CHAPTER 02

2.0. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Okra is acknowledge as an annual herbaceous plant which is grown in tropical and

sub-tropical areas and behoove as a source of carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and

various minerals (Jeyapraba et al., 2015). According to Benchasri (2012) Okra is

commonly known as bhindi in India, krajiab kheaw in Thailand, okra plant, ochro,

okoro, quimgombo, bhindi in South East Asia and Middle East it is known as

bamiya, bamya or bamich and gumbo in Southern USA and Lady’s fingers in

England. Sanid et al. (2013) noted that okra is currently cultivated in Africa, Asia,

Southern Europe, America and many countries. Its total annual production in the

world was about 4.8 million tons.

Anon (2007) stated that okra is acknowledge as one of the world’s oldest cultivated

plant. It is a most popular vegetable in Sri Lanka which ranks fourth in cultivated

division among the low country vegetables. It shows a broad adaptability and is

cultivated in several parts of the country as a home garden crop or on a commercial

scale crop. It also shows wide potential for increasing foreign exchange ( Pathinige,

2008). Fonseka et al. (2008) reported that favorable climatic and soil condition of

dry zone in Sri Lanka help to ease in growing okra. So okra is a very popular

vegetable crop among the farmers of dry zone in Sri Lanka. Farmers cultivate okra

as a monocrop in irrigated uplands and in rice based cropping systems during the

yala season and in well drained highlands during the maha season.

1
Okra is a warm weather crop and it prefers temperature between 22 ̊C and 35 ̊C. It

is susceptibility to frost and temperature below 12 ̊C. Okra can be grown on a vast

range of soils. Soil with high organic matters are most prefer for okra cultivation.

The applying of lime or dolomite is necessary during soil preparation to keep the

pH about 6 - 6.5 (Taware and Santosh, 2012). Okra is a one of crop among the

most heat and drought tolerant vegetable species in the world and it also tolerate

soils with heavy clay and moderate moisture (Singh et al., 2014).

2.1.1. Geographical Origin, History and Distribution

Okra originated in Ethiopia and it was propagated in North Africa, Mediterranean,

Arabia and India by the 12th century BC. Its cultivation scattered all over the

Middle East and North Africa region (Singh et al., 2014). Okra is rank number one

in India, due to its consumption. But its original home is Ethiopia, Sudan and

North-Eastern African countries. It is one of the oldest cultivated vegetable crop

in the world and now a days it grown in many countries and is widely distributed

from Africa to Asia, southern Europe and America. (Kumar et al., 2013).

According to Martin and Ruberte (1978) various species of the genus Abelmoschus

are grown in many regions of the world, among them okra is most commonly

cultivated in Asia and has a huge commercial demand due to its nutritional value.

It is now widely cultivated in the tropics, sub tropics and warmer temperate zones.

The most important Okra producing countries are India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Ghana

and Egypt. It is easy to cultivate of regions with moderate rainfall and it is normally

grown during the summer

2
2.1.2. Classification

Kingdom : Plantae - plantes, planta, vegetal, plants

Subkingdom : Viridiplantae – green plants

Infrakingdom : Streptophyta – land plants

Superdivision : Embryophyta

Division : Tracheophyta – vascular plants, tracheophytes

Subdivision : Spermatophytina – spermatophytes, seed plants

Class : Magnoliopsida

Superorder : Rosanae

Order : Malvales

Family : Malvaceae – mallows, mauves

Genus : Abelmoschus Medik - okra

Species : Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Monech – okra

[Source: Malvales of North America Update, database (version 2011)]

2.1.3. Biological description

Lamnot et al. (1999) noted that okra is an annual plant and is mainly propagated

by seeds and germination occurs between six days. It has 90 – 100 days duration

from sowing to harvesting. Its stem is thicker, strong and erect. It is a semi woody,

fibrous, herbaceous annual with indefinite growth habit and varying from 3 – 6

feet (0.9 to 1.8m) in height. Okra plant has large, alternate, palmately five lobed

with small stipules. Leaf margins vary from slightly wavy to very deeply lobed.

3
Purewal and Randhawa (1947) reported that okra plants can characterized by

indeterminate growth. Flowering is highly dependent on biotic and abiotic stress.

Flowers appear first one to two months after sowing. Flower buds bear in the axil

of each leaf beginning above the six to eight leaf stage. The okra flowers are 4 – 8

cm in diameter with five white to yellow petals with a red or purple spot at the base

of each petal. Flower buds take about 22 – 26 days from initiation to full bloom.

The fruit or pod is a capsule containing round, white seeds and grows quickly after

flowering. During fourth to six day after pollination, okra pods get greatest increase

in fruit length, height and diameter. Okra pods are harvested while they are still

soft, immature high in mucilage and the seeds are only partially developed. Seed

pods rapidly become fibrous and must be harvested before becoming highly

fibrous (Singh et al., 2017). Okra pods are harvested every second day from the

time the first pod is formed. It takes 5 to 10 days from flowering to picking fruits

prepared for the markets. Harvesting is usually done early in the morning. (Adetuyi

et al. 2008).

2.1.4. Haritha Okra variety

According to the Department of Agriculture Haritha okra variety fruits are dark

green, medium size, pyramidal, elongated and edged. Its upper leaves are deeply

lobed. It is suitable for Island wide cultivation and tolerant to Yellow Vein Mosaic

virus.

2.1.5. Uses

Okra is a high consumption of crop product is related with a reduced risk of a

chronic diseases, especially cancer. These beneficial effects have been partly

4
attributed to the major antioxidants of vegetables. These are vitamins C and E,

carotenoids and phenolic compounds, flavonoids (Gemede, 2015). Fresh fruit of

okra plays an important role in human diet in different forms. It could be boiled,

added to soups, fried or cooked (Farinde, 2007). The tender leaves of okra are used

as a vegetable in areas like western Africa, southeastern Asia. Okra leaves are good

cattle feed, but this is rarely (Lamnot). Edible seeds, that are too mature to be eaten

can be take out from pods and use as a seed purpose. The dried okra seed is a

nutritious material and it can be used to prepare vegetable curds, roasted and

ground to be used as coffee additive or substitute. (Farinde, 2007). Okra seeds

contain oil and protein and it’s used on a small scale for oil production (Gemede,

2014).

Okra contain high fiber and it helps for minimizing blood sugar levels within the

body. Consuming okra is an efficient method to avoid kidney disease, used to treat

digestive issues, used to supports colon health, helps to cleanse the intestinal

system, promotes healthy skin and blood, used to promotes a healthy of the

pregnancy, used to improves heart health, manage the body’s cholesterol level,

used to improves good eyesight (Gemede, 2015).

2.1.6. Nutritional Composition

According to Singh (2014) the composition of okra pods per 100 g edible portion

is water 88.6 g, energy 144.00 kJ (36 kcal), protein 2.10 g, carbohydrate 8.20 g, fat

0.20 g, fibre 1.70 g, Ca 84.00 mg, P 90.00 mg, Fe 1.20 mg, βcarotene 185.00 µg,

riboflavin 0.08 mg, thiamin 0.04 mg, niacin 0.60 mg, ascorbic acid 47.00 mg. The

composition of Okra leaves per 100 g edible portion is water 81.50 g, energy

235.00 kJ (56.00 kcal), protein 4.40 g, fat 0.60 g, carbohydrate 11.30 g, fibre 2.10

5
g, Ca 532.00 mg, P 70.00 mg, Fe 0.70 mg, ascorbic acid 59.00 mg, βcarotene

385.00 µg, thiamin 0.25 mg, riboflavin 2.80 mg, niacin 0.20 mg.

2.2. Fertilizer

Miller (2014) included that fertilizers are organic or inorganic material of natural

or synthetically produce to supply one or more plant nutrients to increase growth

of plants. Fertilizers can replace the chemical materials in soil for utilization of

plants during growth and development. If soil not contain sufficient amount of this

macronutrients, fertilizers provide large amount of macronutrients such as

nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium and it provide magnesium, calcium and

copper like trace element. Different types of fertilizers are applied to different

types of crops to improve crop growth and production.

2.2.1. Inorganic Fertilizer

Inorganic fertilizers are produce artificially. Inorganic fertilizers are synthetic and

are comes in powder, granular and pellets in boxes or bags and liquid formulation

in bottles. (Joseph, 2014).

2.2.1.2. Problems of using inorganic fertilizer

In the world agricultural cropping systems using higher amount of fertilizers to

accomplish more production per unit area without caring about natural resources

and ecosystems. Increasing use of higher doses of fertilizers does not guarantee to

improved crop yield but it can result in negative effects such as environment

pollution (soil, water, air pollution), degradation of soil and pollution of surface

6
and underground low input use efficiency, leaching, destruction of microorganisms

and friendly insects, crop susceptibility to disease attack, acidification or

alkalization of the soil or reduction in soil fertility, decrease quality of food

material, develop resistance in different weeds, diseases, insects, less income from

the production, soil degradation, deficiency of micro nutrient in soil, toxicity to

different beneficial living organism present above and below the soil surface, thus

causing irreversible damage to the overall system (Singh et al., 2017).

2.2.2. Organic Fertilizer

According to Joseph (2014) organic fertilizers are natural fertilizers and it compose

of animals, plants and minerals. It can be made up from compost, manure, wood

ash and peat moss. Organic fertilizers are very useful in agriculture sector because

of it has positive effect on soil without damage ground water and plants. Turing et

al. (2006) included that organic fertilizers increase soil quality and make better

yield and quality of crops. Chen (2016) suggested that soil organism decompose

organic matter in organic fertilizers in slower than inorganic fertilizer. It help to

reduce nutrient leaching and maintain soil fertility. Recycling food waste into

useful soil alteration can be utilized as organic fertilizer for farming. Sumardiono

and Murwono, (2011) stated that when we added organic substances in organic

fertilizer in to soil, it help to improve biological, physical and chemical properties.

Organic fertilizer from waste product can improve soil quality and increase the

quality and quantity of agriculture production. The production of organic fertilizers

can decrease the environmental contamination and increase the quality of

sustainable land. Organic fertilizer contains different antioxidants and

carbonaceous matter.

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2.2.2.2. Benefits of using organic fertilizer

There are more benefits of using organic fertilizer. These are helps to keep plants

healthy, enhance soil biological activity, improves nutrient mobilization from

organic and chemical sources and decomposition of toxic substances, enhance the

colonization of mycorrhizae, which improves P supply, enhance root growth due

to better soil structure, increase the organic matter content of the soil, therefor e

improving the exchange capacity of nutrients, increasing soil water retention,

promoting soil aggregates and buffering the soil against acidity, alkalinity, salinity,

pesticides and toxic heavy metals, release nutrients slowly and contribute to the

residual pool of organic N and P in the soil, reducing N leaching loss and P fixation;

they can also supply micronutrients, supply food and encourage the growth of

beneficial microorganisms and earthworms, help to suppress certain plant diseases,

soil borne diseases and parasites.

2.2.2.3. Combined Use of Chemical and Organic Fertilizers

Integrated use of chemical and organic fertilizer is highly beneficial for sustainable

crop production. Because Combined use of chemical and organic fertilizers

decrease deficiency of many secondary and micronutrients in fields instead of

continuously using only N, P and K fertilizers (Chand et al, 2006). Dutta et al.

(2003) reported that the combined use of organic fertilizers together with chemical

fertilizers, compared to the addition of organic fertilizers alone, had a higher

positive effect on microbial biomass and soil health.

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2.2.3. Nutrients

All plants need mineral elements from their environment to assure successful

growth and development of both vegetative and reproductive tissues. These

minerals provide several functions. There are 92 essential nutrients contain in the

plants. Among them 17 elements are most required for plant growth. These

nutrients provide by the soil, plant and animal wastes, organic sources and mineral

fertilizers. Plant cannot complete its life cycle without of the essential nutrient

elements. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are used in the large quantities and are

provided by the air and water. The other 14 nutrients take from the soil through the

plant roots. The nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are

macronutrients and that required by plants in large amounts. Nitrogen obtained

from Earth’s atmosphere. It is non-reactive and it converted to reactive chemical

forms by micro-organisms in the soil to be utilized by plants. Phosphorus and

Potassium occurs in large amount in the soil minerals and organic matter. Sulphur

(S), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), the three secondary macronutrients, are

needed in smaller amounts. Micronutrients are needed in very small amounts. Iron

(Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl),

boron (B), and nickel (Ni) that are essential for growth of plants. Cobalt (Co), and

silicon (Si) are the two other nutrient that are essential for plant growth (Reetz,

2016).

2.2.3.1. Nutrients deficiency

Mineral deficiencies affect plant growth by reducing the biosynthesis. Deficiencies

of N, Fe or Mg reduce chlorophyll synthesis and result in chlorosis, or yellowing,

of leaves. Deficiencies of P, K or S cause to insufficiencies in the transfer of light

9
energy to chemical bonds, and can result in the development of necrotic lesions on

leaves. Deficiencies of Zn, Cu or Mn can cause to chlorotic or necrotic symptoms.

Ca deficiency leads to necrosis of new leaves. Mineral deficiencies lower crop

growth and metabolism, reduce harvesting yields, reduce the general health of the

plant, inhibiting its ability to withstand biotic stresses. (Grusak and DellaPenna,

1999).

2.2.4. Fruit wastes

Fruits contain a high amount of antioxidants that are beneficial to our health in

many ways. Fruit peels are good source of nutrients like potash, calcium, iron, zinc

etc. There are two types of fertilizer used in agriculture. Increasing population

provide tons of fruits wastes and it create problems for solid and liquid wastes.

Researches identifying and improving bioactive compounds from fruit wastes for

health purposes for both plants and animals to minimizing waste problems. In the

past ten years detection that fruits scraps are used as fertilizers to increase soil

fertility. Fruit scraps help to increase plant growth by enhancing soil fertility and

enriching soil micro biota (Tsay et al, 2004).Active compounds from fruit peels

have insecticidal and antifungal properties against some plant pathogens. Fruit

scraps are also utilized as alternative feed for livestock behalf cereals. Several

fruits wastes have great amount of polyphenolic compounds, edible oils, dietary

fibers and pigments. Fruit wastes use to produce neutraceutical byproducts

(Divina, 2016).

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2.3. Banana

Banana (Musa sapientum) is a herbaceous plant which is belongs to family

Musaceae (Anhwange et al, 2009). Banana plant is cultivated primarily for fruits

and to a lesser extent for the production of fibre. It is also an ornamental plant.

(Akinyosoye, 1991). Banana suited to cultivate in warm, frost-free climate. The

optimum temperature for banana growth is between 25 ̊C and 30 ̊C. All the

agricultural soils are suitable for banana growing. pH of 5.5-7.5 is most prefers for

banana cultivation. Banana tree lives in a short time, easy to be cultivated and can

be harvested along the year. The most widely used part of banana is the flesh of

the fruit and the outer skin is used for animal feed and organic fertilizer (Agustina

and Susanti 2018). After rice, wheat and maize banana is a fourth most important

agricultural food product in the global markets (Dahham, 2015).

2.3.1. Origin, history and distribution

It is originated from the tropical region of Southern Asia and now it is grown

throughout the tropics (Leslie, 1976). Banana is a most popular fresh fruit all over

the world and its name comes from the Arabic word 'banan', which meaning is

finger (Singh et al, 2018). Banana fruits are one of the interesting plants and its

cultivated wide-spread in more than 100 tropical and sub-tropical countries

(Dahham, 2015). Banana contributes about 16% of the world’s total fruit

production as it is the second largest produced fruit after citrus. It is cultivated in

over 130 countries (Sirajudin et al, 2014). Top banana producing countries are

India, China, Ecuador, Brazil and Philippines (Nayar, 2017).

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2.3.2. Classification

Kingdom : Plantae - plants

Subkingdom : Tracheobionta - vascular plants

Superdivision : Spermatophyta – seed plant

Division : Magnoliophyta – flowering plant

Class : Liliopsida - monocotyledons

Subclass : Zingiberidae

Order : Zingiberales

Family : Musaceae – banana family

Genus : Musa L. – banana P

Species : Musa sapientum

[Source: USDA]

2.3.3. Botanical description

Banana tree grows up to about 2-8m height with leaves of about 3.5m in length.

The stem that produces a single bunch of banana which is called as pseudostem

before dying of tree and replaced by new pseudostem. The fruit grows in hanging

cluster. The fruit is protected by its peel which is discarded as waste after the inner

fleshy portion is eaten.

2.3.4. Uses and nutritional composition

Banana fruits can stimulating the production of haemoglobin in the blood and it

help to prevent anaemia . Its role to regulate blood pressure by using high content

of potassium. Banana helps to reduce constipation without necessary resorting to

laxatives. Banana can cure heart burns stress, strokes, ulcers and many other

12
ailments. Banana peels useful in making banana charcoal, an alternative source of

cooking fuel in Kampala. Banana peels in aggregation with other substances create

a liniment for reducing the sharpness of the arthritis aches and pains (Anhwange

et al, 2009). Banana peels have important nutritional qualities. They are rich

sources of starch (3%), crude protein (6%), crude fat (3.811%) and dietary fibre

(43.2-49.7%). It contains source of polyunsaturated fatty acids linoleic acids and

alpha linolenic acid. It is rich in essential amino acids such as leucine, valine,

phenyl alanine and threonine and also the micronutrients like K, P, Ca, Mg, Fe and

Zn. Zn and Fe are found in higher concentration in peels than pulp. Banana peels

are enrich with lignin (6-12%), pectin (10-21%), cellulose (7.6-9.6%),

hemicelluloses (6.4-9.4%) and galactouronic acid. Banana peel use to extract

pectin and it contains glucose, galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and xylose (Emaga

et al., 2001). This minerals are very important in the regulation of body fluids,

maintain normal blood pressure, control kidney failure, heart diseases and

respiratory flaws (Nguyan et al. 2003).

2.3.5. Chemical properties

Table 2.3.1: Elements in Banana peels (Anhwange et al, 2009)

Mineral elements Concentration (mg/g)

Potassium (K) 78.10

Calcium (Ca) 19.20

Sodium (Na) 24.30

Iron (Fe) 0.61

Manganeese (Mn) 76.20

Bromine (Br) 0.04

13
 Rubidium (Ni) 0.21

Strontium (Cu) 0.03

Zirconium (Cr) 0.02

Niobium (Pb) 0.02

2.4. Orange (Citrus sinensis)

Orange (Citrus sinensis) belongs to the family Rutaceae. It is most important, most

traded and commonly grown fruit crop, with total global production stated to be

around 120 million tons. Orange widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical

climates and but rarely found in the forests. Orange mostly cultivated under

moderate temperature between 15.5 ̊C and 29 ̊C and require considerable amounts

of sunshine and water(Milind and Dev, 2012). Orange fruits are highly consumed

in worldwide as a fresh fruit, juice and most cases peels are discarded as waste.

But fruit peels have wide variety of secondary components with substantial

antioxidant activity in comparison with other parts of the fruits. Orange establishes

about 60% of the total citrus world production (Manthey and Grohmann, 2001).

2.4.1. Origin, history and distribution

Orange was originated from Southern China and Northeastern India. Orange

widely grown in Sothern Europe after its introduction to Italy in the 11th century.

The major production areas of oranges are found in United States of America,

Mediterranean basin and South and East Asian regions (Milind and Dev, 2012).

Orange is widely cultivated in Nigeria and many other tropical and subtropical

regions. Today, it is grown almost all over the world as a source of food for humans

14
because of its high nutritional values, source of vitamins and other uses. (Piccinelli

et al, 2008).

2.4.2. Classification

Kingdom : Plantae - plants

Subkingdom : Tracheobionta - vascular plants

Superdivision : Spermatophyta – seed plant

Division : Magnoliophyta – flowering plant

Class : Magnoliopsida - dicotyledons

Subclass : Rosidae

Order : Sapindales

Family : Rutaceae – rue family

Genus : Citrus L. – citrus P

Species : Citrus sinensis

[Source: USDA]

2.4.3. Botanical description

Orange fruit is a type of berry and it is a hesperidium. It is evergreen flowering tree

and height about 9-10m.It is widely range in size, color, shape and juice quality.

The word “orange” is derived from Sanskrit term narang. It has mainly 11

individual pieces. Orange seeds are greenish to pale whitish, flattened and angular

(Milind and Dev, 2012).

15
2.4.4. Uses and nutritional composition

Orange fruits comprise a nutrients like vitamins, minerals, fiber, and

phytochemicals such as carotenoids, flavonoids, and limonoids and these nutrients

have biological activities and give health benefits. Orange fruits have antioxidant

and antimutagenic properties and positive associations with bone, cardiovascular,

and immune system health (Turner and Burri, 2013).Orange is one of the most

popular fruit crop and it contains active phytochemicals that help to protect health.

It provide vitamin C, folic acid, potassium and pectin. In annual orange yielding,

large amount of peel is produce every year. It is primary waste and good source of

molasses, pectin and limonene. Dried fruit peels can be mixed with dried pulps and

sold as cattle feed (Rafiq et al., 2016). In industrial processing, produce huge

amounts of residues, including peel and segment effects membranes. Peels

represent between 50 to 65% of total weight of the fruits and it can be used as

byproducts (Hegazy and Ibrahium, 2012). Orange peel extract can be used as a

surfactant to reduce the surface tension of liquids (Al-Saad et al, 2009). Orange

fruit provide 12.5% of fiber for daily need and it help to reduce high cholesterol

levels. Natural fruit sugar of orange can help to prevent blood sugar level. Orange

helpful in reducing the constipation and diarrhea (Kurowska, 2004).

2.4.5. Chemical properties

Table 2.4.1: Elements in Orange peels (Al-Saad et al, 2009)

Mineral elements Concentration (µg/ml)

Iron (Fe) 125

Manganese (Mn) 88

16
 Zinc (Zn) 13

Nickel (Ni) 1.6

Copper (Cu) 1.3

Chromium (Cr) 1.2

Lead (Pb) 0.25

Cadmium (Cd) 0.11

Phosphorus (P) 0.2%

2.5. Pomegranate

The pomegranate (Punica granatum) belongs to the Punicaceae family and is a

nutrient food source rich in phytochemical compounds (Rowayshed et al, 2013).

Pomegranate described as nature’s power fruit, because it used in folkloric

medicine for the treatment of various diseases. It is widely grown in the

Mediterranean region (Yehia et al, 2011).

2.5.1. Origin, history and distribution

It is widely grown throughout India, Iran, China, Turkey, USA, Spain, Azerbaijan,

Armenia, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, the Middle East, Pakistan, Tunisia, Israel, and

dry regions of Southeast Asia, Peninsular Malaysia, the East Indies and tropical

Africa (Pal, 2014). India is the main producer of pomegranate and next only to Iran

(Kushwaha et al., 2013).

17
2.5.2. Classification

Kingdom : Plantae - plants

Subkingdom : Tracheobionta - vascular plants

Superdivision : Spermatophyta – seed plant

Division : Magnoliophyta – flowering plant

Class : Magnoliopsida- dicotyledons

Subclass : Rosidae

Order : Myrtales

Family : Punicaceae – pomegranate family

Genus : Punica L. – pomegranate

Species : Punica granatum L. - pomegranate

[Source: USDA]

2.5.3. Botanical description

The pomegranate is a non-climacteric and many seeded berry. The fruits are round,

oblate in shape and vary in weight and size (8 to 12 cm diameter). Edible portion

of fruit represents about 52% of total fruit weight including about 78% juice and

22% seeds (Berry, 2005). According to Priyanka et al. (2013) the fruit skin is thick

or thin but smooth, leathery and hard. It color varying from pale-yellow to crimson-

red. Fruit inside is filled with many seeds coated with juicy pulp shining like pearls.

The color of the pulp diverges from light pink to crimson-red. The taste of the pulp

also varies from sweet and aromatic to sour. The seeds are hard or soft but edible.

18
2.5.4. Uses and nutritional composition

Pomegranates are commonly consumed as fresh fruit and juice, beverages, food

products (jams and jellies) and extracts as botanical ingredients in herbal medicines

and dietary supplements. Various parts of the pomegranate tree like fruit: peel,

juice and seeds have phytochemical (Elfalleh et al., 2011). Pomegranate is a key

source of bioactive compounds and has been used in folk medicine for many

centuries. Pomegranate juice high in antioxidant activity and is effective in

prevention of atherosclerosis, low-density lipoprotein oxidation, prostate cancer,

platelet aggregation and various cardiovascular diseases (Adhami and Mukhtar,

2006). Pomegranate has antimicrobial, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and

antimutagenic properties and it is beneficial for cardiovascular diseases. (Nagi and

Jayprakasha, 2005). According to Devatkal and Naveena (2010) pomegranate

fruits peel is an inedible part found during processing of pomegranate juice.

Pomegranate peel enrich with source of tannins, flavonoids and other phenolic

compounds and it has antioxidant activity (Li et al., 2006). Naveena et al. (2008)

reported that pomegranate peel act as a natural preservatives in meat. Pomegranate

peel extract has both antioxidant and antimutagenic properties.

2.5.5. Chemical properties

Table 2.5.1: Elements in Pomegranate peels (Rowayshed et al, 2013)

Mineral elements Concentration (mg/100g)

Calcium (Ca) 338.5

Potassium (K) 146.4

Sodium (Na) 66.43

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Phosphorous (P) 117.9

Iron (Fe) 5.93

Zinc (Zn) 1.01

Manganese (Mn) 0.8

Copper (Cu) 0.6

Selenium (Se) 1.03

20