JUN 2015 b) Based on Kepler’s 1st law of planetary motion, six orbital

Keplerian elements are used to describe the position of a

Question 1 satellite in space. Show and define clearly all these elements
with the aids of a suitable diagram.
a) Basic principles of positioning using GPS/GNSS technology

The basic concept of GNSS positioning is that of positioning-by-

ranges. The geometrical principles of positioning can be
demonstrated in terms of the intersection of locii. In the two-
dimensional case, a measured range to a known point constrains
the position to lie on circle with the measured range as radius. In
three dimensions a measured range to a known point constrains
the position in 3-D space to lie on the surface of a sphere
centered at the known point, with radius being the measured
The traditional orbital elements are the six Keplerian elements:
distance.
The main two elements that define the shape and size of the
ellipse: Eccentricity (℮ ) and Semimajor axis ( α )
In the case of GPS, the distance measurement is made to a
satellite with known position (coordinates are obtained from the
Two elements define the orientation of the orbital plane in which
satellite ephemeris data transmitted within the navigation
the ellipse is embedded:
message), however the principle applies to any range measuring
• Inclination (i) - vertical tilt of the ellipse with respect to the
positioning system, terrestrial or satellite-based.
reference plane, measured at the ascending node
• Longitude of the ascending node - horizontally orients the
ascending node of the ellipse (where the orbit passes
 upward through the reference plane) with respect to the
reference frame's vernal point (angle Ω in diagram).
And finally:
• Argument of periapsis (w) - defines the orientation of the
ellipse in the orbital plane, as an angle measured from the
ascending node to the periapsis (the closest point )t).
• Mean anomaly at epoch (M◦) defines the position of the
orbiting body along the ellipse at a specific time.
c) The GPS system can be divided into 3 segments namely; space,
control and user. Explain the function of each segments in
detail.
Space Segment:
• 24 + 3 svs placed in MEO
• 6 orbital plane, inclination 55 degree
• 20,200 km altitude
• Orbital period 11:58 hrs
• At least 6 Svs always above horizon
• Atomic clock
• 3 carrier waves, L1, L2 & L5
Control Segment:
• Master control in Colorado Spring (main), alternate master
control
• 6 monitor stations
• A network of monitoring stations distributed around the world
• Tracking, monitoring and maintainance
• Determines data to be uploaded to satellites
• Control and maintaining the position of the svs in the orbit
User Segment:
• Military and civilian
• Receivers hardware, firmwares and assessories
• Including more than 300 million receivers in cell phone
• Data processing and software
Land, air and sea transportations
 - Control station that specially created at the project area for
daily checking purposes.
- Any PMPGN station that near the project area.
• This test must be conducted through connecting GNSS unit to
control unit and communication unit
• This test must be done with 2 epoch observation for every
station/pilar with separated initialization process for every epoch.
• Conducted with at least 5 satellite tracking.
• The coordinate difference for every epoch must be less than 3cm
for N/E and 6 cm for heighting.

1. Daily test
2. Real Time Test (Berkala) o Satellite clock bias
3. Static Test (Berkala) o Ephemeris error
o Receivers clock bias
Daily Test o Ionosphere refraction delay
o Trophosphere refraction delay
• This test conducted in real time instrument test and after o Antenna phase center variation
processing instrument test. o Multipath signal
• Conducted daily to control the quality of the observe data o Receiver noise
through testing/checking the GNSS instrument used. o Satellite perturbations
• This test must be conducted at : o Selective Availability (SA)
o Anti spoofing (AS)
- Any point/control station that have been observed before
and the coordinates are acceptable.
QUESTION 3 iii. Gravity

a) Using an appropriate diagram, discuss the definition and relationship ▪ The force is vectorial resultant of gravitational force and

between gravitational force (F), centrifugal force (C) and gravity (G). centrifugal force.

i. Gravitational Force ▪ Approximate geoid value by define gravity.

▪ The attraction of mass towards the center of the earth. ▪ Approximate G, can approximate potential.

▪ The action force is (F) balance by a reaction force (C). ▪ Can determine height.
▪ Gravity at pole is stronger than at equator.

b) Shows the relationship between geoidal undulation, N and the

deflection of vertical, ε with Vening Meinesz formula.
i. Geoidal Undulation
▪ Formula that linking geoid ellipsoid separation to gravity
ii. Centrifugal Force
anomalies published by Sir George Stokes.
▪ Not a force but the experience of an inertial force experienced
in rotating reference frame acting away from the center of the
rotation.
▪ Equal in magnitude, opposite to the gravitational force
required to constrain the body to move in a circular motion.
ii.
▪ Force is directed outward, perpendicular to rotation axis.
▪ Fc = ω²RcosØ
c) What is the objective of gravity reductions? Explain in detail the
purpose of Free-Air and Bouguer reduction.
QUESTION 4 • The reading obtained at station A should be
compared to reading obtained at station B by
a) List out three gravity observation (field work) methods.
following calculation:
1. Profile method ( 1 day )
𝐴1 − 𝐴2 = 𝐾𝐵1 − 𝐾𝐵2
2. Star method
𝛥𝐴 = K (𝐵1 − 𝐵2 )
3. Step method
K =(𝛥𝐴 +𝛥𝐵)
ii. Gravity observation method
b) Explain in detail the gravimeter calibration technique and the
Gravity loop should never exceed 72 hours (3 days).
gravity observation methods used in establishing the new gravity
Observation should be corrected for static and dynamic
stations.
drift, earth tide and calibration.
i. Calibration method

1. Profile method ( 1 day )

• Starting at point 1, traverse through to point
2, 3, …n and return through n, n-1, n-2, … and
back to 1.
• Used to determine gravity and drift
correction.

• Find the mean of both stations = ( g1 + g2 ) ÷ 2 =

k (coefficient)
2. Star method
• Start from point 1, to 2 and back to 1
• Then, 1 to 3 and back to 1, and so on
• Suitable for tying points surrounding the base

3. Step method
• Start from 1, to 2, back to 1, back to 2, to 3, back
to 2, back to 3, to 4, … and so on (1-22-11-
22-33-22-33-nn-3….)
• Used when the survey cannot be completed in
days work
• Every station will have three readings except
station 1.
c) Absolute and relative GPS levelling techniques can be used in
determination of orthometric height with the presence of geoid
model. Using appropriate diagram, illustrate the GPS levelling
techniques.