage of fixed and moving blades. The
expansion and redirection of the gas stream takes place in both
stage components. This expansion converts the thermal energy
of the gas stream into kinetic energy, which in turn converts it
via the moving blades into mechanical energy, that is in the form
of the actual movement of the turbine shaft.
The HP turbine blades (first-stage blades) of many designs are

cooled if the hot gas temperature exceeds the blade material
capability. Blade cooling is provided using either cooled
compressor air, or compressor air directed internally to the
blade via the blade disk. Figure 14 shows an internal cooling
scheme for a GE HP turbine Blade. Recently, combination of
materials, thermal barrier coatings, and cooling technology
advancements have permitted the gas turbines to run at gas
temperature exceeding material melting temperatures. These
advanced designs incorporate intricate cooling features internal
to the blade.
The nozzles are constructed of many individual nozzle

segments that are held in place in a ring-like structure. The ring-
like structure is fitted to the inside diameter of the turbine
casing. Like the HPT blades, the first-stage nozzles (high-
pressure turbine nozzles) are usually cooled to handle the gas
design firing temperatures entering the hot flow.
Because of this high temperature environment, the first-stage

blades and nozzles are normally the main life limiting engine

components and are one of the major factors in the operational

time allowed between overhauls. The blade life is limited by
corrosion, low-and high-cycle fatigue cracks, stress rupture, and
creep.
Blade Airfoil
Blade
Cooling
Passages
Hot Gas
Ingestion
Discourager
Seals
Blade Firtree
Figure 14. Cooled Turbine Blade (GE)
Seals
Gas turbine seals are used to: 1) retain the lubricating oil within
the bearing cavities and prevent leakage into the engine
internals, 2) minimize leakage of air internal to the engine
between stationary and rotating parts [this type of leakage
affects the individual component performance and that of the
overall engine], and 3) complete seal between stationary parts
are required.
Many seal types are usually used within the gas turbine engine.
These include labyrinth seals, carbon seals, brush seals, radial
ring seals, mechanical face seals, O-ring seals, lip seals, etc…
Selection of the seal type depends on its use and location, the
medium it is sealing (gas, oil, fuel, etc.), operating pressure,
temperature, speed conditions, and cost.

The seals are typically designed so that wear occurs

predominantly on the seal’s replaceable components. Seals are
used between the rotating compressor blades and the
compressor casing to prevent the leakage of the compressed air
stream around the rotating blades, which effects compressor
performance.
The most commonly used internal air seal arrangement is the

labyrinth seal. A simple straight labyrinth seal is shown in Figure
15. Different variations of labyrinth seals, such as stepped or
different knife seals are also used in gas turbines. Generally, the
labyrinth consists of a series of close-clearance, short-length
restrictions that look like knife edges. These thin restrictions are
normally machined using materials suitable for the application.
These knives are located either on the stationary (industrial
engines) or rotating part (aircraft engine). The labyrinth seal is a
device wherein there is a multiple loss of velocity head; hence
pressure loss through each restriction. These restrictions
dissipate the kinetic energy gradually at each knife throat
resulting in reduced leakage flow rates. In other words, the
orifices throttle the flow and create high fluid velocities at the
constrictions. The fluid expands into the next chamber. This
expansion results in turbulence and a pressure drop. The non-
knifed part of the seal is sometimes coated with abradable
coating in the event of contact between the rotating and
stationary parts. In many cases these seals are designed with
wire dampers or features to dampen any vibration that may
potentially cause seal failures.
The minimum radial clearance between the labyrinth and the

shaft varies from a few thousandths of an inch for small seals to
approximately 1/32 inch for large seals. The seal clearance is
dependent upon the following factors:
• The journal bearing clearances.
• The maximum amount of vibration that is allowed in the

rotor during operation.
• The amount of thermal expansion between the rotor and

the labyrinth through the gas turbine's operating
temperature range.
• The change in rotating component dimensions due to

centrifugal force.
• The assembly builds clearance and concentricity.

Figure 15. Typical Buffered Labyrinth Seal
Labyrinth seal leakage could be minimized by providing small

clearances, sharp edges, steps or grooves.
Recently, brush type seals have been employed in gas turbine

engines, to reduce secondary airflow leakages internal to the
engine, which in turn enhances engine performance. Brush
seals consist of bristles made of thousands of fine metallic wires
(0.0025” diameter) packed in packages of single or multiple
stages. The flexible bristles allows for a line to line operation
between the shaft and the sealing bristles, reducing the
operating clearance and subsequently the leakage flow rate.
Figure 16 shows a typical view of brush seal.

Figure 16. Brush Seal
Other types of seal such as ring carbon seals or face seals are
sometime used as wet seals to seal the engine bearing
compartments. Design variations exist with this type of sealing
design. As shown in Figure 17, the radial carbon seal
configuration consists of a set of single, or two or more carbon
rings. Each with a retaining outer metallic ring, arranged such
that buffer air is provided between them to leak through the seal
into the bearing cavity, in order to retain the oil within the
compartment. The leakage flow is controlled by a very small
clearance (0.0005”-0.001” radial) around the shaft, and the
leakage amount is typically very small. Although the carbon has
self lubricating properties, it is limited in design to temperature
and speed. Typical usage is around 500 ft/sec and 300-400 F.
Hard coating of mating runner surface, with chromium carbide
or another hard coat is often required when using this type of
seal.

Figure 17. Floating Type Ring Seal
Bearings
Bearings provide the means to support the rotating components

assembly and permit its rotation while minimizing the friction
losses. Rotor shaft support is generally provided by journal
bearings, while axial positioning is done by thrust load bearings.
Design and selection of the appropriate bearing depends on
many variables and requirements such as speed, load,
permitted axial movement, permitted vibration level, stiffness
and damping affecting shaft critical speed etc… Most industrial
gas turbines use radial hydrodynamic sleeve-type friction
bearings, or tilting-pad journal bearings known as journal
bearings. Ball bearings (anti-friction) are used exclusively on the
aircraft-derivative gas turbines. Additionally, bearings are
labeled based on their fluid-film lubrication. These include:
hydrodynamic, hydrostatic, squeeze film and hybrid lubrication
types.

Bearing Life
API Standard 616, Gas Turbines for Refinery Service, states

that hydrodynamic radial and thrust bearings must be furnished
unless specifically approved from the purchaser. Also, bearings
are required to have sufficient ultimate load capability to
withstand the forces that result from a failure of any turbine
component that requires an immediate shutdown of the turbine
(such as a blade or bucket failure). This capability prevents
excessive secondary damage to the turbine.
In accordance with API 616, antifriction bearings are selected to

meet an L10 rated life of 50,000 hours continuous operation at
ISO continuous rating conditions and 32,000 hours at maximum
axial and radial loads and rated speed. L10 life is the life that 90
percent of a group of apparently identical bearings will complete
or exceed before the first evidence of failure.
Bearing life depends on many different factors such as loading,

speed, lubrication, fitting, setting, operation temperature,
contamination, maintenance and other environmental factors.
Hydrodynamic
Bearings
Hydrodynamic bearings are of the majority in use today. These

bearings include all bearings, either journal or thrust, which
depend on a lubricating film to reduce friction between the shaft
and the bearing. The hydrodynamic sleeve-type (journal)
bearings are generally very simple in construction and
operation. Hydrodynamic bearings are efficient and can support
extremely heavy rotating loads. In general, these bearings are
better adapted to supporting heavier loads and shock loads than
are anti-friction bearings. The ability to carry the heavy loads is
provided by the oil wedge that is developed between the journal
and the bearing surface, and separates the shaft journal from
the bearing babbitt surface. The babbitt surface consists of the
liner located inside the bearing with a very thin layer (0.005”) of
nonscoring material, with an outstanding capability to embed dirt
and geometric errors. The oil film thickness generally depends
upon the load, the viscosity of the oil (temperature), the shaft
speed, and to some extent, the bearing clearance. As the oil
enters the space between the shaft and the bearing, the oil
pressure increases proportionally due to rotation of the journal.
This pressure increase lifts the shaft from the bearing. The
pressure distribution that lifts the shaft is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18. Journal Bearing Cross-Section and Oil Pressure Distribution
Under hydrodynamic conditions, the coefficient of friction is

usually very low. At high speeds, this coefficient of friction may
be considerable due to turbulence of the lubricant film. Since the
fluid friction increases in proportion to the square of the speed,
the increase in friction coefficient results in an increase in power
loss and higher lubricant and bearing temperatures. But, when
properly designed, friction bearings can operate comfortably at
high speeds. Note that under certain operating conditions, a
hydrodynamic film may not develop, but boundary lubrication
film would still exist, but would result in the coefficient of friction
being appreciably higher.
Because of the inherent characteristics of the lining materials

and the flushing action of the lubricant, friction bearings are not
overly sensitive to contaminants. Other advantages are that
friction bearings are relatively inexpensive and that they operate
very quietly.

The bearing running clearance, which is necessary for proper

formation of the oil film must be carefully controlled if shaft
centers are to be held within close tolerances. Close tolerances
(usually 0.0015 per inch of diameter) can be accomplished with
proper bearing finishes and through proper design.
As noted earlier, hydrodynamic bearings are used in two

applications, and each of these applications has subtypes as
shown below:
Journal Bearings
• Solid sleeve bearings
• Cylindrical bearings
• Pressure bearings
• Elliptical bearings (lemon type)
• Multi-lobe bearings
• Axial groove bearings
• Tilting pad bearings
Thrust Bearings
• Flat land thrust bearings
• Taper land thrust bearings
• Tilting pad thrust bearings
Journal Bearings
A journal bearing provides the shaft with radial support. A small
space between the bearing and the shaft allows the lubricant to
separate the surfaces. Journal bearing assemblies are often
quite simple. As shown previously in Figure 11, the bearing is
made in two halves that are split at the horizontal centerline for
simplicity of assembling the bearing around the journal. The split
halves are usually bolted and doweled together to ensure
proper alignment and support for both halves.
The bearing itself is usually manufactured as part of a larger

metal casing referred to as the bearing liner. The bearing liner
has a babbitt bore that becomes the load bearing surface. In
most cases, its outer diameter takes the form of a partial

sphere, which mates with a similar spherical surface (ball seat)

in the supporting pedestal. It is then possible to apply a pinching
action to the bearing liner by bolting down the bearing cap. This
action locks the bearing liner in place.
The spherical or ball-seat bearing allows the bearing to slip to

the true axis of the shaft within reasonable variations when
assembling the bearing. Once the bearing cap is bolted, the
bearing is “pinched” or held firmly in a fixed position relative to
the line of the shaft. In fact, the bearing can be unintentionally
misaligned in the process of assembly by installing the bearing
cap bolts in the improper sequence.
There are many other variations of the spherical seat support

not mentioned here. In other designs, the spherical seat is
discarded for a simple tongue-and-groove assembly in which a
projection on the bearing liner fits into a groove provided around
the bore of the pedestal.
Tilting-Pad Journal
Bearings
Tilting-pad journal bearings are considered for their ability to

resist oil whirl vibrations and excellent stability; hence, they are
used where shaft stability is a problem. The bearing pads are
made from a high-grade steel forging lined with a high-quality,
tin-base babbitt. Dovetail anchorages are also provided as a
backup for the carbon steel/babbitt bond. The pads are located
in a steel casing and have radiuses both circumferentially and
axially on their backs to ensure alignment at all times and
provide the correct hydrodynamic action. This double-tilt action,
together with the naturally stable characteristics of this type of
bearing, allow for smooth operation of the unit and, therefore,
increased reliability. Adjustment of the bearing centerline
relative to the pedestal may be achieved by using similar
techniques to those for the elliptical bearing. Tilt-pad bearings
are used in the high-pressure and reheat sections of all modern
large steam turbines as well as in gas turbines
As the name implies, the pad bearing is made up of a series of

individual, babbitted segments or shoes, upon which the journal
rides. These shoes can vary in number. The more common
designs have arrangements of four, five, or six pads. Figure 19
depicts a typical tilting pad bearing design.
The pads usually have projections that fit under lips machined in
the bearing casing. The lips prevent the pads from moving

radially. Circumferential movement is prevented by locating pins

through the housing into the pads. The holes in the pads into
which the pins protrude are larger than the diameter of the pins
to prevent seizing and to allow free tilting action of the pads.
This rocking or tilting action of each pad takes place between
the back radius of the pads and the inner bore diameter of the
casing in the region of the pins on a line contact. The line
contact is produced by making the back radius of the pads
smaller than that of the housing.
Figure 19. Typical Tilting Pad Bearing
Lubrication of the bearing is accomplished primarily by flooding

the compartment that contains the pads. Oil flows to the housing
through orifices located between the pad segments. The oil flow
out of the bearing is controlled largely by the wiper or seal
clearance at the end of the housing or by drain orifices provided
in the housing. Flood lubrication allows a portion of the oil to
pass through the bearing without lubricating the interface
between pads and journal. In addition, rotation of the journal
produces centrifugal forces that throw the oil radially outward
and that actually prevent oil from entering the clearance space.

The churning of oil and the turbulence in the chamber create

more losses. For these reasons, pivoted shoe bearings are well
known for their large oil requirements and high power losses. In
the last ten years, direct lubricated tilt pad bearings have gained
popularity because friction losses and oil usage are significantly
reduced.
In terms of stability, however, the tilting pad bearing is

effectively used as a damping measure where shaft instability
exists. At light loads, the hydrodynamic loading of the top pads
is instrumental in stability by essentially increasing bearing
loading.
Despite the relatively short span of the pads, the load capacity
of tilting pad bearings is on the same order of magnitude as
conventional bearings. One of the factors that contributes to the
load capacity of a tilting pad bearing is that the lower half pads
contribute actively to the load capacity. In conventional
bearings, the diverging portion of the bearing contributes little,
except to increased power loss.
Thrust Load Bearings
In a gas turbine, the axial clearances between the rotating and

stationary parts are quite close (0.100”- 0.200”). At the same
time, the unbalanced gas momentums and pressures acting on
the rotating elements produce considerable axial thrust load
(force). Therefore, it is essential to provide a means to position
the rotating element of a turbine while absorbing the axial thrust
within certain limits. This is to prevent the rotating hardware
from slamming into the stationary components. This is
accomplished by using thrust bearings.
The thrust bearing is a stationary element with a babbitt surface

supported to withstand large loads. The thrust bearing is both a
positioner and a load absorber. In a thrust assembly, the thrust
plate with its babbitt surface is located in close proximity to a flat
rotating surface on the shaft, which is known as a thrust collar or
runner. This arrangement is shown in Figure 20. Thrust loads
are transmitted from the shaft by the thrust collar pushing
against the thrust plate. The action of the rotating surface
against the stationary plate is again a high speed sliding action,
which develops hydrodynamic film pressures, as discussed
previously.

BABBIT
ROTATING
THRUST
COLLAR
SHAFT
STATIONARY
THRUST PLATE
Figure 20. Typical Thrust Bearing
Depending on the engine operating condition (i.e. low power

and start up), the thrust load on most turbines may change
direction between forward and aft. For this reason, two thrust
plates are usually provided in thrust assemblies to absorb thrust
in either direction. Normally, there is a large load in one
direction and, at a different condition, a somewhat lesser load in
the opposite direction. The thrust plate that absorbs the most
load is called the active thrust plate, and the other thrust plate is
called the inactive thrust plate. The inactive thrust element can
be somewhat smaller in size than the active one, but in many
cases both are made of the same size.
As noted previously, the surface of the thrust plate is coated

with babbitt similar to a journal bearing. The thrust bearing load
is supported on a thin film of oil. Under proper conditions, metal-
to-metal contact should not occur during operation. Some
babbitt wear can be experienced during low-speed operation in
which hydrodynamic forces are not produced and the bearing
operates in the region of boundary lubrication
Similar to the journal bearing, there are variety of thrust load

bearing designs in the industry. Thrust bearing types are
frequently denoted by the type of land or pad design
incorporated in them. In general, there are three main classes of

thrust bearings employed: the flat land, the tapered land, and
the tilting pad thrust bearings.
Flat Land Thrust Load

Bearing
The flat land thrust bearing is the least complex of presently

used thrust bearing designs. The flat land thrust bearings
surface facilitates its manufacturing and therefore, reduces its
costs. In some designs, the actual full circumferential thrust
plate is broken by a series of radial grooves. The radial grooves
pass a quantity of oil for lubrication and cooling and make the
thrust surface appear as a series of separate pads. These pads
are also often referred to as lands.
The load capacity of this bearing is relativity low, which makes it

more useful as a positioner than a thrust absorber. The fact that
the bearing can carry any load at all is somewhat surprising
since the all-important oil wedge is nonexistent. However, and
minute misalignments and radii on the grooves are sufficient to
produce some amount of wedge action to sustain small loads.
Tapered Land Thrust

Load Bearing
As shown in Figure 21, the general appearance of a tapered

land thrust bearing resembles the flat land thrust bearing. The
bearing surface is divided into a number of pads separated by
an equal number of oil feed grooves. In the tapered land
bearing, each pad is tapered in a circumferential and radial
direction so that the motion of the runner wipes oil into the
contacting, wedge-shaped area. This action builds up load-
carrying oil pressures. This type of bearing is a reliable bearing,
and it is commonly used on steam turbines as the active
element.

Figure 21. Tapered-Land Thrust Bearing
Depending on the shaft size, the total number of pads may vary
from 6 to 14. The number of pads varies in multiples of two (i.e.,
6, 8 10, etc.) with the smaller number of pads being applied to
the smaller diameter plates. The horizontal split line can then be
made through the oil groove. The dimensions of the grooves
between pads are somewhat arbitrary, but they must be large
enough to pass the required amount of oil. At the outside end of
the radial groove, a dam is provided to control the leakage of oil
from the grooves to the outside of the plate. These dams are
sized to pass sufficient oil to maintain a 30º F temperature rise
between inlet oil temperature and the drain oil temperature.
Although tapered land thrust plates have a high load-carrying

capacity; they are prone to misalignment. Experiments have
shown that thermal distortions contribute heavily to thrust
bearing failures in many cases. Uneven temperature
distributions around the thrust plate result in distortion that
destroys the oil film. To alleviate this problem, copper-backed
plates have been employed to provide a more uniform
temperature distribution between the lands (copper is an
excellent heat conductor).

Tilting-pad Thrust
Load Bearing
Figures 22 and 23 show a couple of tilting-pad thrust load

configurations. The Kingsbury thrust bearing has been widely
adapted to rotating machinery. The Kingsbury thrust bearing
differs from a tapered or a flat land thrust bearings in that each
pad is an individual plate that is free to tilt about a pivot as
shown in Figure 22. Normally, the pivot takes the form of a
hardened spherical surface that is inserted behind each pad.
The pad is then free to tip in a radial or circumferential direction,
or a combination of the two. This tilting feature compensates for
any misalignment that may exist between thrust plate and thrust
runner. When the runner is stationary, the pads lay with their
faces parallel to the runner face. As the runner starts to rotate,
an oil film is created between the pad and the runner, and each
pad tilts to an angle that generates the proper distribution of film
pressure.
Figure 22. Typical Kingsbury (Tilting Pad) Thrust Bearing

Figure 23. Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing (Rotech)
Anti-Friction Thrust
Load Bearing
Antifriction bearings are sometimes called rolling element

bearings. Antifriction bearings allow rotation of the shaft by the
placement of rolling elements, either ball or roller, between two
fixed rings, which are called races. The races provide the
structural support for the bearing elements. One race is fixed to
the shaft, and the other race is fixed to the housing. The roller
elements allow the motion between the two races.
Two types of antifriction bearings are shown in Figure 24: the

Type S or Conrad single row ball element bearing and the
double-row, spherical, barrel-shaped, roller element bearing.
The Conrad ball bearing is a ball bearing that is named after the
man who invented its assembly process. The Type S ball
bearing is characterized by the absence of filling slots cut into
the inner race for ease of assembly. Type S ball bearings have
equal load-carrying capabilities in either direction. Type S ball
bearings are recommended for moderate to heavy radial loads,
thrust loads in either direction, or combination loads.

The double-row, spherical, roller bearing is a self-aligning

bearing that utilizes rolling elements that are shaped like
barrels. The outer race has a single spherical raceway. The
inner race has two spherical raceways that are separated by a
center flange. The double-row, spherical, roller bearing will
support a heavy radial load and a heavy thrust load in both
directions.
Figure 24. Anti-friction Bearings

MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS

Since gas turbines first were introduced, significant
developments in the metallurgy of hot-gas path parts and
coatings have taking place. These developments have led to a
continual growth in gas turbine performance. For most industrial
gas turbines, especially those turbines that are used in offshore
service, the tolerance of the materials to environmental
conditions establishes the ultimate life of the turbine. The
materials must provide acceptable corrosion resistance and, at
the same time, meet the requirements for strength and creep.
Initially, available stainless steels were used for the hot gas
turbine parts, but over time an entire high-temperature alloy
industry was developed. This industry was built around nickel-
and cobalt-based materials. Because of the various pressures
and temperatures that exist throughout a gas turbine, a great
variety of materials are necessary for the entire engine. Table 2
shows the materials that commonly are used in the manufacture
of heavy-duty gas turbines.

Table 2. Materials Commonly Used in the Manufacture of Gas Turbines
Component Alloy
Casing - Inlet, Compressor, and Carbon Steel Plate (e.g., A-515 Gr. 70)
Combustor Carbon Steel Casting (e.g., A-356, Gr. 1)
Cast Iron (e.g., A-278)
Stainless Steels (304, 321)
Combuster Liner Hastalloy X
Haynes Alloy 188, Haynes 230
L-605
Casing - Turbine Low Alloy Steel Plate (e.g., A-387, Gr. 22)
Low Alloy Steel Castings (e.g., A-217, Gr. WC9)
Nodular Iron (e.g., A-395)
Inconel 625, 718
Compressor Blades AISI Type 403
Compressor Vanes AISI Type 403, C450

Low-Alloy Steels
Discs - Compressor CrMo (AISI-4140)

NiCrMo (AISI-4340)
CrMoV (e.g., A-471, Gr. 10)
Super 12 Chrome Steels
AISI Type 422
FV 535
Low-Alloy Steels (Similar to A-471)
Turbine Vanes Multimet (N-155)
AISI Type 310
FSX 414, GTD 222
Mar-M-247 , Inco 738
Turbine Buckets (Blades) Inconel 738, U500, GTD111, Rene77
Discs - Turbine NiCrMoV; CrMoV

Iron-Base Superalloys
Discalloy
A-286
Inconel 706, Inconel 718; Udimet 720; M152

Material requirements of the heavy-duty gas turbines differ from

those of the aircraft-derivative ones. For example, because the
heavy-duty gas turbine has few overall weight restrictions, the
use of strong and light but costly titanium alloys, used in the
aircraft industry, for compressors is not justified. Also, because
of the various stresses, erosions, and corrosion that occur in
each section, the material requirements of the individual
sections of the gas turbine differ from each other.
Modern industrial gas turbines are called upon to burn a wide

range of fuels. These fuels include natural gas, residual oils,
crude oils, and coal derivatives. Protective coatings must be
applied to guard against hot corrosion due to the aggressive
impurity deposits from these fuels, in addition to the high-
temperature gas phase oxidation encountered in the aircraft-
derivative gas turbines.
The following section discusses the materials of individual

sections of a gas turbine:
• Casing
• Compressor
• Combustion chamber
• Turbine
Casing
Heavy-duty gas turbine casings are large sand castings or
fabrications that are often made of carbon steel or that are
occasionally cast or nodular iron. The inlet casing and the
forward compressor casing of a gas turbine are usually made of
gray iron. The aft compressor casing and the turbine casing are
generally made of ductile iron or steel fabrications.
The excellent castability and machinability that are offered by

cast iron make cast iron the obvious choice for the complex
casing components that have close tolerances. Cast iron is less
prone to hot tears and shrinkage problems than cast steel.
Although stress is important in the determination of which of the
two types of cast iron (gray or ductile) is used in the castings;
the operational temperature is of prime importance. Gray iron is
generally limited to applications in which temperatures do not

exceed 450º F. Ductile iron is generally limited to applications in

which temperatures do not exceed 650º F.
The fabrications are built by welding plates or smaller castings

into large objects that sometimes weigh over 20,000 pounds.
These casings of the compressor, the combustion chamber, and
the turbine are, in essence, pressure vessels. The casing
design often is developed in accordance with the requirements
of the ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
Pressure Vessel Code. The materials and the welding methods
are selected on the basis of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code.
Tensile and creep strength up to about 750ºF with good fracture
toughness throughout the range are necessities for casings. For
the turbine exhaust casing where higher temperatures are
encountered, a low alloy steel such as 2-1/4 percent chromium -
1 percent molybdenum, is used in the quenched and tempered
condition to satisfy the tensile and creep strength demands at
the higher temperatures.
Aircraft-derivative gas turbine casings for the air intake and low-
pressure compressor are usually made of aluminum alloys (5
percent copper). The high-pressure compressor casings in
which the strength of aluminum at temperatures of up to 850° F
would be inadequate are made of corrosion resistant steels of
the 12 to 14 percent chrome range, nickel based alloys for
higher temperatures.
Various types of anti-erosion and anti-corrosion coatings are

sometimes used in the flow path side of the casing. For
example, in aero engines coatings are applied to prevent metal
erosion at compressor casing/shrouds, which would open up tip
clearances and reduce performance corrosion attacks.
Compressor
Relatively low temperature material requirements apply to the
industrial gas turbine compressors. Alloys that are used are
generally conventional and often were first developed for other
applications. The maximum temperatures that are achieved
depend upon compression ratio but are generally not over 750º
F. As a result, there is a little need of high-temperature, creep-
resistant nickel- and cobalt-based materials. Carbon steel, low
alloy steels, and hardenable stainless steels of the 12 percent
chromium-type (Type 403 and 410) are quite satisfactory.

Another compressor blade and vane material recently

introduced is the C-450. This material is a precipitation
hardened, martensitic stainless steel. C-450 provides increased
tensile strength without the sacrifice of corrosion resistance.
When compared to Type 403 stainless steel, C-450 offers
substantial increases in the high cycle fatigue strength, and
corrosion fatigue strength due to higher concentrations of
chromium and molybdenum.
The compressor discs and shafts are generally fabricated from

forged, high-strength, hardenable steel (Cr-Mo-V and Ni-Cr-Mo-
V) or the 12 percent chromium-type stainless steel. Typically,
the discs and shafts do not require protective coatings since
engine experience, under normal operating conditions, rarely
shows any corrosion problems.
Compressor
Coatings
The durability of protective coatings is a critical issue of a gas

turbine engine. Coating life usually dictates the refurbishment
intervals for these components. Selection of the coating
depends on if it is for erosion, anti-oxidation or anti corrosion.
Because compressor efficiency is significantly affected by
surface roughness, some manufacturers, when faced with the
possibility of corrosion, apply a protective coating to the rotating
blades and vanes. Compressor corrosion is the result of
moisture that contains salts and acids that have collected on the
blades. The moisture may be present in the compressor up to
about the eighth stage. At the eighth stage, the compressed air
normally becomes warm enough to prevent condensation. To
prevent the corrosion, coatings have been applied to all of the
wet stages of the compressor.
In acidic corrosion environments, it is recommended that either

an aluminum coating be applied to the Type 403 stainless steel
blading or that C-450 material be used for the blading. However,
aluminum coatings are prone to erosion due to particulate
material that enters the compressor. Aluminum-type coatings
are usually sprayed on the blade with chromate and phosphate
corrosion inhibitors.
Combustion Chamber
The materials that are chosen for combustion chamber and
transition ducts fabrication must have the following qualities:

• Oxidation and carburization resistance.
• Metallurgical stability in service to avoid embrittlement.
• Must be fabricable and weldable in sheet form both for

initial manufacture and for the ease of repair.
Higher firing temperature turbines have generally employed

nickel or cobalt alloy sheets; Hastelloy X and Haynes Alloy 188
and 230 are popular choices. For improved creep-strength
retention, alloys such as Inconel 617 and 625 are used for some
of the most recent designs. Care must be exercised not to
select alloys that, due to their complex physical metallurgy, are
difficult to weld or that are unstable in service. If the alloy is
unstable in service, service aging can result in the formation of
an embrittled microstructure.
Fabrication of combustion chamber baskets requires cold

forming of the sheet, TIG welding, spot welding, and brazing.
Dimensional accuracy is especially important so that proper
alignment can be achieved upon installation. Ceramic thermal
barrier coatings (TBCs) are used on combustion liners as
insulation to reduce base metal temperature. TBCs consist of
two different materials that are applied to the hot side of the
liner. A bond coat (NiCrAlY) overlaid by an insulating layer
(yttrium stabilized zirconium). Plasma spray is the most
common method used to apply this coating. The total thickness
of the coating is about 0.025 inch.
Typical combustion chamber alloys used for industrial gas

turbines are listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Typical Combustion Chamber Alloys
Ni Fe Co Cr Mo W Al Ti CV Si Other
Nickel Base
Hastelloy Bal 18.5 1.5 22.0 9.0 0.6 - - 0.1 -
Iconel 617 Bal 1.5 12.5 22.0 9.0 - 1.2 0.3 0.1 - 0.2 Cu
Inconel 625 Bal 2.5 - 21.5 9.0 - 0.2 0.3 0.05 - 3.6 Cb
Nimonic C-263 Bal - 20.5 20.0 5.9 - 0.5 2.2 0.06 - -
Cobalt Base
Haynes Alloy 188 22.0 1.5 Bal 22.0 - 14.0 - - 0.1 - 0.07
La
Haynes Alloy 230 57 3 5 22 2 14 0.3 - - 0.4 Bal
Iron Base
AISI Type 310 20.0 Bal - 25.0 - - - - 0.1 - -
Turbines
Of all of the gas turbine components, the first-stage blading
(nozzles and blades) must withstand the most severe
combination of temperature and stress environment. The first-
stage nozzles are subjected to the hottest gas temperatures in
the turbine, and the first-stage blading is usually the life limiting
component of the gas turbine. Typically, the first-stage nozzles
are subjected to lower mechanical stresses than the blades, but
they are required to have excellent oxidation and hot corrosion
resistance. Nozzles must also have a high resistance to thermal
fatigue. Latter-stage nozzles must possess adequate creep
strength.
Turbine Nozzles
Hot section components alloys are used because of their

strength, ability to withstand high stresses, repair ability and
fabrication. Both cobalt and nickel alloy based materials used

these parts. For the recently designed aero-engines, the nickel-

based Mar-M-247 is a very common alloy in use.
Turbine Blades
For the turbine blades, normal operating conditions include high

temperatures and high centrifugal loads. In addition, there are
vibratory loads, thermal stresses due to cooling, gas
temperature profiles, and thermal fatigue that is associated with
starts and stops. Many of the same nickel-based alloys were
used for both industrial and aero applications until unique
problems that are associated with the heavy-duty gas turbine
blades were noted.
These problems involved the component size and resistance to
hot corrosion. Alloys with relatively high aluminum and low
chromium levels possess excellent high temperature strength
and oxidation resistance. These alloys have been extensively
used for aircraft-derivative gas turbine blades. However, the low
chromium content has a poor hot corrosion resistance at
temperatures in the 1,200º F to 1, 700º F range, which is the
region in which some heavy-duty gas turbine blades operate. A
new family of higher chromium nickel-based alloys was
developed and successfully used for heavy-duty gas turbine
blades. The more extensively used materials are the forged
alloys Udimet 520, Udimet 710, Udimet 720, GTD-111, and
Inconel X-750. The most highly alloyed, highest-strength, nickel-
based alloys are used for the hotter first and second stage
blades. It is well known that material grain cohesiveness is a
key component that determines the material strength. In
addition to other factors, it is the weakening of the grain
boundaries and under load, which leads to material failure. For
turbine blades, three major processes are used for grain control
to enhance the component strength:
• Equiax (many grains in every directions)
• Directional Solidification (DS) (grains in one direction,
radial)
• Single Crystal (Single Grain) – highest strength of all three
processes and most expensive. This material is mainly
used in aero engines.
Note that Industrial engines turbine blades are designed for a

100,000 hour stress-rupture life. The life of the blade decreases
exponentially with increased material temperatures (e.g., a 50º
F increase in temperature significantly reduces the blade life).

Nozzle and
Blade Coatings
The primary purpose of blade coatings is to protect the blade
from corrosion, oxidation, and mechanical property degradation.
The function of all coatings is to provide a surface reservoir of
elements that will form very protective and adherent oxide
layers. The oxide layers protect the base material from
oxidation, corrosion attack, and degradation. The application of
a coating to a material can significantly improve its resistance to
hot corrosion and at the same time, minimize the effect of the
alloy's properties. Because of the increased service time
between overhauls and the higher levels of contamination that
are found in heavy-duty gas turbines, the diffused aluminum
coatings that are used in aircraft-derivative gas turbines were
found to be inadequate for heavy-duty gas turbines.
High-temperature coatings are the types of coatings that are

used on the first stages of all gas turbines. High-temperature
coatings resist hot corrosion attack over long periods of time.
Hot-temperature coatings also resist high-temperature
oxidation. Two types of coatings are generally employed:
diffusion and overlay coatings. The diffusion-type coating is
platinum aluminide (PtAl). The overlay-type coating is
PLASMAGUARDTM GT-29 IN-PLUSTM, and GT-33 PlusTM ,
which is a General Electric-developed and patented coating.
In diffusion coating, a few elements are added to the metal

surface and are diffused into the base alloy to a depth of one to
two mils. As the added elements diffuse inward, key elements
(chromium and nickel) of the alloy diffuse from the base metal
outward to the surface layer. The net result is a complex coating
that consists of several zones. Because the PtAl diffusion
coating provides superior corrosion resistance, it is used instead
of the straight aluminum coating. The PtAl coating is applied by
electroplating a thin (0.00025 inch) layer of platinum onto the
blade airfoil surface. A pack diffusion step deposits aluminum
onto the surface. The results of the coating process are a nickel-
aluminide coating with platinum in solid solution near the surface
of the blade. The platinum that is in the coating increases the
activity of the aluminum in the coating, which enables a very
protective and adherent aluminum-oxide scale to form on the
surface of the blade.
Overlay coatings consist of thin layers of discrete alloy that are

uniformly applied to the surface of the base metal. Overlay
coatings differ from diffusion coatings in that, in a diffusion

coating, at least one of the major metal components (normally

nickel) is supplied by the base metal. All of the components of
an overlay coating are supplied from an external source.
PLASMAGUARDTM coatings are applied by a vacuum plasma

spray process. In this process, the powder particles of the
desired composition are accelerated through a plasma jet to
velocities that are higher than the velocities that are achievable
through atmospheric plasma spray methods. The
PLASMAGUARDTM coatings provide enhanced oxidation
protection from increased aluminum content in the outer region
of the coating matrix. These overlay coatings are applied to the
entire exterior surfaces of the blades. Blade inner cooling
passages are typically coated with a thinner aluminum based
coating for oxidation protection.
Additionally, ceramic thermal barrier coatings (TBCs), same as

those used on the combustor are also used on nozzles and
blades of some gas turbines. This coating is used to reduce the
base metal temperature by providing an insulating layer
between the base material and the hot gases.

GAS TURBINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

The purpose of auxiliary systems is to permit proper operation
of the gas turbine. Typical gas turbine support systems include:
• Air Filters/Inlet Air Systems
• Cooling Air/Sealing Air Systems
• Compressor Washing Systems
• Turbine Washing System (Used with Ash Bearing Fuels)
• Fuel Treatment, Systems
• Fuel Delivery and Control Systems
• Starting Systems
• Lube Oil Systems
• Hydraulic Systems
• Fire Detection and Protection (CO2 Or FM200) Systems
• Accessory Gearbox
• Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems
• Noise Silencers (Inlet & Exhaust) Systems
• Engine Control System
• Exhaust Stack
• Compartment Ventilation

Air Filters/Inlet Air Systems

Enormous amounts of air are consumed by gas turbines.
Subsequently, the quality of the inlet air is very important
relative to the performance and life of the machine. Since air
contains a variety of contaminants such as salts (NaCl), sand,
calcium, etc., filtration is necessary to provide protection against
the effects of these contaminants. Reduction of these
contaminants that contribute to corrosion, erosion, and fouling,
results in enhanced gas turbine operating life.
Erosion occurs when particles of dirt impinge on the stationary

and rotating engine components, and remove material off the
impinged surface upon impact.
Corrosion is a chemical attack on the component metallurgy.

Certain types of corrosion that occur in the engine hot section at
high temperatures are called hot corrosion. Corrosion is
generally accelerated in the presence of heat.
Fouling is the deposition of foreign materials (dirt normally ten

microns or smaller) mainly on the compressor blades and
sometimes the turbine blades. Each of these items cause
changes in the compressor blade shape and aerodynamics,
which in turn affects the efficiency of the compressor and
possibly its stall margins and unit starting capability.
Saudi Aramco Standard 32-SAMSS-008 mandates the design

and construction for inlet air filtration systems for gas turbines.
Figure 25 illustrates a typical gas turbine inlet air filter for a

large, heavy-duty gas turbine. As gas turbine technology
advances and firing temperatures have increased, the need for
effective and reliable filtration has become even greater. A
thrust toward high-efficiency filtration during the early 1970s was
met with concerns over the life of filter media, maintenance
requirements, and rapid plugging in dusty environments.

Figure 25. Typical Gas Turbine Inlet Air Filter
A secondary benefit of inlet air systems, if properly designed, is

that the noise generated during gas turbine operation is typically
attenuated by means of absorptive silencing material or silencer
features built into the air inlet equipment. If silencing material is
used, it dissipates or reduces the acoustical energy to an
acceptable level.
The inlet filter compartments that are now typically supplied by

turbine manufacturers can be separated into two generic types:
self-cleaning (pulse-clean) and barrier type. The system may be
a single stage system comprising the pulse-cleaning element
alone, or a two-stage system comprising the pulse cleaning
element and a second stage high performance barrier filter. The
two-stage system is recommended for dusty and high humidity
areas, for example near shore areas.

Conventional compartments typically use self-cleaning filter

systems with paper media. Special features are included which
allow these high-efficiency filters to be cleaned of accumulated
dust by momentarily directing a backward flow of air through the
filter. During the past few years, a large percentage of gas
turbines have incorporated self-cleaning inlet filter
compartments. Saudi Aramco has played a significant role in
the development of the self-cleaning filter. A typical self-cleaning
filter for a large gas turbine is illustrated in Figure 26. The self-
cleaning filter shown in Figure 26 consists of the following:
• Compressed air manifold with solenoid box and air valve
• Filter element
• Blow pipe
• Venturi
• Skirt
Self-cleaning inlet filters work especially well in three types of

applications:
• Desert regions, which typically have very high dust

loading compared to other parts of the world.
• Process or base load applications in which outages can

be very costly or deemed intolerable for other reasons.
• Cold climates with high potential for icing where self-

cleaning filters can combine the functions of inlet filtration
and anti-icing. Experience has shown that self-cleaning
cartridges can remove frost in much the same way that
the filters can clean themselves of dust.

Figure 26. Typical Gas Turbine Self-Cleaning Filter Action
Air filters are presently available in a variety of styles from

different manufacturers. The common ones are hollow
cylindrical filter cartridges mounted either vertically or
horizontally (GDX type saves space) in filter compartments. In a
typical, large gas turbine installation, the inlet filter compartment
may contain more than 1,000 cylindrical cartridge type, pleated-
paper filters that remove impurities from the air. Each cartridge
is removed and installed individually. Minimum filtration
efficiencies of the cylindrical cartridge filter on standard test
dusts are as follows:
• Standard course test dust - 99.94 percent
• Standard fine test dust - 99.6 percent
• Sodium NaCl – 99.95%

The efficiency of filtration can be improved by reducing the air

approach velocity to about 2.5 feet per minute. These
efficiencies, along with the positive filter seals provided by the
cartridges ensure adequate protection from both airborne sand
and alkaline salt particles. Higher velocities plug the filters at a
much faster rate.
A key factor to consider in inlet filter design and operation is the

pressure drop caused by the restriction to air flow. This pressure
drop, which is known as the inlet loss, has an adverse impact on
gas turbine performance. An inlet pressure loss results in a
lower pressure at the turbine; hence, less pressure drop across
the turbine which results in less performed work. This loss must
be kept to a minimum by keeping the filters in a clean condition.
A self-cleaning feature is designed into newer air filter systems
to ensure that this inlet pressure drop is kept to a minimum. If
the pressure drop across the inlet filter reaches a predetermined
set point, such as 3.00” H2O, an automatic filter cleaning
sequence is initiated. During the cleaning sequence, the filters
are cleaned by a reverse jet of high-pressure air. A timer
controls the operation of a solenoid-operated pilot air valve
when the pilot valve opens. High-pressure air is blown on the
inside of the filters, which releases the dust caked deposits on
the outside of the inlet filter compartment. The cleaning typically
stops at a second predetermined set point such as 2.00” H2O
differential pressure. To prevent the deposits from being carried
into clean filters, the cleaning sequence is staggered, with no
more than 10 percent of the elements being cleaned at a time.
Thus, the primary air flow to the turbine is not disturbed during
cleaning. In humid areas, a periodic cleaning cycle may be
used, irrelevant of pressure drop condition to prevent dirt from
hardening and becoming more difficult to remove.
Both the air flow pattern and the specified flow rates are chosen
to improve the filtration and the pulse cleaning of the filters.
Skirts are usually provided on exposed sides of the modules,
which extend below the bottom of the filter cartridges to ensure
protection of the filter media from physical damage. This design
also provides for low upward air velocity to the cartridges inside
the skirt. This design, combined low upward velocity and the
abrupt change of direction of the ambient air flow, provide some
initial separation particularly of large particles. The design also
reduces the possibility that dust, pulse-cleaned from a cartridge,
will be re-entrained.

Because a typical filter house plenum contains over 11,000

cubic feet of air and the temporary air loss when pulse cleaning
amounts to about 45 cubic feet of air, the effect of less air to the
plenum and, therefore, plenum pressure, is negligible. Efficient
cleaning of the filter cartridges usually requires 80 to 120 psig of
air flow for approximately 100 milliseconds.
Each pulse of air from the hole in the blowpipe above the venturi
nozzle provides both a shock to the filter cartridge and a
momentary reverse air flow. The dust particles cluster together
or agglomerate on the media and form a thin cake. When
pulsed, these particles come off in larger pieces than when they
were deposited, which reduces the possibility that the particles
will be re-entrained when normal flow is reestablished.
Self-cleaning air filter systems are normally designed to initiate

alarms for either of two conditions: low pressure in the pulse air
supply or excessive suction (inlet filter pressure drop) in the
clean air plenum. These alarms indicate the need for timely
corrective action. Typically, if the pressure drop reaches a
design value (normally around eight inches of water), a
controlled shutdown is initiated. Note that the alarm is usually
activated at five inches of water.
For peaking units or in environments in which the concentration

of airborne contaminants or other considerations make it
impractical to pulse clean inlet filters, the high-efficiency, self-
cleaning type, cylindrical cartridges may still be used. Such a
system can be identical in configuration to the self-cleaning
compartment with the exception that the pulsing hardware is
omitted. This system acts as a static-barrier filter while
maintaining many of the following advantages of the self-
cleaning system:
• High dust-holding capacity
• Positive sealing mechanism
• Inherent low velocities
• Low pressure drop
The dust-holding capacity of a typical single, cylindrical, self-

cleaning-type cartridge filter is on the order of 2,500 grams for
Arizona fine dust. Dust-holding capacities for high-efficiency
panel filters are in the range of 400 to 700 grams of dust.

Multistage compartments use a high-efficiency filter as a

baseline element. Depending on site conditions, the high-
efficiency filter may be preceded by pre-filters and/or an inertial
separator. High-efficiency filters are of the media type that
accumulates dust and must be replaced when their pressure
drop reaches a predetermined level. The inertial separator is
recommended where there are great amounts of large material
to be removed from the air. Continued use of these filters
beyond this condition will result in the undesirable opening of a
bypass door, which would allow contaminated ambient air to be
ingested directly into the gas turbine.
Aramco Standard 32-SAMSS-008 requires that inlet filter

elements not to be used for more than two years of actual
operation. A total filter life, including storage and operation, is
required to be no less than five years, from the date of
manufacturing. Manufacturing date must be stamped on each
filter cartridge.
Cooling Air/Sealing Air Systems

Almost all gas turbines require cooling air and sealing air for a
variety of reasons. Cooling air helps to protect the gas turbine
components by cooling the hot gas path components such as
the nozzles, turbine blades, turbine disks, and also is used to
prevent hot gases from being ingested in turbine disk and
bearing cavities. This cooling allows the turbine to operate at
higher firing temperatures; thus achieving higher output and
efficiency. This increased firing temperature could cause
destruction of the gas turbine hot components, if sufficient
cooling is not provided to reduce the component temperatures
to levels where the component structural integrity is maintained.
As an example, an increase in the firing temperature from

1,600º F to 2,350º F increases the efficiency from approximately
27 to 35 percent. This efficiency improvement is achieved
despite the added penalties due to the added cooling flow rates
used to handle the higher firing temperature.
The design of the internal cooling air system is a complex and a

key part of the design of a gas turbine. Detailed design efforts
are involved to achieve an optimum and efficient air cooling
distribution scheme. The aims of this specific system design
are:

• Provide the necessary cooling and purging for all engine

component and internal compartments as needed.
• Minimize the amount of this secondary air flow used for

cooling, since these cooling flows negatively impact the
engine performance. This air is typically compressor air
(uses energy to compress), but does not contribute to the
energy extraction done by the turbine. Therefore, usage of
this cooling air tend to always decrease the engine
efficiency
• Assure that engine internal pressure result in acceptable

bearing loads.
Sealing air is also used to buffer seals surrounding bearing

compartments, typically buffering sets of seals such as carbon,
labyrinth or brush seals. This is to retain the lubricating bearing
oil within the bearing compartment and prevent it from leaking
out of the cavity into the engine itself. Internal oil leakage to the
engine raises the risk of catastrophic internal engine fires
Figure 27 shows the internal secondary airflow distribution of a

GE LM2500 gas turbine

Figure 27. Typical engine internal secondary airflow distribution (GE LM2500)

Cooling air is normally extracted from different stages of the

compressor section. Source location selection is typically based
on the sink pressure level. Also, extraction is made in a fashion
that minimizes the dirt intake into the cooling air supply line to
prevent the cooling air passages from clogging. In some cases,
the extracted cooling air is cooled externally using an external
heat exchanger and then re-introduced back into the engine to
provide the required component cooling (i.e. turbine disk,
blade).
A variety of cooling methods are used to cool the turbine

nozzles and blades. These techniques include: convection,
transpiration and film cooling.
In convection cooling, the cooling air enters the blade at the

blade firtree and passes through air passages along the blade
radial span. Different blade designs incorporate different
passage cooling schemes and features, which are normally
tailored in an attempt to attain acceptable metal temperature
level and distribution. These features include internal
impingement holes, internal turbulators, external film cooling
holes, “dirt” holes at the blade tip for dirt extraction and tip
cooling, trailing edge slots, and leading edge shower head
cooling holes. Similarly, high temperature turbine nozzles
incorporate most of these described cooling features.
Figure 28. Convection Cooling (GE Turbine Blade)

In transpiration cooling, the cooling air enters the blade, flows

through the air flow channels, and effuses through pores that
are constructed within the airfoil walls themselves, and into the
boundary layer between the blade and the hot gas, as shown in
Figure 29. The air cools the airfoil structure and then forms a
film of relatively cool air to insulate the blade airfoil surface from
the hot gas stream.
Figure 29. Transpiration Cooling

Recently, steam cooling of hot section components has

received additional attention, but it is still at an early stage of
development. In a combined cycle application, steam is
extracted from the steam turbine at high pressure, then is
processed through the hot section components and routed back
to a low pressure point of the originating steam turbine.
Obviously, this requires the use of sophisticated sealing
technology to prevent the loss of steam.
Compressor Cleaning Systems

If the airfoils of the compressor and turbine sections are not
clean, a gas turbine will demonstrate lower levels of
performance, which indicates that cleaning is required. The
frequency of cleaning and the type of cleaning are dependent
upon factors such as the amount of atmospheric contaminants
and the type and quality of fuel being used. Gas turbines can be
cleaned with the unit either on-line or off-line. The off-line
method has been shown to be more effective than the on-line
one. Manufacturer's detailed procedures must be followed when
cleaning the units.
The method of using dry-type, abrasive cleaning agents such as

walnut shells and rice is no longer being utilized due to the
erosion problems it creates. Hot water and detergent are
presently being used to remove dirt and oily film deposits.
Gas turbine units that burn heavy oils, such as crude, can
require cleaning to remove deposits (ash) from nozzles and
buckets. The generally accepted method in such cases involves
water washing through one or more specific entry points that are
in the turbine or combustion system. These entry points are
specifically designed for use as part of the turbine cleaning
system. The frequency of cleaning is dependent upon the level
of vanadium in the fuel and the amount inhibitors that are used.
Figure 30 illustrates the effect of frequent on-line washing and
periodic “crank” washing in restoring efficiency losses.

Figure 30. Effects of Water Washing on Turbine Efficiency
Figure 31 is a diagram of a typical compressor water wash

system that is used to wash the airfoils of the compressor and
the turbine sections of a gas turbine. The water wash system
consists of the following components:
• Turbine water wash tank
• Connection to a demineralized water supply
• Connection to an air supply (65 to 120 psig)
• Connection to the gas turbine wash spray nozzles
• Manual fill funnel connection
• Solenoid operated valves (SOV) and pressure control

valves (PCV)
Compressor off–line water washing is normally accomplished

with the gas turbine shut down and cooled to approximately
200º F. A cleaning solution (detergent) is poured into the turbine
water wash tank through the manual fill funnel. The turbine

water wash tank is then filled with demineralized water. The gas
turbine's start sequence and ignition system are disabled to
prevent the gas turbine from starting during the wash cycle
when the starter motor is operated. This is an automatic
operation which is programmed in the control system. When the
gas turbine starts to rotate, the air supply SOV opens to
pressurize the turbine water wash tank. The spray nozzle SOV
opens to allow flow of the cleaning solution to the turbine wash
spray nozzles. The pressure control valve maintains the air
pressure in the turbine water wash tank.
After the entire solution in the turbine water wash tank has been
sprayed into the compressor, the gas turbine is allowed to coast
to a stop and soak for a specified period of time (normally
approximately ten minutes). The turbine water wash tank is
refilled with demineralized water, and the gas turbine is rinsed
with demineralized water through the use of the same start and
stop cycle that was used to clean the gas turbine. The rinse
cycle is repeated as necessary until the desired volumes of the
turbine water wash tank have been sprayed into the
compressor. After the wash and rinse cycles have been
completed, any residual water is blown out of the water solution
lines with compressed air. The gas turbine is started and
allowed to idle for approximately five minutes to dry out the gas
turbine. After the gas turbine is dried out it is then loaded.
Generally when performing a wash, the detailed procedure

recommended specifically by the OEM is to be followed.

Figure 31. Typical Compressor Water Wash System
Fuel Treatment Systems

The type of fuel that is fired in the gas turbine determines the
type of equipment that is required to treat the fuel. The following
are the principal liquid fuels that are used today:
• Natural gas
• Other HC gases such as propane and butane
• Distillates (light distillate: naphtha-very volatile, kerosene,

No. 2 diesel, No. 2 fuel oil, JP-4 and JP-5) (heavy
distillates – good fuel but contains traces of vanadium,
sodium, potassium, lead and calcium)
• Crude oil

• Heavy fuel oils (residual or blended)
Regardless of the type of fuel(s) that are used, the fuel must be
supplied to the gas turbine within certain specifications of
cleanliness in order to prevent high temperature corrosion, ash
deposition, and fuel system problems. High temperature
corrosion can result from the presence of vanadium, sodium,
potassium, and lead in the fuel. These elements form
compounds that melt on the turbine hot gas path components,
dissolve the protective oxide coatings, and leave the metal
blade surfaces open to corrosive sulfidation attack.
In addition to the corrosion, the following are contaminants that

may be found in the fuels:
• Solids (sand, rust, scale, and asphaltic sludge)
• Water (microorganisms)
• Trace metals (sodium, potassium, lead and vanadium)
• Sulfur
These contaminants can be subdivided into the following

classes:
• Water soluble (sodium and potassium)
• Solids (sand, rust, scale, microorganisms, and asphaltic

sludges)
• Oil soluble (vanadium and lead)
The majority of gas turbines at Saudi Aramco operate on natural

gas that requires minimal fuel treatment. In the case of true light
distillate oils, treatment is required to capture dirt and shipment
contaminants that have not been removed by a storage tank
settling system arrangement. Undetected and untreated, a
single shipment of contaminated fuel can cause substantial
damage to a gas turbine. Particle and coalescing filters are the
most commonly used devices, although centrifuges and
electrostatic desalters may also be required to remove sodium
that may be present due to sea water contamination.
Ash-forming liquid fuels are normally heavier oils, such as

blends, crudes, and residual oils. Because they usually contain
trace metal contaminants, fuel treatment is required to remove
or modify the effects of harmful constituents prior to combustion

in the turbine. The degree of equipment sophistication, plant

equipment investment, and operating costs required for this
treatment are tied directly to key physical and chemical
properties of the fuel. Physically, the parameters of interest
include specific gravity, viscosity, flash point, pour point, and
wax content. Chemically, the prime interests are the amounts of
corrosive trace metals present, the overall fuel washability, and
the compatibility of one fuel with another. The latter is
particularly significant for users who obtain fuel from multiple
sources. Treatment and conditioning systems for ash-forming
fuels are more complex than for distillates because of the
processing steps required to remove or control their
characteristic trace metal contaminants. Particular attention
must be paid to sodium and vanadium.
Complete fuel treatment includes the following:
• Washing the fuel to remove the water soluble trace metals

such as sodium, potassium and certain calcium
compounds. Sodium and potassium are usually present in
the form of finely dispersed or emulsified droplets of salt
water. Washing also removes much of the inorganic
particulate material that is normally forwarded to the
filtering systems. Washing involves the addition of water
to the fuel and subsequent removal of the contaminant-
laden water. Under special circumstances, it may be
possible to remove the water already present in the raw
fuel, without adding more water, and obtain adequate
removal of contaminants. This special process is called
“purification,” and it is frequently applied to crude oils.
• Filtering the fuel to remove solid oxides, silicates, and

related compounds that are not adequately removed prior
to forwarding to the gas turbine. These particles can clog
fuel pumps, flow dividers, and fuel nozzles.
• Inhibiting the vanadium in the fuel with magnesium

compounds in a ratio of three parts of magnesium by
weight to each part of vanadium. This form of treatment
inhibits the corrosive characteristics of vanadium by
forming high melting temperature ash composed of
magnesium sulfate, magnesium oxide and magnesium
vanidates. It should be noted that lead is also corrosive to
turbine components and should be avoided.

• Sodium and potassium can also be removed from the fuel

by the use of a centrifuge. Microorganisms that live in the
water phase are also removed by centrifugal separation.
The centrifugal force that separates the water from the oil
also acts on the solid particles to remove them from the
oil. Vanadium cannot be removed by a centrifuge and
must be inhibited with the use of a magnesium-based
additive. The amount of vanadium in the fuel is measured,
and the required amount of magnesium inhibitor is added
just before the combustor.
• For gaseous fuels, preventing condensate mist carryover,

or hydrate formation, by using a fuel gas superheater,
which should be designed to deliver 40o C superheated
fuel gas to the turbine gas distribution system. The
superheater is located downstream of the separator
(knock-out-drum)
Centrifuge Fuel
Contaminant
Separator
It is important to realize that there is no one base fuel treatment

system suitable for all applications. The optimum approach
results from an evaluation of operational requirements for the
gas turbine, expected fuel characteristics, desired maintenance
frequency, choice of equipment, choice of additive, and the
desired system flexibility.
A sectional view of a typical centrifugal separator is shown in

Figure 32. Separation occurs in the bowl assembly. The bowl
assembly is mounted on a vertical spindle that is located within
the case of the separator. A motor drives the vertical spindle
through a centrifugal clutch and worm wheel gear. The gearing
enables the bowl assembly to be rotated at speeds up to
approximately 6000 rpm.

Figure 32. Centrifugal Separator Sectional View
The bowl assembly usually contains between 50 and 150

conical discs. The number of discs depends on the size of the
centrifuge, and the discs are usually spaced 0.5 to 0.6 mm
apart. The oil that is fed between the discs is divided into thin
strata. The thin strata speeds up the separation process by
shortening the settling distance of the entrained particles. The
centrifuge separation process is illustrated in Figure 33. The
feed (oil with dispersed water and solid particles) is admitted at
the top and travels downward through the inlet tube into the
separator bowl. The feed is then forced upward through holes in
the discs and into the spaces between the discs. The rotation of
the bowl usually creates a centrifugal force of approximately
8,000 g. The solid particles that are heavier than the oil are

forced outward. The solid particles collect in the sludge space,

while the water passes between the top disc and the bowl cover
to be discharged. Clean oil is displaced inward. The clean oil
travels upward through the space that is around the inlet tube to
the oil discharge. Self-cleaning centrifuges are available that
permit the contents of the centrifuge bowl to be intermittently
discharged.
Figure 33. Centrifuge Separation Process

Fuel Systems
“Fuel flexibility,” which is the ability to burn almost any
combustible fluid, has been a key advantage of the gas turbine
since its introduction. In recent years, the desire for fuel
flexibility has resulted in the utilization of many fuels and in more
numerous combinations than the traditional gas and distillate
dual fuel approach. Gas turbine fuel system designs have
evolved to meet these needs.
Application of fuel gas systems with dual manifolds and, in

some cases, entirely separate fuel control systems have
extended the range of fuel use from refinery off-gases, through
natural gas, to vaporized LPGs and synthetic coal gas without
the need for changing equipment. In the case of LPGs and
similar wet fuels, maintenance of proper fuel conditions and
careful purge and transfer procedures have eliminated problem
areas due to condensate formation.
Liquid fuels, which have been used primarily as a backup to

interruptible gas supplies, have included low viscosity fuels,
such as kerosene, jet fuels, and naphtha, as well as more
conventional distillates. Low viscosity backup fuels have been
handled with conventional fuel systems for low-time operation
and with lubricity additives for moderate usage. Very low
viscosity fuels, such as naphtha and natural gasoline, require
the use of specially designed fuel control systems that minimize
the use of active or wearing components.
Combinations of multiple gas fuels with liquid backup fuel

require special consideration. Liquid fuels can require atomizing
air that is normally routed through one of the available gas
passages in the dual fuel nozzles.
Typically, natural gas is the primary and preferred fuel for gas
turbine operation, and distillate fuel oil is the secondary fuel.
Gas turbines are also designed so that a mixture of natural gas
and distillate fuel oil may be burned. Gas is supplied to the gas
turbine through control valves at a pressure higher than
combustor pressure. If gas pressure is below the required
pressure, a gas compressor is needed to boost the gas
pressure above combustor pressure. The following paragraphs
discuss a typical fuel gas boost compressor system.

Fuel gas boost

compressor system
A fuel gas boost compressor system raises the natural gas

pressure to that required by the gas turbine for proper operation.
A typical fuel gas boost compressor system consists of the
following major components:
• Inlet pressure regulating valve
• Inlet scrubber
• Centrifugal compressor
• Gas aftercooler
• Gas recirculation system
• Main AC lubricating oil pump and motor
• Auxiliary post-lubricating oil pump
• Compressor motor
• Duplex lubricating oil filter
• Control system
The inlet pressure regulating valve limits the compressor inlet

pressure (if required). The inlet scrubber removes any slugs of
liquid in the gas as well as any solid dust or dirt particles. The
scrubber is normally a dry type with multiple small cyclones
mounted within the scrubber vessel. The centrifugal compressor
compresses the gas to the required pressure. The compressor
gas discharges to an aftercooler and receiver.
The aftercooler cools the gas and is required during

recirculation of the gas when the gas compressor is started. The
compressor package is typically skid-mounted and fully
automated. The recirculation system, in conjunction with the
receiver, allows the gas turbine startup gas flow transient
requirements to be met. Small/slow changes in gas flow
requirements and inlet pressure variations can be handled by
the compressor inlet guide vanes. Pressure and temperature
instruments are provided to monitor the system operation. A

final absolute filter separator is provided to ensure that oil or

liquids are not carried over to the gas turbine.
A typical fuel gas system is illustrated in Figure 34. The fuel gas
flows through a fuel gas meter (not shown), a fuel gas strainer,
gas control valves (stop/ratio valve), and a fuel gas flow control
valve. The stop/ratio valve and the gas control valve are
hydraulically operated servo-control valves with dual linear
voltage differential transformers (LVDT) for feedback. The
stop/ratio valve is equipped with a hydraulic trip relay. The fuel
gas flow control valve provides a controlled flow to the gas ring
manifold that serves gas turbine combustors. On a turbine trip,
the gas control valves (stop/ratio) provide a quick shutoff of the
fuel supply.
Figure 34. Typical Fuel Gas System
The stop/ratio valve acts to control inlet pressure to the fuel gas
flow control valve. The fuel gas flow control valve meters fuel
flow to the combustion system in response to the signals
generated by the control system. The stop/ratio valves act as
quick shutoff valves to trip the fuel supply to the combustion
chamber.
The stop/ratio and gas control valves are normally actuated by

electro-hydraulic servo-valves. Control oil for the stop/ratio and
gas flow control valve actuators is normally provided from the

lube oil system (provided that it is clear). A hydro-mechanical

trip relay for the stop/ratio valve actuator and for the gas flow
control valve modulates the action of the valves. When the
relays are in the tripped position, one end of the cylinder is
opened to drain, which allows the spring to shut off the gas fuel
flow. Low-pressure trip oil and a solenoid-actuated trip valve
operate the relays.
An SOV located between the stop/ratio valve and the control

valve opens to vent the fuel gas to atmosphere when the turbine
trips and the valves close. When the turbine is shut down, the
vent valve will also actuate if fuel gas leaks past the stop/ratio
valve. From the gas control valve, the fuel gas flows into the fuel
gas supply manifold that distributes the gas into the combustion
chambers. Each chamber has multiple fuel nozzles that act as
metering elements to control the flow of gas to each combustor.
The fuel gas flow rate determines the load carried by the
turbine.
Currently available heavy-duty gas turbines are capable of

burning a variety of liquid fuels, from petroleum naphthas to
residuals. These fuels vary substantially in hydrocarbon
composition, physical properties, and levels of contaminants. A
series of evolutionary changes to the high-pressure fuel pump
and flow divider designs has substantially improved the
reliability of these critical fuel components. While reasonable
reliability of these components had been demonstrated on clean
distillate fuels, it became necessary to incorporate several
design changes to accommodate the dirty distillates and heavy
fuels that are available to customers on a worldwide basis.
Design changes were necessary to accommodate corrosive
elements in the fuel and the effects of thermal transients as
transfers were made from distillate to heavy fuel. These
improvements included switching to internal materials that were
resistant to the corrosive attack of the fuel and the effects of
thermal transients and increased clearances.
Flow dividers on crude-burning, large, gas turbine units in Saudi

Arabia and fuel pumps have now demonstrated an ability to
operate in excess of 16,000 hours between maintenance
intervals, with additional improvements in life expectancy
currently in process.
Fuel oil is typically used as a secondary fuel. A gas turbine can

be equipped for automatic fuel changeover from gas to fuel oil.
Many gas turbines can also be operated with both fuels
simultaneously. A typical fuel oil system consists of a delivery

system that may be a truck, a train, or a barge unloading

connection, a fuel oil storage tank, a fuel oil forwarding skid, a
gas turbine fuel oil module, and the on-base gas turbine fuel
equipment.
Fuel oil is unloaded from trucks, trains, and barges at an

unloading dock. The delivery vessel is equipped with its own
unloading pumps and hoses. The hose is bolted to a flanged
connection at the dock end of the piping that leads into the fuel
tank. The pipeline is equipped with manually operated valves
that must be opened to allow fuel oil to flow into the tank. One or
more of these valves can be a quick-closing valve for isolation
purposes in the event a leak occurs in the system. In addition to
the quick-closing valve(s), the fill line is equipped with an
antisiphon device to prevent the fuel from siphoning out of the
storage tank in the event of a fill hose break.
The fuel oil storage tank receives fuel from the trucks, trains, or
barges, and stores it for use by the gas turbine. Fuel oil is
usually directed from the tank through a fuel oil forwarding skid.
A floating suction assembly can be provided so that fuel oil from
the highest usable portion of the tank is used, which prevents
the fuel oil forwarding pumps from taking suction on the bottom
of the tank where the water and sludge have settled out.
The fuel oil forwarding system is commonly a skid-mounted,

factory-assembled pumping unit. The fuel oil forwarding system
is used to transfer the fuel oil from the fuel oil storage tank to the
gas turbine fuel oil module. This transfer is done at the pressure
and flow rate required by the fuel oil system. The system
includes a strainer to remove dirt particles from the fuel oil
before it reaches the fuel oil forwarding pump(s). Typically, there
are two or more motor-driven fuel oil forwarding pumps
provided. One pump can be selected as a lead pump to supply
fuel oil for normal startup and operation of the gas turbine, and
the second pump can be selected as a standby pump.
A pressure regulating valve typically is used to maintain the fuel

oil pressure at the skid discharge connection within the limits
required for the main fuel oil pump and the fuel oil system on the
fuel oil module. A stop valve is installed at the outlet connection
of the fuel oil forwarding skid. This valve operates in conjunction
with the on-base fuel oil stop valve to shut off the fuel flow when
the turbine is shut down. A flowmeter is usually installed in the
fuel oil forwarding skid piping and is connected to a fuel oil flow
totalizer for control and indication purposes.

As shown in Figure 35, fuel oil supplied to the fuel oil module
normally enters through low-pressure filter(s) before entering
the fuel oil pump(s). The filters remove debris to prevent pump
damage or improper functioning of downstream components.
The fuel oil supply line to the gas turbine fuel oil module may
also have a fuel oil heater installed to maintain the correct
temperature and viscosity.
Figure 35. Typical Fuel Oil System
The fuel oil pumps typically are axial-flow, positive-

displacement, rotary, screw-type pumps. A typical fuel oil pump
arrangement uses three pumps; however, only one is shown in
Figure 35. One fuel oil pump will sustain full-speed, no-load
operation. Two fuel oil pumps are required for full load. The third
fuel oil pump is a standby. Check valves in the pump discharge
piping prevent backflow through the non-operating pumps.
The fuel oil flow must be modulated. One way to modulate

pump discharge flow is through the use of servo-control valves.
The control valves control flow to the turbine by throttling the
main port while opening the bypass port, which returns the
bypass flow to the fuel oil pump suction header. The control

valves are positioned through the use of a turbine control panel

by measuring valve position and differential pressure across the
valve (∆P). Fuel oil is then supplied to the fuel oil manifold.
A fuel oil stop valve is installed in the fuel oil header to shut off
the supply of fuel oil to the turbine during normal or emergency
shutdowns. If the valve is a hydraulically operated three-way
valve, the valve is held open (bypass closed) during normal
operation by high-pressure hydraulic oil that passes through a
hydraulic trip relay (dump) valve; not shown in the figure. This
dump valve, located between the hydraulic supply and the stop
valve hydraulic cylinder, is hydraulically operated by trip oil
acting through a solenoid valve. During a normal shutdown or
emergency trip, low trip oil pressure causes the valve to shift
position and dump high-pressure hydraulic oil from the stop
valve actuating cylinder. The dumping of oil allows spring
pressure to close the stop valve. During an electrical trip, the
solenoid valve causes the dump valve to shift with the same
results.
A flow divider equally distributes filtered fuel oil to the gas

turbine combustors. A typical flow divider is a continuous flow,
free-wheeling device that consists of several gear pump
elements in a circular arrangement. The gear pumping elements
have a common inlet with a single timing gear. The timing (sun)
gear maintains the speed of each pumping element
synchronous with all the other elements.
The speed of each flow divider gear element is directly

proportional to the total flow through the flow divider. Magnetic
pickup assemblies that are fitted to the flow divider can be used
to produce a flow feedback signal at a frequency proportional to
the fuel oil delivered to the combustion chambers. This signal is
fed to the gas turbine control system for control.
A nozzle isolation valve is usually mated to the flow divider and

houses a poppet for each of the outlets. These poppets isolate
the fuel oil nozzles during shutdown periods to prevent line
drainage. The poppets are normally hydraulically opened by a
single piston that is controlled by the same circuit as the fuel oil
stop valve. When hydraulic pressure is relieved, the poppets are
closed by spring pressure. There is usually a separate spring for
each poppet.
In the event of an unsuccessful start, the accumulation of
combustible fuel oil is drained through false start drain valves
that are normally provided at appropriate low points in the fuel
oil piping. These normally open valves close as the turbine

accelerates during startup. Air pressure from the discharge of

the unit's compressor can be used to actuate the valves. During
turbine shutdown, the valves open as compressor speed (and
discharge pressure) decreases.
Starting Systems
The starting system of a gas turbine is designed to accelerate
the gas turbine and equipment train from a fully stopped position
to a minimum governor speed. The starting system may include
a starter motor, clutches, speed changing equipment, torque
converters, or other power transmission equipment. Common
starting devices used with aircraft-derivative and heavy-duty
industrial gas turbines are listed below:
• Air expansion turbine
• Electric motor
• Diesel engine
• Static starting system
• Hydraulic starting system
• Steam turbine
Regardless of the type of starter used, it must be able to

perform the following functions:
• To supply high torque at zero speed for turbine

breakaway.
• To drive the unfired gas turbine to an acceptable firing

speed.
• To assist the gas turbine to a self-sustaining speed, after

which the starting device is disengaged from the gas
turbine.
The starting drivers must be sized for extended operation at the

purge and warm-up speeds, and should be capable of three
consecutive start attempts. Additionally, the driver should be
rated to supply 110 percent of the staring and acceleration
torque required by the gas turbine.

Most gas turbine manufacturers offer a wide variety of starting

systems. Electric motors are generally used where a reliable
source of AC power is available. Most of Aramco gas turbine
units use electric motors as starters. Diesel engines offer the
advantage of being independent of a source of AC power with a
slight reduction in reliability. Air expansion turbines are used on
many industrial applications in which a source of high-pressure
gas or steam is available. Figure 36 is an illustration of a gas
turbine that uses a turbine as a starter motor. If a starting steam
turbine is used, it must be provided in accordance with SAES-K-
501 and 32-SAMSS-009. Steam turbine starter may be used as
a helper to the power output (about 4% of gas turbine unit
power output).
Each of the mentioned devices is discussed in the following

sections:
The starter must be capable of overcoming the breakaway

torque and of accelerating the gas turbine through the starting
sequence. When stopped, the torque that is required for
breakaway is very high due to the static friction. The breakaway
torque rapidly decreases as bearing lubrication films are
established at low speeds (rpms). Torque again begins to
increase with increasing speed due to the power that is required
to drive the compressor. In some applications, at about 20 to 25
percent of rated speed, air flow is sufficient to initiate
combustion in the gas turbine at a controlled rate, which
produces some torque from the turbine section and reduces the
starting torque requirements. The turbine requires additional
torque after firing to reach a self-sustaining speed from 45 to 80
percent of rated speed. At this point, the starting system
normally disengages, and the control system brings the turbine
to set speed.

Figure 36. Gas Turbine wth a Starting Turbine
Air Expansion
Turbine
Air expansion starting devices (air motors) are typically used

with small aircraft-derivative gas turbines. Air motors function to
provide the torque required to start and accelerate the gas
turbine to firing speed by converting air or gas pressure,
impinging on the air turbine blades, into rotational energy of the
gas turbine rotor. After light-off, the air motor continues to assist
the engine until the turbine reaches the cutoff (self-sustaining)
speed.
A typical gas turbine air starting motor consists of four major

sections: the high pressure air storage system, the air turbine,
the reduction gear train, and the clutch assembly. Typically, an
air storage system is sized to support approximately three
consecutive starts without the need to recharge. Once depleted,
the air storage system must be recharged and is normally
designed to be recharged in about an hour.
Electric Motor
Systems
Most medium-sized gas turbines use an electric motor or a

diesel engine as a starting system. These drivers are attached
to the accessory gear through a torque converter and jaw
clutch. After starting the gas turbine, the jaw clutch disengages,

and the torque converter uncouples from the system and is shut
down.
The starting motor is a horizontal induction motor that drives the

torque converter through a flexible disc-pack coupling. The
torque converter provides the required torque multiplication for
the starting motor to drive the turbine.
Diesel Starting
Systems
Diesel engine starting devices are typically 6, 8, 12, or 16

cylinder models equipped with independent lubricating and
cooling systems. Engine starting is normally provided by an
electrical starting system, and engine speed is controlled by a
governor. A torque converter is used with a diesel starting
engine as well to transmit torque to the gas turbine rotor.

Hydraulic Starting
Systems
Hydraulic systems can be installed to accelerate and start some

gas turbines. Hydraulic systems can also be used to move the
adjustable guide vanes that are in heavy-duty turbines and in
some aircraft-derivative turbines, to move adjustable, high-
pressure turbine nozzles, and to move hydraulic control valves.
A typical hydraulic start system, as shown in Figure 37, contains

three hydraulic pumps and two hydraulic motors. The three
hydraulic pumps are driven by one electric motor through a
common shaft. The three hydraulic pumps are the charge pump,
the main pump, and the auxiliary pump. The charge pump is
used to prime the hydraulic system for each start cycle and to
replace the hydraulic oil that is returned to the reservoir. The
main hydraulic pump provides the high-pressure hydraulic fluid
to drive the hydraulic starter motor. The auxiliary hydraulic pump
provides the hydraulic fluid to drive the air/oil cooler hydraulic
motor. The two hydraulic motors are the hydraulic starter motor
and the air/oil cooler hydraulic motor. The hydraulic starter
motor is a variable capacity hydraulic motor that converts the
high-pressure hydraulic fluid into shaft torque to rotate the gas
turbine. The air/oil cooler hydraulic motor drives the air/oil cooler
fan.
The hydraulic system has its own separate reservoir. The

charge pump draws fluid from the reservoir through a suction
filter and discharges to the main hydraulic pump through a high-
pressure filter. The main hydraulic pump increases the pressure
of the hydraulic fluid and discharges to the hydraulic starter
motor. The hydraulic starter motor discharges to the low-
pressure side of the system.
The hydraulic starter motor discharge is returned to the

reservoir through a high-pressure filter and a temperature-
actuated valve. The temperature-actuated valve directs the
return flow straight to the reservoir or through a hydraulically
powered air/oil cooler prior to being returned to the reservoir.
The hydraulic fluid that is returned to reservoir is replaced by the
discharge of the charge pump.
The temperature actuated valve senses the temperature of the

hydraulic oil that is returned to the reservoir. If the temperature
increases above a preset limit, the temperature actuated valve
repositions to direct the return oil through the hydraulically

powered air/oil cooler. The auxiliary hydraulic pump takes

suction from the reservoir through a filter and discharges to the
air/oil cooler hydraulic motor. The air/oil cooler hydraulic motor
converts the hydraulic pressure into shaft torque to rotate the
air/oil cooler fan.
Figure 37. Typical Hydraulic Start System
Static Start System
With large front-end drive gas turbines becoming more

prevalent, high-powered, solid-state frequency converters are
being used as an alternate source of gas turbine starting power.

These devices provide variable frequency power directly to the

generator terminals using the generator as a synchronous motor
to start the gas turbine and bring it to a self-sustaining condition.
A conventional turning gear is used for slow speed operation,
such as cool down and standby turning, and the turning gear
assists during rotor breakaway at startup to reduce the required
rating of the semiconductors.
A static start system has numerous advantages. Elimination of

the conventional starting skid allows direct access to the
generator field for inspection and removal. The shorter
centerline length means shorter foundations, shorter overhead
crane spans, smaller building lengths, and reduced cable and
pipe runs. Lube oil system requirements are also reduced in
terms of both circulation flow and heat rejection. Static start
systems typically run quieter than other types of starting
systems. Because of the higher efficiency of the
semiconductor/motor combination, starting power requirements
are reduced from a conventional starting system.
Lube Oil Systems

The function of a lube oil system is to provide clean, cool
lubricating oil to the gas turbine bearings at the proper pressure,
temperature, and flow rate. Two types of oils are normally used
in the lubrication of gas turbine equipment: hydrocarbon and
fire-resistant synthetic-based oil. The oil type that is used
depends on the gas turbine bearing construction and operating
condition.
Saudi Aramco Manual System Specification 26-SAMSS-058

mandates the turbine oil that can be used for General Electric
Frame 7 and above gas turbines. Similarly, 26-SAMSS-076
mandates the synthetic turbine oil that is required for the
following gas turbines:
• Rolls Royce RB211 and Olympus
• General Electric LM 2500
• Allison 501K
• Pratt & Whitney FT4
• Solar Saturn T-1201

Mineral oil must not be used where synthetic oil is specified.

Synthetic oil is typically used when the expected oil operating
temperature is too high for the Mineral type. The concern is the
oxidation of the oil, its coking potential and ultimately its
breakdown and loss of its usefulness as a lubricant.
Catastrophic damage can occur if mineral oil is used where
synthetic oil is specified.
Aircraft-derivative gas turbines generally use anti-friction type

bearings. Synthetic oils are usually used for antifriction
bearings. The gas turbine lube oil system is normally a separate
system from the drive train equipment lube oil system. The drive
train equipment lube oil system normally uses a mineral-based
lube oil. Aircraft-derivative gas turbines normally have a
scavenging oil system. A scavenging oil pump is mounted on
the engine. The scavenging pump is used to scavenge oil from
the main bearing housings and to return the oil to the reservoir.
Babbitt-type sleeve bearings and thrust bearings, which are

typical of heavy-duty gas turbines, normally use mineral-based
oil. Driven equipment (compressors, gears, and generators)
also usually use mineral-based oil. A common practice by many
heavy-duty gas turbine manufacturers is to provide a combined
lube oil system that supplies the gas turbine and driven
equipment. Saudi Aramco good design practice recommends
that the gas turbine lube oil system be kept separate from the
driven equipment's lube oil system. Contamination of the oil that
is in the driven equipment can cause problems in the gas
turbine.
Many significant changes have taken place in gas turbine lube

oil system designs over the past decade. Duplex filtration is
usually utilized on low-pressure filters to allow for filter
maintenance while the unit is operating. Stainless-steel piping is
normally included on all systems downstream of the low-
pressure filters. Improved bearing sealing air systems have
substantially increased the lubricating oil life to over 20,000
hours between expected changes for most environments.
Improvements in the factory flushing procedures and system
cleanliness techniques have also taken place, which have
improved bearing, gear, servo-valve, and other component
lives.
A typical gas turbine lube oil system is a package system that

consists of pumps, tanks, heaters, coolers, filters, piping, and
controls that provide lubricating oil to the various gas turbine
components, as shown in Figure 38. Figure 38 shows a

simplified schematic of the General Electric (GE) Frame 5 on-

base gas turbine lube oil system. There are several variations of
the GE Frame 5 lube oil systems; Figure 38 represents only one
configuration of a lube oil system. This system consists of the
following main components:
• Lube oil reservoir
• AC/DC motor-driven cool down and emergency seal oil

pump
• Lube oil heat exchangers
• Lube oil filters
• Bearing header pressure control valve
The lube oil system shown in Figure 38 supplies the following

main loads:
• Accessory gear
• Coupling (only if lubricated coupling is used)
• Fan drive gear box
• Gas turbine thrust and journal bearings
• Hydraulic trip circuit
• Fuel regulator

Figure 38. Typical Gas Turbine Lube Oil System (GE Frame 5)
The GE Frame 5 gas turbine lube oil system is a packaged,

forced-feed lubrication system. The lubricating oil system
provides the required quantity of oil at the correct pressure and
temperature to the gas turbine. Again, it should be noted that
Saudi Aramco good design practice recommends that the gas
turbine lube oil system be kept separate from the driven
equipment's lube oil system. The GE Frame 5 gas turbine lube
oil system is designed to provide lube oil service independent of
the turbine operation of availability of ac power.
The main lube oil tank is fabricated as an integral part of the

turbine base, under the accessory compartment. Located on or
in the tank are the ac/dc motor-driven cool down and
emergency seal oil pump, filters, coolers, tank oil level
indicators, tank temperature indicators, and lube oil heaters.

The main lube oil pump is a positive displacement pump driven

by the accessory gear. The output of the main lube oil pump is
limited to 65 psig by the back pressure valve VR-1. The cool
down and emergency pump is a centrifugal pump driven by
tandem mounted vertical ac (88QC) and dc (88QE) motors. The
ac motor is used during the normal gas turbine starting and
stopping sequence, providing lubricating oil to the system when
the operation of the main lube oil pump (being driven from the
turbine through the accessory gear) is not sufficient. When ac
power is not available, the dc motor provides the driving power
to the pump.
Lubricating oil is supplied to the bearing header through a

regulating valve (VPR-2) that maintains 25 psig oil pressure in
the bearing supply header.
In addition to lubrication, the GE Frame 5 lube oil system also

provides oil to the hydraulic trip circuit and fuel regulator. The
trip circuit oil is extracted from the main pump discharge
between the pump and pressure regulating valve VPR-1. The
pressure regulating valve throttles the main pump discharge as
necessary to pressurize the hydraulic trip circuit during the gas
turbine firing sequence.
The main lube oil filter, mounted on the tank cover, provides 5
micron filtration. The main lube oil filter is commonly arranged
as a duplex filter unit (not shown) in direct line with an oil cooler
for each filter. The oil supplied to the hydraulic trip circuit is
filtered to 0.5 microns.
Before the gas turbine is started, the ac or dc cool down and

emergency lube oil pump operates to supply lube oil from the
reservoir at approximately 170 gpm and 20 psi to the lube oil
system. The lube oil passes through a check valve that prevents
backflow of oil through the cool down and emergency pump
when the main lube oil pump is operating. Lube oil pressure is
regulated by the regulating valve VPR-2. After passing through
the VPR-2, lube oil passes through a lube oil cooler that
maintains oil temperature at approximately 130º F. The lube oil
then passes through the 5 micron lube oil filter. Lube oil leaving
the filter is supplied to the fan drive gearbox or passes through
an orifice to supply other gas turbine bearing and gear loads. All
lube oil system loads drain back to the reservoir.
In addition to supplying lube oil system loads, the system shown

in Figure 39 also supplies oil to the hydraulic trip circuit through
regulating valve VPR-1 and a 5 micron filter.

After the gas turbine is started, the main lube oil pump will take
suction on the lube oil reservoir and supply oil to the lube oil
system through regulating valve VR-1. After passing through
valve VR-1, the lube oil pressure is regulated by valve VPR-2
and flows through the lube oil system through the same
components as described in the discussion of the cool down
and emergency lube oil pump.
Fire Protection Systems

Fire protection systems are safety systems that are used to
extinguish fires in gas turbine enclosures. Aramco’s standards
require that any enclosure supplied for a gas turbine to be
furnished with a fire protection system that complies with the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Code No. 72
requirements. The fire extinguishing medium must be carbon
dioxide. Halon systems are no longer used at Saudi Aramco.
Figure 39 is an illustration of a typical fire detection system. The

enclosures are protected by gas detectors (AE), thermal
detectors (TE), and optical flame detectors (BE). If one of the
gas detectors senses gas in the area, a warning alarm is
initiated. If two of the gas detectors sense a combustible gas
ratio of 60 percent in the area, an emergency shutdown is
initiated. A flame indication by the enclosure flame detectors
also initiates an emergency shutdown. SAES-8-009 requires
that at a minimum, gas detectors must be installed in any
combustion turbine control cabinet.
Any one of the thermal detectors can initiate an emergency

shutdown. If the temperature of the generator compartment
exceeds a preset limit, an emergency shutdown is initiated. The
ability to perform a manual initiation of an emergency shutdown
is normally provided by manual hand switches (HS) that are
located outside of the enclosure. The manual hand switches are
normally mounted on the exterior wall of the enclosure.
Any signal from the fire detection system that initiates an

emergency shutdown will also initiate carbon dioxide release
through the use of the carbon dioxide fire protection system.
When a shutdown is initiated by the fire protection system, the

ventilation system for the enclosures is de-energized and
isolated. After a time delay, the pilot-operated valves open and
release carbon dioxide into the enclosures through the nozzles.

Within a few seconds after actuation, sufficient CO2 flows into

the compartments of the gas turbine unit to rapidly build up an
extinguishing concentration. This concentration is maintained for
a prolonged period of time by the gradual addition of more CO2
from the extended discharge, which compensates for the
compartment leakage. The carbon dioxide displaces the oxygen
and creates a noncombustible atmosphere.
TE
THERMAL DETECTOR
Figure 39. Typical Fire Detection System of a Turbine-Driven Generator Set

The majority of heavy-duty gas turbines use low-pressure CO2

tanks. The tanks' contents are normally cooled by a refrigeration
system that prevents over pressurization at higher ambient
temperatures. The refrigerant tanks are sized for 200 percent
capacity. Smaller gas turbines normally use high-pressure
bottles. Figure 40 illustrates a carbon dioxide-based fire
protection system that consists of initial and extended
discharges. The carbon dioxide fire protection system shown in
Figure 40 includes the following components:
• CO2 storage tank
• Tank fill connection
• Vapor equalizing connection
• Refrigerant compressor
• Electrical control cabinet
• Pilot control cabinet
• Actuator solenoid valves
• Discharge valves
• Initial discharge valves
• Extended discharge valves
The carbon dioxide fire protection system supplies fire

suppression to the following areas:
• Off-base enclosure
• Turbine compartment
• Load shaft compartment

Figure 40. Typical CO2-Based Fire Protection System of a Turbine-Driven

Generator Set
Accessory Gearbox
The function of the accessory gearbox, located at the
compressor end of the gas turbine, is to drive each gas turbine-
driven accessory at its proper speed and to connect the turbine
to its starting device. Contained within the gear casing are the
gear trains that provide the proper gear reductions to drive the
accessory devices at the required speed, with the correct torque
values. Accessories driven by the gear typically include the main
lube oil pump, the main hydraulic supply pump, the liquid fuel
pump, and the main atomizing air compressor. Figure 41
illustrates a typical accessory gear. The accessory gear housing
also typical contains the gas turbine overspeed bolt and trip
mechanism. Lubrication to the gear is typically supplied from the
turbine’s pressurized bearing supply header.

Figure 41. Typical Accessory Gear Box
The accessory gear illustrated in Figure 41 consists of four,

parallel-axis, interconnected shafts arranged in a casing that
provides for the various driven accessories. For ease of
maintenance and inspection, the gear casing is split at the
horizontal plane into upper and lower sections. With the
exception of the lube oil pump and hydraulic supply pump shaft,
all of the shaft centerlines are located on the horizontal joint of
the accessory gear casing.
All shafts are connected by single helical gears that are shrunk
to the shafts after the teeth are cut. All of the shafts located on
the horizontal joint are contained in babbitt-lined, steel-backed
journal bearings with integral thrust faces that are split on the
horizontal joint of the casing. The thrust faces of the bearings
maintain the shafts in their proper axial location and the
necessary thrust clearance is preset. The shafts that are not on
the horizontal joint are contained in babbitt-lined, steel-backed,
nonsplit bushings with integral thrust faces.

A turbine overspeed trip capable of mechanically dumping oil in

trip circuits is usually mounted on the exterior of the accessory
gear. This device can shut down the turbine when the speed
exceeds the design speed. The overspeed bolt that actuates the
trip is normally installed on the main shaft. The result of the
actuation of the overspeed trip bolt is a rapid decay of control oil
pressure, which isolates all fuel supplies to the unit. A manual
trip valve is usually provided next to the overspeed trip bolt on
the side of the gear box.
During normal operation, all of the systems that have accessory

device mechanisms are driven directly by the accessory drive
gear. In addition to being the main link between the starting
motor and the gas turbine, the accessory drive gear is the gear
reduction unit directly connected to the turbine for driving
several of the accessory devices mentioned above.
Couplings
Couplings are used in gas turbines to connect the gas turbine

output shaft to the load and to connect the gas turbine shaft and
support equipment to the accessory gearbox. Many types of
coupling designs are used in gas turbines, depending on the
application. A brief overview of coupling designs and types used
with gas turbines is provided in the following paragraphs.
The primary purpose of a coupling is to transmit rotational

motion from one shaft to another shaft. Couplings also perform
several additional functions. These functions include providing
for the quick disconnect of a driver (motor or engine) from the
driven equipment (such as a pump). It also allows for some
degree of relative axial motion (such as due to thermal
expansion), reducing or eliminating vibration transfer from one
component to another, and permitting varying amounts of
misalignment (although the desire is always for complete
alignment between the driver and the driven equipment).
Most couplings can be classified as either rigid or flexible. Rigid

couplings do not compensate for misalignment, and they are
used mainly to connect the shafts of single bearing generator
sets. Flexible couplings are generally used to connect small-
and medium-sized rotating equipment. Common types of rigid
and flexible couplings are described below.

Rigid Couplings
Two common types of rigid couplings are the flanged coupling

and the ribbed coupling. The flanged coupling is usually made
with flat faces, but it can also be a male-female joint design. The
ribbed coupling is usually used where two or more long shafts
are connected, e.g., a line shaft. If the shafts are small in
diameter, the coupling may be solid instead of split.
Flexible Couplings
Flexible couplings compensate for temperature changes and

permit end movement of the shafts without placing unwanted
stresses on bearings and seals. Flexible couplings should not
be used to compensate for misalignment. Types of flexible
couplings include gear, diaphragm, spring grid, metal disk,
chain, elastomeric, and three jaw. Flexible couplings consist of
two hubs attached to the driver and driven shafts, with a flexible
spacer inserted between them. The hubs may be attached to
the shafts by a keyway, taper-fit, or other means.
Flexible coupling hubs must be aligned to within manufacturer's

specifications for the driven equipment, the driver, and the
coupling. In addition, some equipment may require that the
coupling permit end float of the shaft but limit the end float to a
certain amount. Many equipment manufacturers specify
alignment and end-float requirements; others do not. In all
cases, manufacturer's literature and drawings should be
referenced for specifications. Most couplings used in gas turbine
applications are of the flexible design, with gear and diaphragm
couplings being most widely used.
Gear Couplings
Gear couplings, shown in Figure 42, are used to connect a gas

turbine to the associated load and accessory gearbox. The hubs
of a gear coupling are connected by split sleeves. The hubs are
aligned on the stub shaft with the sleeve halves in place behind
them. The sleeve halves are then slid into place over the hubs
and are bolted together. The hub and sleeve teeth are packed
with lubricant before assembling. Alternately, a continuous flow
of oil may be supplied to the coupling for lubrication during
operation.

Figure 42. Typical Gear Coupling
The coupling gear teeth are designed with a small amount of

backlash to permit minor parallel and angular misalignment.
Gear couplings also permit end float. High-speed gear couplings
are usually dynamically balanced.
Successful operation of gear-type couplings depends on several

factors that include alignment, sliding velocities, lubrication,
load, and materials. Some features of gear-type couplings that
allow superior service characteristics are the following:
• Nitriding gear teeth to maximize wear resistance
• Match lapping for maximized tooth contact
• Teflon coating to ease the break-in period
Aramco’s standards require that the gas turbine load couplings

be of the dry, flexible diaphragm or disc type.

Diaphragm Coupling
There are many different designs and layouts of diaphram

couplings. In general, a diaphragm coupling uses multiple layers
of thin steel, called diaphragms or a disk pack, to compensate
for misalignment. In some couplings, the center ring is left out,
and the disk packs are bolted to each other. Figure 43 shows a
sample diaphragm coupling used to connect the gas turbine
shaft to driven equipment.
Figure 43. Double Diaphragm Coupling
The diaphragm or disk-type coupling offers several advantages

over the gear-type coupling. The most notable of these is the
elimination of gear teeth; therefore, diaphragm couplings do not
require a lubrication system and transmit motion smoothly,
without backlash. With diaphragm couplings, there are no oil
leaks concerns. Concern over sliding velocities, friction factors,
and heat generation is eliminated. By design, the diaphragm
stresses are calculable, which results in a greater overall
misalignment tolerance between the driver and the driven
component. This type of coupling can operate under a wider
range of misalignment.

Uninterruptible Power Supply Systems

The basic function of an uninterruptible power supply system
(UPS) is to preserve power to electrical and/or electronic
equipment. Most UPS systems provide regulated power to
prevent power supply fluctuations that can damage sensitive
electrical or electronic equipment.
There are two basic types of UPS systems: rotary systems and
static systems. A basic rotary UPS system is essentially a
motor-generator set that provides isolation between the
incoming power supply and the load to prevent fluctuations from
damaging the load. A static UPS system rectifies the incoming
AC power to DC power and then inverts the DC power to AC
power of the proper voltage and frequency for the load.
A typical static UPS system is discussed below. The UPS

system consists of the following:
• Primary ac input
• External battery input
• Alternate ac input
• AC to DC rectifier
• DC to AC inverter
• Automatic static transfer switch
Primary ac input power to the UPS is normally supplied from a

480 V Essential MCC. The rectifier converts the incoming
primary ac power to regulated, filtered dc power, which it
supplies to the inverter. The rectifier is the normal source of dc
voltage for the inverter. In case the primary ac input voltage
fails, or becomes unavailable, the external battery then supplies
the necessary dc voltage to the inverter, without interruption, for
a limited time. Upon restoration of the primary ac input voltage,
the rectifier resumes operation and again supplies dc voltage to
the inverter.
The inverter is used to convert the DC output of the rectifier (or

of the battery) to ac power that meets the requirements of the
load under all conditions. This conversion is done by repeatedly
turning on and off solid-state electronic switches called silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCRs).

Should the rectifier output become unavailable for an extended

period of time, the inverter automatically shuts down when the
external battery is discharged to a predetermined voltage level.
The output of the inverter is connected to the associated 120
Vac UPS distribution bus through an output circuit breaker and
a static switch that is sometimes labeled “Bypass Switch.”
The static switch is used to automatically transfer the load to the

backup power source in a fraction of a cycle if the inverter
voltage drops below a preset value. This device ensures that
the continuous power needed is provided to vital controls and
instruments.
Any of several conditions will cause the load to be switched to

the bypass source. These conditions are explained in the
following:
• A failure of the inverter to generate a proper square wave

is sensed by the static switch control circuit.
• A deterioration of the output voltage beyond a

predetermined limit.
• An overload, as sensed by voltage across a current

transformer on the output terminals of the static switch.
Manual operation of the controls can also force the static switch
into the bypass condition. Transfers to the bypass source will
only take place if the bypass and inverter are in synchronism
unless the inverter has actually failed. If the inverter fails, the
bypass operation will take place regardless of the condition.
Returning the load to the inverter requires that the inverter
output voltage is normal and that the amount of load being
supplied is not beyond the rating of the inverter.
Each of the components is typically enclosed in a metal

housing. The front panel of the inverter contains all of the
controls and indicators necessary to place the system in service
and monitor its operation. The static switch and bypass controls
are located in a separate cabinet, which is usually located
adjacent to the inverter cabinet. A manual transfer switch is also
provided to remove the inverter from service for maintenance
without interrupting power to the bus. The transfer switch can
also be used to bypass the static switch discussed above.

GAS TURBINE CONTROL - SEQUENCING, TURBINE AND FUEL

CONTROL, AND PROTECTION FEATURES
Gas turbines are complex mechanical units that require many
support systems to ensure safe and efficient operation at all
times. A gas turbine is normally provided with a control system
that provides for:
• Startup and stable operation of the unit
• Warns of abnormal conditions
• Monitors the operation
• Shuts down the unit
The commercialization of microprocessor technology has had a
very significant impact on gas turbine reliability. Incorporation of
this technology into gas turbine systems in the form of digital
microprocessor controls has allowed turbine manufacturers to
design many new features that were previously impossible or
impractical. The data can now be manipulated, analyzed, and
displayed to assist in troubleshooting and maintenance
functions.
The functions mentioned above are effectively performed by

one main overall control system. This section of the module
examines the following gas turbine control features:
• Sequencing
• Turbine and Fuel Flow Control
• Monitoring & Protection
The gas turbine has a number of control and protection features

designed for reliable and safe operation of the unit. Control of
the turbine is done mainly by control sub-loops: startup,
speed/load, acceleration, temperature, and compressor
differential pressure control. The turbine may also be controlled
by the parameters of the driven equipment; for example, if the
driven equipment is a pump, pump suction pressure may exert
control on the turbine. Protection systems and features are
provided to prevent abnormal conditions that could result in
damage to the turbine. Critical operating parameters are
continuously monitored and checked versus pre-set limits.
Abnormal indications are processed and passed on to the

operator, or could lead to automatic engine shut down, per unit

operation programmed guidelines.
CONTROL SYSTEM - SEQUENCING FEATURE

The sequencing subsystem provides the proper signals for
turbine startups, normal safe operation, normal shutdowns, and
shutdowns under all possible abnormal modes as a result of
equipment or control system failures. This subsystem also
provides control and operating signals to equipment such as
motor starters, solenoid valves, indicating lights, and ignition
relays.
A normal turbine startup cycle is defined as the transition from a

turbine at rest to the condition of operation that is suitable for
use on a particular application. On a single-shaft AC generator
set, the startup cycle includes taking the turbine from zero
speed to a minimum governor speed with the ability to provide
electrical power at rated frequency. On a two-shaft gas turbine
drive system, the startup cycle consists of taking the turbine
from zero speed to idle speed. At idle speed, the turbine is
ready to provide shaft power upon request.
A typical normal start sequence for a single-shaft AC generator

controlled by the sequencing system is provided in the following
text.
Starting
A turbine start signal is initiated by an operator or by an

automatic start signal, and it actuates the starting system. Like
other internal combustion machines, a gas turbine cannot
produce torque at zero speed. A device must be used to “crank”
the turbine for startup. The starting system must have the ability
to overcome the breakaway torque and to accelerate the gas
turbine through the start sequence. If the turbine reaches a
preset speed within a specified time period, the starting system
continues to crank the turbine. If the turbine does not reach the
specified speed in the specified time, the start sequence is
normally aborted to prevent damage to the gas turbine due to
an abnormality.
The next point of start sequence is the ignition speed. Once the
gas turbine reaches the ignition speed, the gas turbine is purged
as discussed below.

Purging
Purging is the process of supplying air flow through the gas

turbine to remove combustible gases that may have
accumulated in the turbine and exhaust stack since the last gas
turbine shutdown sequence, or after multiple start attempts. The
purge prevents uncontrolled ignition of the combustible gases
through the use of a purge delay timer. The purge delay timer
prevents fuel admission and ignition for a period of time to allow
air to purge the system of all hazardous gases. The purge time
is based on a specific number of volume changes in the turbine.
Typically, the required number of volume changes is three to
five times the unit internal air volume.
The purge process also is used on dual-fuel gas turbines to
purge any oil fuel accumulation from the oil nozzles after the
gas turbine fuel system is transferred to gas operations. If the oil
fuel accumulation were not removed, the light end of the oil
would boil off and leave the heavier ends to coke and foul the
nozzles. The purging of these nozzles keeps the nozzles clean
and ready for operation when fuel oil operations are continued.
A purge air system takes a small amount of atomized air and
directs it through the oil fuel nozzles. This purge process also
prevents the entry of any combustion products into the oil fuel
nozzles that could foul this section of the oil fuel nozzles.
Flame Ignition and

Indication
After the gas turbine has reached its ignition speed and the
purge has been successfully completed, fuel is introduced and
ignition is energized. Ignition speed varies with the type of gas
turbine. Some gas turbines are ignited at approximately 25
percent of rated speed. This early ignition provides additional
torque and helps the starter motor to crank the turbine. If
ignition is confirmed within an allowable time, the start cycle
continues. The ignition must be confirmed by a flame detection
system.
The function of the flame detection system is to provide a
“presence-of-flame” signal to the sequencing system that the
combustion chamber has ignited. The sequencing feature uses
this signal to continue the start sequence. If the flame detection
system does not detect the presence of a flame after a
predetermined time period, the start sequence is aborted.
Additionally, during normal gas turbine operation, if the flame
detection system determines that there is an “absence-of-flame”
signal present, the system trips the gas turbine for protection.

Note that two flame detectors must detect the absence of a

flame before the trip signal is initiated.
Controlled
Acceleration
Once the unit is fired, the gas turbine continues to accelerate at

a controlled rate as determined by the sequencing system. The
fuel combustion results in the production of some torque from
the turbine section, and it reduces the starting system torque
requirements. The starting system continues to provide
additional torque after firing until the gas turbine reaches a self-
sustaining speed. Depending on the design of the gas turbine,
the self-sustaining speed may be from 45 to 80 percent of rated
speed. At this point, the starting system normally disengages,
and the sequencing system brings the turbine to a
predetermined set speed and the starting cycle is complete.
Surge Protection
During the initial gas turbine startup, the sequencing system

controls the position of the gas turbine inlet guide vanes and/or
variable position stator vanes to adjust the compressor air flow.
Also, in some engines, compressor bleed at different stages,
using bleed valves, is also performed during engine start-up and
shutdown. These adjustments of this air flow are necessary to
permit smooth, fast acceleration of the gas turbine without
compressor surge. The term “surge” refers to large scale
fluctuations in mass flow and pressure in the compressor. The
magnitude of the fluctuations is a function of the pressure ratio
and/or the rotational speed of the operating compressor. At
startup, the inlet guide vanes are partially closed to restrict air
flow to the compressor. As the gas turbine speed increases, the
sequencing system rotates the vanes until the vanes are almost
fully open at approximately 95 percent of rated speed.
Idle Mode
The gas turbine must meet a series of checks before it can be

loaded. These checks are performed with the turbine at a lower
rated speed and temperature, without the applied load, of the
idle mode. Fuel is controlled to attain this idle speed to complete
engine checks. Upon completion of all the required turbine
checks, and if all monitored parameters are within the required
values, the gas turbine can then be taken out of the idle mode
and loaded.

CONTROL SYSTEM - TURBINE AND FUEL CONTROL FEATURES

Successful operation of a gas turbine requires a comprehension
of the control systems that operate the gas turbine and its
associated equipment. Gas turbine controls are designed to
provide excellent operational reliability and to provide a high
degree of protection to ensure safe operation.
Controls for early vintage industrial gas turbines started as

derivatives of steam turbine control technology through the use
of pneumatics and hydraulics. As mentioned previously, most
industrial applications now use electronic controls with electrical
or electric-hydraulic actuators used to operate fuel valves and
other components. Electronic controls have more flexibility and
ability to adapt to all of the customer requirements.
This section of the module discusses the following selected

control features:
• Turbine control
• Fuel control
Turbine Control
Feature
All gas turbines require an ability to control speed and/or power.
Speed and power must be controlled during steady-state
conditions as well as transient conditions. Both speed and
power are controlled by modulating fuel flow to the gas turbine
fuel burners. The control system must also limit the maximum
power to prevent the turbine from exceeding its design limits.
The following primary control systems are vital to proper gas
turbine operations:
• Speed/load control system
• Temperature control system
• Compressor differential pressure control system

Speed/Load Control
System
A speed controller, or governor, controls the gas turbine output

shaft speed. A speed control system must be able to maintain
this speed at a steady-state condition and to return the speed to
a steady-state condition with a minimum of overshoot in the
shortest time possible after a speed or load change. All speed
governors sense turbine speed and compare it to a reference
set point speed. The speed governor controls the fuel flow to
attain the desired steady state speed after a speed or load
change.
A single-shaft gas turbine has its compressor, turbine, and load

on a common shaft; therefore, only one speed parameter is
involved. The speed governor controls the turbine speed by the
modulation of the fuel flow to the combustors. Any changes in
the load torque will momentarily result in an imbalance between
the developed torque and the load torque. This imbalance
causes a speed change that result in the speed governor
making a fuel correction. The imbalance exists until the
developed torque again matches the load torque.
For most multiple-shaft gas turbines, both the main engine shaft
speed and that of the power turbine are monitored and
controlled by the engine control. On multiple-shaft gas turbines
that are used for electric generators, the speed governor
controls the speed of the power turbine within a prescribed
range (droop) or at a constant level (isochronous) to maintain
the frequency of the generator output. On multiple-shaft gas
turbines that are used for other mechanical drives, such as
pumps and compressors, the speed governor controls the
speed of the power turbine proportional to the output of the
driven load. The governor controls the gas turbine at various
speeds that correspond to the operational range of the driven
load.
When the control senses a power turbine speed change due to

a change in load, then it modulates the fuel to the combustor to
achieve the required speed. For example an increase in load
will result in a decrease in the speed of the power turbine. Thus,
an additional power output of the gas turbine requires that the
speed of the high-pressure turbine be increased, by increasing
the combustion fuel flow and the combustion temperature, but
these temperatures may not go beyond the maximum safe
design limits of the turbine.

The high-pressure turbine speed controller is normally called a

topping governor. The topping governor controls the speed of
the high-pressure turbine whenever the high-pressure turbine
reaches its maximum safe limits. Both the power turbine
governor and the high-pressure turbine governor modulate the
fuel flow to the combustors through a “low signal select”
arrangement. The governor that requires the least fuel flow
controls the fuel valve. When the high-pressure turbine governor
assumes control, the power turbine speed governor can no
longer control the speed of the power turbine. If the driven load
increases after the high-pressure turbine governor takes control,
the speed of the power turbine will decrease.
As was stated earlier, for power generation, the characteristics

of the speed control can be either isochronous or droop. In the
isochronous mode, the governor precisely maintains speed to a
setpoint despite the level of load. When a load change occurs,
there is a momentary change in speed during the transient, but
the speed will always return to the same steady-state reference
value. In the droop mode, the steady-state speed varies with
load. Speed will decrease with an increase in load. If the
generator operates with a 5 percent speed droop, the speed of
the turbine and thus the generator frequency will decrease a
total of 5 percent when the generator load increases from 0 to
100 percent. When a load change occurs, again there is a
momentary change in speed during the transient, but after the
transient, the speed will settle at a new value that is determined
by the amount of droop verses load. In generator drive
applications in which the gas turbine operation is synchronized
to a large system, a droop governor characteristic is used, and
the speed control performs the load control function. While in
this operating mode, the speed control function is still present
and is always active unless the gas turbine is at its maximum
allowable exhaust temperature.
Temperature Control
An increase in power demand requires a higher fuel flow that

results in an increase in turbine temperatures. These turbine
temperatures must be limited to ensure that they do not exceed
the maximum allowable temperatures of the hot section
component materials. The highest temperatures that are
attained in a combustion turbine occur in the combustion
chambers and at the turbine inlet. Because thermocouple
measurements are not possible at this location (can not survive
the temperature environment), the temperature control uses
either power turbine inlet temperature or the exhaust

temperature for engine monitoring. One type of temperature

control feature is designed to limit the firing temperature of a
gas turbine to an operator-selected maximum value that
corresponds to base operating conditions or to peak operating
conditions.
Temperature is measured through use of thermocouples that

produce a millivolt signal that is proportional to temperature.
Normally, several thermocouples are arranged around the entire
exhaust duct to ensure equal temperature distribution. The
temperature signal is compared with a reference signal, the
selected setpoint, and/or the maximum setpoint. Additionally,
the temperature signal modulates the fuel when the setpoint is
reached.
A daily reading of the exhaust thermocouples aids in monitoring

the combustion system and in detecting faulty thermocouples.
Changes in the combustion system are detected easily after a
normal pattern of temperatures has been established. Diverging
temperatures in the exhaust system usually indicate
deterioration of the combustion chamber, fuel nozzle blockage,
or poor fuel distribution (dirty fuel nozzle). Significantly lower
than normal thermocouple, and excessively high readings
indicate thermocouple deterioration. The thermocouple readings
are used to define a “baseline value” of exhaust temperature
spread for comparing future data. Baseline data is established
during steady-state operation after each of the following
conditions:
• Initial startup of unit
• Before and after a planned shutdown
• Before and after planned maintenance
When reviewing exhaust temperature readings to observe any

trend that may indicate deterioration of the combustion system,
gradual and/or sudden temperature excursions should be
investigated as soon as possible to determine the validity of
readings. Faulty thermocouples should be replaced as soon as
possible.
The control also incorporates pre-set engine trip points, which

are activated based on a preset average thermocouple reading,
or based exceeding a pre-set limit of temperature spread
between thermocouples readings.

Compressor
Differential
Pressure Control
Gas turbines are equipped with compressor differential pressure

control systems that are designed to adjust the inlet guide vanes
and/or variable stator vanes of heavy-duty gas turbines to
provide a means to adjust the compressor air flow during
startup, and sometimes at different operating loads. Adjustment
of the air flow capability permits smooth, fast acceleration of the
gas turbine without compressor surge. The vanes are
automatically positioned by the control system as a function of
the gas turbine shaft speed.
Fuel Control
Feature
The fuel control feature modulates the fuel flow to the turbine
when signals are received from the speed and/or temperature
control systems. The fuel control system may include the
regulator, the flow dividers, the pressure regulating valves, and
the actuator/valve assemblies. The type of fuel control system is
based on the type of fuel that is used. Liquid fuel systems
provide a wide variety in the type of fuel system that is used.
These fuel systems range from simple pressure atomizers to
complicated systems that are required for premixed, pre-
vaporized systems. Most combustion sections use some form of
air blast or air-assist atomizers to comply with environmental
restrictions on hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO)
emissions and to achieve good combustor performance. The
standard fuel systems are designed to operate on liquid fuel,
gaseous fuel, or a combination of both.
Liquid Fuels
Control
A conventional liquid fuel control system for a heavy-duty gas

turbine is shown in Figure 44. A fixed, positive-displacement fuel
pump takes suction from the fuel system through a filter and
shut-off valve. The shut-off valve closes to automatically isolate
the fuel supply when a gas turbine emergency trip signal is
generated. The fuel pump provides the required pressure for
injection of the fuel into the gas turbine. The fuel pump is usually
shaft-driven from the accessory gear drive of the gas turbine.
The bypass valve controls the fuel flow through modulation of
the bypass valve. Closing of the bypass valve forces more fuel

to flow into the turbine. Excess fuel is recirculated through the

bypass valve back to the pump suction. The balance of the fuel
passes into a device called a flow divider. The flow divider
divides the single stream from the pump into several streams
(one stream for each gas turbine combustor). The flow divider
ensures equal fuel flow to the fuel nozzles of each combustion
chamber. The flow divider is made up of individual, high-
volumetric efficiency gear pumps that are mechanically
connected to ensure that they run at the same speed.
The bypass valve is actuated by a hydraulic cylinder and servo

that is driven by an electronic position-control system. The
rotational speed of the flow divider is sensed and used as a flow
feedback signal in the fuel control loop to provide increased
accuracy and stability. The speed is measured by redundant
magnetic pickups that are attached to the flow divider drive
gear. The speed feedback signal is compared with the fuel
command signal to control the position of the bypass valve. A
linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is used to sense
the position of the bypass valve and to send a bypass valve
position signal to the position control circuit. A relief valve
protects the system by recirculating the pump discharge back to
the pump suction.

Figure 44. Conventional Liquid Fuel Control System for a Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine
Other control arrangements of liquid fuel systems are used to

control the fuel flow to the gas turbine. The pump may be either
positive displacement or centrifugal. A centrifugal pump is
recommended when low lubricity fuels are used or when water
injection systems are used for emission control. For liquid fuel
valves, a common practice is to maintain a constant pressure
drop across the valve through a differential pressure regulator.
A constant pressure drop across the valve makes the flow
directly proportional to the amount that the valve is open.
Liquids that operate close to their vapor pressure present a

special problem because the fuel must be maintained in a liquid
state in the fuel valve. For these types of fuels, a throttling type
of valve is preferable. If a positive-displacement pump is used, a
bypass line and valve are required, and the bypass flow must go
to a pressurized tank to maintain the fuel as a liquid.

To achieve a rapid rate of burn of a liquid fuel, the fuel must be

thoroughly mixed with air. Before the fuel and air are mixed, the
fuel must be vaporized. Two types of systems are used to
vaporize the fuel: the vaporizing type and the atomizing type of
fuel injection systems. In a vaporizing-type of fuel injection
system, the fuel is mixed with air before the fuel enters the
combustion chambers. Vaporizer systems are not true
vaporizers because there is insufficient heat to fully vaporize the
fuel.
Vaporizers are actually a cross between a carburetor, an air

blast atomizer, and a true vaporizer. The main objection to
vaporizers is their complexity and slow response to changes in
operational conditions. Vaporizers are also less amenable to the
use of alternative fuels.
In atomizing-type fuel injection systems, the fuel is atomized into

small droplets. Atomizers are often called the pressure swirl-
type fuel injection system. Fuel is forced through tangential
ports into a swirl chamber. The fuel is discharged as a conical
sheet. The fuel spray should contain a reasonable proportion of
droplets that range in size below 50 microns. These small
droplets have a high specific surface area that causes the
droplets to readily evaporate and burn. The evaporation and
burning of the fuel provide a source of high-temperature
products that initiate and sustain combustion of the spray.
The atomizing type of fuel injection consists of the following

styles:
• Downstream injection
• Slinger-type injection
• Two-fluid atomizers
Each style of atomizer has its own advantages and

disadvantages. Downstream injection demands a pump that is
capable of efficient operation over a wide range of pressure and
flow. Slinger-type injection generates very high fuel pressure,
even at low speed conditions, to ensure good atomization over
the entire operational range. Two-fluid atomizers use an air
assist or air blast to help break up the liquid fuel sheet to
improve the quality of the atomization at low fuel flows.

Gas Fuels
Control
The critical operational states of the gas system are ignition and
maximum gas flow (maximum power). The gas system must be
sized to pass full flow at the minimum fuel supply pressure that
is possible. At the critical operational state of ignition, the gas
system must be able to control gas flow at the low flow rate that
is required by the gas turbine to minimize the gas turbine
temperature transients and to provide a stable flame. At the
critical operational state of maximum gas flow, gas pressure
throughout the gas system must be regulated to ensure that
there is sufficient pressure to permit an adequate pressure drop
across the throttle valve to provide for control of the gas turbine.
The ratio of maximum-to-minimum gas flow is called the
turndown ratio. A typical gas control system that is shown in
Figure 45 is a two-stage system for a heavy-duty gas turbine.
The two-stage system uses a pressure control function in
combination with a flow control function to achieve a turndown
ratio of approximately 100 to 1.
Because gas is a compressible fuel, the gas flow is not

determined by the pressure drop across the pressure control
valve. Gas flow is determined by the inlet pressure and
discharge pressure of the flow control valve. Gas fuel systems
use a pressure control system to maintain a constant inlet
pressure to the flow control valve. The setpoint of the pressure
control system is the inlet pressure to the flow control valve. The
required setpoint is determined by the ring manifold pressure
requirements at maximum power and the pressure drop across
the flow control valve that is required to provide the maximum
fuel flow. The pressure control valve must be sized to have
sufficient capacity from minimum to maximum flow. The
pressure regulator should not have more than a 1 percent drop
in setpoint when flow increases from minimum to maximum.
The gas system usually uses two hydraulically operated control

valves in series to control the gas flow to the gas turbine over
the range from minimum to maximum power. The pressure
control valve, which is sometimes referred to as the speed-
ratio/stop valve, is controlled by the pressure control system to
provide an interstage gas pressure that is proportional to turbine
speed (compressor speed on two-shaft units). The pressure
control loop uses a pressure transducer (PRESS XDCR) to
sense the interstage pressure. The transducer output signal is
compared to the command signal that is proportional to turbine

speed. The error between the transducer output signal and the
command signal drives a servo actuator that positions the
hydraulically operated pressure control valve to maintain
interstage pressure proportional to speed. An LVDT senses the
position of the valve and sends a valve position signal to the
pressure control circuit. This control arrangement provides
increased accuracy over the needed turndown ratio from
minimum (startup) fuel flow to maximum fuel flow, which
provides low upstream pressures at the flow control valve during
startup where low flow rates are being controlled.
The flow control loop positions the flow control valve to maintain
the gas flow to the turbine over the range of minimum to
maximum power. The flow control signal is a command signal
that is proportional to turbine speed. The flow control signal
drives a servo actuator that positions the hydraulically operated
flow control valve to maintain turbine speed. An LVDT senses
the position of the valve and sends a valve position signal to the
flow control circuit.
Gas flows through a stop valve, the filter, the pressure control
valve, and the flow control valve into the ring manifold. The ring
manifold delivers the gas stream to the individual injectors.
Because the hydraulically operated pressure control valve and
flow control valves are not positive seating valves, the stop
valve is used to provide absolute shutoff of the gas. The strainer
prevents clogging of the gas valves and injector passages. The
pressure control valve has an emergency trip mechanism that
will trip and automatically shut off the supply of fuel when a gas
turbine emergency trip signal is generated.
Pressure-atomizing injectors are the most common types of

injectors that are used in gas-fueled turbines. The simple orifice
is one type of pressure atomizing injector. Because very high
pressures are required for effective atomization of liquid fuel
through the simple orifice, it is rarely used to atomize liquid fuel;
however, because gases do not require atomization, the simple
orifice is generally used to inject gaseous fuels into the
combustor.

Figure 45. Typical Gas Fuel Control System for a Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine
Dual Fuel
Control System
Dual-fuel systems allow the use of different types of fuel in a

gas turbine. Any two of the following types of fuel may be used:
• Gas and liquid
• Multiple gases with different gas supplies
• Multiple liquids with different fuel types and/or supplies
The most common fuel combination is natural gas and distillate,

with natural gas as the primary fuel. Generally, the gas turbine
may be started on either fuel. Transfers from one fuel to the
other fuel may be initiated by the operator at any time after the
completion of the start sequence. The control system can be
programmed to automatically transfer from gas to distillate if a
low gas supply pressure is detected; however, the transfer back
to gas is usually only operator-initiated. Operator-initiated
transfers prevent oscillatory operation if the gas supply pressure
is marginal at the transfer initiation pressure.

Dual-fuel systems contain the components that were previously

described for each of the fuel types that are used. During the
transfer from one type of fuel to another type of fuel, the energy
equivalent of the fuel flow as a function of fuel command is
matched between the two fuels. The matching of the fuel flow
commands as a function of energy results in equal energy
release in the combustors from the two fuels. The transfer
sequence is divided into two parts: a line fill period and the
actual transfer. The incoming fuel command signal is increased
to a level that will allow the system to fill with the fuel. At the
same time, the outgoing fuel command signal is decreased by
an equal energy amount. A slight decrease in power output may
be observed until the incoming fuel system is filled. When the
line fill period has been completed, the incoming fuel command
signal is increased to equal the total fuel command.
Simultaneously, the outgoing fuel command signal is decreased
to zero. Because the total energy to the gas turbine is held
reasonably constant, the load variations for the transfer are
minimal.
The next step in the fuel transfer process is to purge the

outgoing fuel system. Because a purge of the outgoing fuel
system results in additional fuel injection into the gas turbine, a
potential for a load disturbance is possible if the purge is
initiated too abruptly. Once the outgoing fuel system is cleared
of fuel, the potential for load variations disappears. The purge
sequence is designed to minimize the effects of load variations.
A cross-sectional view of a typical fuel nozzle for dual-fuel

systems is shown in Figure 46. The center passageway is used
exclusively for liquid fuel. The outer passageway is used
exclusively for gas fuel. This gas fuel passageway is removed
for applications that use liquid fuel only. The passageway
between the liquid fuel passageway and the gas fuel
passageway is used for atomizing air for the liquid fuel or for a
secondary gas passageway for multiple gas fuel systems. If the
nozzle is used for multiple gas fuel systems, the center liquid
fuel passage is deleted.

Figure 46. Typical Dual-Fuel System Fuel Nozzle Cross-Sectional View
Control System - Protection Feature

The protection system of a gas turbine consists of a number of
primary and secondary systems. Some of the protective
systems and the components that are within the systems
operate through the gas turbine control panel. The hydraulic
system is the primary protection interface between the gas
turbine control panel and the components that control the fuel
flow to the turbine and trip the fuel stop valve(s) closed. The fuel
stop valve(s) are normally tripped closed by dumping the valves’
hydraulic oil upon receipt of a signal from the trip system. Gas
turbines that operate on a single type of fuel normally have one
fuel stop valve. Gas turbines that operate on dual-fuel systems
will normally have two fuel stop valves, one for each fuel
system. Each fuel stop valve has its own hydraulically operated
trip mechanism that dumps the valve's hydraulic oil upon receipt
of a trip signal.
The secondary protection system lies with the Emergency

Shutdown System (ESD). SAES-B-058 states that each gas
turbine must be equipped with an Emergency Shutdown System
(ESD), which consists of the manufacturer's shutdown devices
in addition to a fuel line emergency isolation valve (EIV). The

standard also states that this valve should be independent of

and in addition to the burner flame shutdown valve.
The ability to continuously and reliably operate a gas turbine

depends on the ability to continuously monitor specific
parameters and take corrective actions before a dangerous
condition occurs. Gas turbine protection systems are designed
to automatically react to conditions that could cause damage to
the gas turbine. Gas turbine protection systems receive input
signals from the various turbine parameters. The critical
operating parameters monitored by the protection system
include:
• Speed
• Vibration
• Flame Presence
• Inlet Delta Pressure
• Turbine Wheel Space Temperature
• Exhaust Temperature
• Exhaust Spread
• Bearing Temperature
• Lube Oil Temperature
The input signals can be continuously displayed on indicators,

or they can be recorded on graph recorders. The same input
signals are compared to setpoints. Normally, two setpoints are
associated with each parameter. The setpoints are called “high”
and “high-high” for setpoints that activate as the parameter
increases, and “low” and “low-low” for setpoints that activate as
the parameter decreases.
The protection system activates a visual and audible alarm

when a “high” or “low” setpoint is exceeded. The visual and
audible alarms alert the operator to an abnormal condition to
allow time for the operator to take corrective action before the
parameter exceeds the “high-high” or “low-low” setpoint. If the
parameter continues to increase to the “high-high” setpoint or
decrease to the “low-low” setpoint, the protection system
activates an automatic emergency shutdown (trip) to prevent
damage to the turbine.

Lube oil pressure and hydraulic trip oil pressure are the two
normal pressures that actually initiate a gas turbine trip. The
lube oil pressure detector senses the lube oil pressure at the
extreme end of the lube oil header that supplies the gas turbine
bearings. For a typical heavy-duty gas turbine, if the bearing
header lube oil pressure decreases to approximately 12 psig, a
low bearing header pressure alarm will activate. If the bearing
oil header pressure continues to decrease to approximately 8
psig, the pressure detector will send a signal to the emergency
shutdown system to trip the gas turbine.
The hydraulic trip oil pressure detector senses the hydraulic oil
pressure that is supplied to the hydraulic control and trip
system. For a typical heavy-duty gas turbine, if the hydraulic oil
pressure decreases to approximately 1,050 psig, a low hydraulic
oil pressure alarm will activate; if an auxiliary hydraulic pump is
installed, the auxiliary hydraulic oil pump will start. If the
hydraulic oil pressure continues to decrease to approximately
980 psig, the pressure detector will send a signal to the
emergency shutdown system to trip the gas turbine.
The overspeed control system is normally independent of the

turbine speed control, and must have a redundancy. A minimum
of one electric and mechanical trip devices per shaft must be
provided. If a totally electronic system is provided, a triple
redundant system with three shaft probes and two-out-three
voting logic must be provided. In the case of multiple shafts,
each shaft shall have its own overspeed trip protection. On-line
testing is required without overspeeding the turbine.
Vibration detection and protection are activated by abnormal

turbine vibration amplitude reaching a preset level. Each
protection system has redundant channels of operation. Each of
the channels operates independently and will trip the unit if its
signal corresponds to a trip condition.
Sensors monitor the turbine speed, the temperature, and the

compressor discharge pressure to determine the operating
conditions of the unit. When it is necessary for the turbine
control to alter the turbine operating conditions, it is
accomplished by modulating the flow of fuel to the turbine. For
example, if the exhaust temperature starts to exceed its
predetermined value for a given operating condition, the
temperature control circuit reduces the fuel supplied to the
turbine, which limits exhaust temperature.

This section of the module discusses the following protection

schemes:
• Overspeed bolt
• Electronic overspeed control
• Hot gas path temperature trip system
• Vibration
• Bearing temperature trip
• Driven equipment trip
Overspeed Bolt
The overspeed bolt assembly is part of the hydraulic system
that is used to protect the turbine from a dangerous overspeed
condition. API Standard 616 states that the overspeed trip driver
must operate at 105 percent of maximum continuous speed. A
typical overspeed bolt, as shown in Figure 47, basically consists
of a plunger. The mass of the plunger is located eccentric to the
turbine shaft centerline. The plunger is held inside the rotor by a
spring during normal turbine operating speeds. When the speed
of the turbine reaches the trip setting, the centrifugal force
overcomes the compression of the spring, and the plunger
protrudes from the shaft. The plunger strikes a “trip finger,”
which initiates a unit trip.
The “trip finger” activates a valve that dumps high-pressure trip

oil, which isolates the fuel supply to the gas turbine.
Simultaneously, the trip finger activates a limit switch that
electrically trips the turbine.
Typical overspeed mechanisms are specialized two-way valves

with a latch mechanism. The trip mechanism may be
automatically tripped by the action of the overspeed bolt
assembly, or they may be tripped manually at the trip
mechanism.
The overspeed bolt must be tested periodically to ensure the

freedom of the bolt and the trip finger. Testing is recommended
if one of the following criteria is met:
• Following a major turbine overhaul.

• Following periods, in excess of two months, during which

the turbine has not been operated.
• Annually, when possible, as part of scheduled

maintenance. Turbines that operate in excess of one year
between shutdowns should have the overspeed bolt
tested at the first available shutdown.
• Bolt testing should be done with the gas turbine as close

to operating temperatures as possible (a hot turbine).
When the overspeed bolt testing is done as part of
scheduled maintenance, the test should be run
immediately following a shutdown from normal, loaded
operation.
When the overspeed bolt testing follows a period during which

the turbine was not operating (for example, after a long [>12
hours] shutdown or turbine overhaul), the turbine should be
operated, where possible, to heat the turbine parts and reduce
thermal stresses prior to testing the overspeed bolt. For
example, the turbine should be operated for 30 to 60 minutes at
a no-load condition.
Figure 47. Overspeed Bolt Assembly

Electronic Overspeed
Control
The electronic overspeed control system normally consists of

two independent channels. Both channels must initiate an
overspeed signal to initiate a gas turbine trip. Each channel
normally consists of a magnetic pickup unit and an overspeed
circuit. The magnetic pickup is a permanent magnet that is
surrounded by a coil that is enclosed in a steel jacket. A 60-
tooth wheel is mounted on the turbine. The pickup is mounted in
such a manner that it looks at the wheel and produces an AC
output signal that is proportional to turbine speed. The
overspeed circuit compares the output signal to a setpoint
(normally 110 percent of rated speed). If the turbine speed
exceeds the setpoint, a turbine trip signal is generated.
Hot Gas Path

Temperature Trip
System
A critical measured gas turbine parameter is the hot gas path

temperature. The hot gas path temperature trip system protects
the gas turbine against excessive firing temperatures.
Temperature of the power turbine inlet and the exhaust
temperature are normally used by the hot gas path temperature
trip monitoring system.
A typical temperature trip system consists of at least two

essentially independent hot gas path temperature trip channels.
Each channel function includes:
• Reading multiple thermocouples
• Performing temperature averaging
• Sending a high-temperature alarm signal
• Sending a high-temperature trip signal
The thermocouples are normally heavy-duty-type

thermocouples that are mounted in the turbine exhaust plenum.
The outputs of the thermocouples that make up one channel are
averaged to provide a representative temperature of the regions
that are measured by the thermocouples. The average
temperature is compared to an alarm setpoint and to a trip
setpoint. Because the gas turbine temperatures vary during

startup and load conditions, the alarm setpoint and the trip
setpoint are normally biased to the fuel control temperature limit.
A high hot gas path temperature alarm actuates if either channel

of the system indicates that the exhaust temperature has
exceeded the fuel control temperature set point. The alarm does
not lock in, and therefore, the alarm resets when the exhaust
temperature decreases below the alarm setpoint. If the alarm
circuit detects a fault that would prevent proper actuation of the
alarm, the alarm actuates and locks in. The alarm must be
manually reset when the cause of the fault has been found and
corrected.
A high hot gas path temperature trip signal is generated if either

channel of the system indicates that the exhaust temperature
has exceeded the fuel control temperature pre-set point value.
The trip signal trips the hydraulically operated liquid fuel stop
valve and/or gas fuel pressure control valve to isolate the fuel
supply to the gas turbine. The trip signal also normally sends a
signal to the fuel control system to initiate a turbine shutdown.
The high hot gas path temperature trip signal does lock in and
must be manually reset when the high temperature condition
clears.
Most hot gas path temperature trips also provide a second

alarm, which is called the differential temperature alarm. The
differential temperature alarm circuit averages the output signals
of both channels of the hot gas temperature thermocouples and
the average temperature from the temperature control
thermocouples. If any one of these three signals exceeds the
average signal by a predetermined amount, a differential
temperature alarm is actuated. The differential temperature
alarm is normally set to about 35º F, but this set point varies
with the specific unit. For example, if the output of a heavy-duty
gas turbine hot gas temperature thermocouple channel “A” is
1,000º F, the output of the hot gas temperature thermocouple
channel “B” is 1,000º F; the average of the temperature control
thermocouples is 1,055º F; and the average of these three
temperatures is 1,018º F. The average of the temperature
control thermocouples (1,055º F) exceeds the average of the
three temperatures (1,018º F) by 36º F, and the differential
temperature alarm would therefore actuate.
SAES-J-601 recommends the following types of temperature

detectors to input to the emergency shutdown system:

• Three-wire platinum resistance temperature detectors

(RTD) that are calibrated to 100 ohms at 32º F (0º C).
• ISA Type-J or Type-E thermocouples.
• Ambient temperature-compensated temperature

transmitter/transducer with either analog 4-20 mA dc
signals or digital signals.
Vibration
In the event of excessive vibration, the vibration monitoring

system operates to activate an audible alarm and to trip the gas
turbine. The alarm activates first to provide an opportunity for
the operator to assess the vibration levels and take the
necessary action, if any. If the vibration levels increase to the
trip setpoint, a gas turbine trip signal is generated.
The vibration monitoring system normally consists of two

different types of vibration detectors:
Shaft vibration displacement is measured with non-contact type

(proximity probes) equipment that consists of a separate probe
and an interface unit (oscillator-demodulator). The output of the
vibration displacement monitoring equipment is a shaft peak-to-
peak amplitude of vibration and is calibrated to read out in
micrometers (Mils) peak-to-peak. Vibration displacement
monitoring equipment is used exclusively on heavy-duty gas
turbines.
Casing vibration is measured by contact (piezo-electric or

moving coil) type of equipment that consists of a separate
seismic velocity transducer and interface unit. The output of the
casing vibration monitoring equipment is vibration and is
calibrated to read out in mm/s (in/s) zero-to-peak. Normally, a
time delay (approximately three seconds) is provided to prevent
spurious alarms and/or shutdowns. Casing vibration monitoring
equipment is used on both aircraft-derivative gas turbines and
heavy-duty gas turbines.
Bearing Temperature
Trip
The bearing temperature monitoring system normally provides

an audible alarm before any of the monitored temperatures
reach the trip point. The audible alarm alerts the operator to the
condition to decide on the appropriate action. A temperature

detector that is installed in the lube oil supply header measures

the temperature of the oil that is supplied to the gas turbine
bearings. If the bearing header lube oil temperature increases to
a set point, a lube oil header high temperature alarm will
activate. If the bearing oil header temperature continues to
increase to another higher set point, the temperature detector
will send a signal to the emergency shutdown system to trip the
gas turbine. The lubrication oil drain temperatures are also
monitored. A typical gas turbine lubrication oil drain
temperature monitor will activate an alarm at approximately 200º
F.
Additionally, turbines equipped with anti-friction bearings,

instrumented metal chip detection in the lube oil drain lines are
required, with an alarm annunciation if chips and debris is
detected.
Driven Equipment
Trip
Typically, a gas turbine protection system is interlocked with the

control system for the associated driven equipment. For
example, if the gas turbine load is an electric generator and if
the generator has a malfunction that requires a trip to be
actuated, the generator controls also send a trip signal to the
gas turbine controls.

GLOSSARY
Aircraft-derivative gas An aircraft jet engine that is modified for ground

turbine applications to produce shaft power instead of thrust.
Blades or Buckets The rotating airfoils of both the compressor and turbine.
Combined cycle A cycle that includes a gas turbine to generate power, a
waste heat boiler to recover heat from the gas turbine
exhaust, and a steam turbine that consumes steam from
the waste heat boiler and that generates power.
Combustor The component of a gas turbine in which the fuel and air
are mixed and burnt.
Compressor The first major component of a gas turbine. The
compressor increases the pressure and temperature of the
ambient air.
Compression ratio The ratio of the compressor discharge pressure to the
suction (inlet) pressure.
Expander The power turbine of a gas turbine. The expander
generates power from the compressed and heated air/fuel
mixture.
Firing temperature The mass-flow averaged total temperature of the working
fluid that is measured in the plane immediately upstream of
the first-stage turbine buckets.
Fuel consumption Generally measured in Btu/hr, the input fuel heating value
per unit of time to a gas turbine. Fuel consumption also is
called heat consumption and is generally stated by gas
turbine manufacturers in terms of the lower heating value
(LHV) of the fuel.
Governor or Control A device that controls and regulates the speed of a gas
turbine.
Heat Rate A measure of the fuel consumption and engine
performance of a gas turbine. Heat rate is the Btu/hr
required to produce one horsepower.
Heavy-duty gas turbine A type of gas turbine that is specifically designed for ground
applications and that uses a design philosophy that is
similar to that of the steam-turbine industry. Casings are
split on the horizontal centerline, with onsite maintenance
planned after long periods of operation.
Helper turbine An auxiliary turbine that is connected to a gas turbine that is

usually driven by steam. The helper turbine is used for

starting the gas turbine and may also run continuously to
supplement power output.
Higher heating value Higher heating value is the gross heating value of the fuel,
and it includes the latent heat of condensation of the water
in the products of combustion.
Hydrodynamic bearings Bearings that use the principles of hydrodynamic
lubrication. Their surfaces are oriented so that relative
motion forms an oil wedge to support the load without
journal-to-bearing contact.
ISO rating The rated output of a gas turbine at the standard site
conditions specified by the International Standards
Organization: sea-level altitude, standard atmospheric
pressure of 14.7 psia at the turbine inlet and exhaust, 59ºF
ambient temperature, 60 percent relative humidity.
Lower heating value The lower heating value is the amount of heat that is
released by the complete combustion of a unit quantity of a
material, but it does not include the heat of condensation of
the water in the total measured heat. The lower heating
value is the maximum portion of the heating value that can
be utilized in usual gas turbine equipment.
Open cycle A configuration of a gas turbine in which the exhaust is
vented directly to atmosphere.
Power turbine An expansion turbine that converts the energy of a hot
compressed gas to shaft power. A power turbine is the
same as an expander.
Regenerative cycle A gas turbine cycle that includes a heat exchanger. The
heat exchanger transfers heat from the exhaust gas to the
compressed air before the combustor.
Single-shaft gas turbine A gas turbine in which the air compressor, the power
turbine, and the load are all connected to the same shaft
and therefore run at the same speed.
Thermal efficiency For a gas turbine cycle, the sum of power output plus useful
heat output divided by the consumed heat rate.

Saudi Aramco GT Course PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Saudi Aramco GT Course PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

http://boilersinfo.

GAS TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS,

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Thrust Load Bearings .................................................................................... 49

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Gear Couplings ........................................................................................... 111

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Figure 1. Simple Open-Cycle Gas Turbine (Cross-sectional View and Schematic

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Figure 30. Effects of Water Washing on Turbine Efficiency ......................................... 79

Table 1. Turbine Components ...................................................................................... 12

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

The overall gas turbine design procedure involves a complex

Because of the tremendous costs involved in designing a gas

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

As an example, the Westinghouse 501 engine efficiency

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

GAS TURBINE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

The gas turbine casing functions include:

1. Enclosing the rotor sections of the compressor and turbine,

2. Providing the support for the stationary compressor and

Depending on the type of turbine cycle, gas turbine casing

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

compressor discharge, the combustion chamber inlet, and the

Both the simple open-cycle and the regenerative-cycle gas

In the regenerative cycle gas turbine, however, the discharge of

In the regenerative-cycle gas turbine, the compressor discharge

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Figure 1. Simple Open-Cycle Gas Turbine

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Figure 2. Regenerative-Cycle Gas Turbine

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines

Table 1. Turbine Components

1. Accessory Gear Shaft 19. Transition Piece

3. HP Turbine Thrust Bearing 21. High-Pressure Turbine Nozzle

4. Air Inlet Plenum 22. High-Pressure Turbine Blade

5. Compressor Inlet Casing (Bell) 23. High-Pressure Turbine Rotor

6. #1 Bearing 24. Power Turbine Nozzle

7. Inlet Guide Vanes 25. Power Turbine Blade

8. Compressor Vane 26. #3 Bearing

9. Compressor Blade 27. Exhaust Frame and Diffuser

10. Forward Compressor Casing 28. Power Turbine Rotor

11. Aft Compressor Casing 29. Exhaust Plenum

12. Fuel Nozzle 30. Power Turbine Thrust Bearing

13. Spark Plug 31. #4 Bearing

14. Combustor Assembly 32. After Support

15. Compressor Discharge Casing 33. Power Turbine Section

16. Exit Guide Vanes 34. High-Pressure Turbine Section

17. Combustion Liner 35. Unit Base

18. #2 Bearing 36. Forward Support