Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE

Several readings were made by the researcher to find out what has been done about

this field.

Related Literature

Scientific Literacy means that a person can ask, find, or determine answers to

questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. It means that a person has

the ability to describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena. Scientific literacy entails

being able to read with understanding articles about science in the popular press and to

engage in social conversation about the validity of the conclusions. Scientific literacy

implies that a person can identify scientific issues underlying national and local decisions

and express positions that are scientifically and technologically informed. A literate

citizen should be able to evaluate the quality of scientific information on the basis of its

source and the methods used to generate it. Scientific literacy also implies the capacity to

pose and evaluate arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions from such

arguments appropriately (National Research Council, 1996, p. 22).

Bybee (1997) proposes a way of developing scientific literacy in learning biology

as a continuum of understanding about the natural and the designed world. This starts from

scientific illiteracy, moving to nominal, functional, conceptual and procedural, and

multidimensional scientific literacy.

UNESCO (2001) describes scientific and technological literacy (STL) as mainly

‘internalist’ (i.e., related to activities within classrooms): 1. Nominal STL (i.e., recognizing
science terms and concepts), 2. Functional STL (i.e., describing concepts with limited

understanding) and 3. Structural STL (i.e., constructing concepts with personal relevance

from experience and, 4. Multi-dimensional STL, equates with “empowering all students to

lead productive lives”, “understanding the interactions between science and society” and a

life-long ability “to ask and answer appropriate questions”, that is, it has indispensable

societal and cultural aspects.

A democratic view of scientific literacy is that it enables citizens to become

sufficiently aware of science-related public issues (such as health, energy, natural

resources, food, and the environment). People, therefore, have to hold a broad knowledge

and understanding of science - including the interface between science, technology and

society. A scientifically-literate person should then be aware of science related public

issues and be able to make decisions and hence improve the quality of his or her life. This

is based on acquiring educational skills involving intellectual, attitudinal, communicative,

societal and interdisciplinary learning (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2001; Laugksch, 2000).

Jenkins (1990) argues that scientific literacy depends on time and social contexts

and on the primary purpose. For example, national scientific literacy enhances national

economic prosperity or security. However, the integration of science within the economics

of industrial societies as well as in the technologies of war and pollution causes certain

concerns about the ethical nature of the scientific enterprise. An important aspect of

scientific literacy, then, relates to defense of issues that have risen in the political arena,

where the scientific community has often sought to defend itself against its critics.

Abd-El-Khalick and BouJaoude (1997) define that a scientifically literate person

should develop an understanding of the concepts, principles, theories, and processes of

science, and an awareness of the complex relationship among science, technology, society,

and environment. Hence, this definition points to three notions: 1) what of science

(concepts, principles and theories), 2) how of science (processes of science), and 3)

applications of science (science, technology, society, and environment connections), which

summarize the true nature of science.

Miller (1983) stated scientific and technological society, scientific literacy

includes: (a) understanding of the norms and the methods of science; (b) understanding of

key scientific terms and concepts; and (c) awareness and understanding of the impact of

science and technology on society.

Kamil and Bernhardt (2004) found it “bitterly ironic” that most science education

literature has ignored previous written data regarding how to teach knowledge construction

and verification of data, because that is what scientists must do to pursue their professional

goals. Students should form questions and problems with direction from the teacher, then

become actively involved in the process of inquiry and problem solving.

Alvermann (2004) posits that the tensions between doing science (inquiry) and

reading and writing science have eased, and good teachers use many forms of literacy to

engage students in inquiry. In order to accomplish this, teachers provide explicit instruction

using a range of reading tasks intended to integrate reading instruction into the science

curriculum.