Design and performance of airborne radomes:

a review
G.A.E. Crone, B.Sc, (Eng), Ph.D., A.W. Rudge, Ph.D., C.Eng., Sen. Mem. I.E.E.E., F.I.E.E., and
G.N. Taylor, M.A., Ph.D., D.I.C.

Indexing terms: Aerospace facilities and techniques, Radomes

Abstract: The ever increasing demands on the performance of airborne antennas place comparable demands
on the design of the enclosing randome to ensure minimal degradation of the antenna radiation pattern.
Radomes for airborne application can be separated into three main categories: large aircraft radomes of
either the nose-cone or under-fuselage type, small aircraft radomes often flush mounted to the airframe and
missile radomes. The geometry of the radome, being largely determined by aerodynamic considerations,
often leads to severe degradation of the electrical performance of any enclosed antenna. Rain erosion and
heating of the radome surface also constrain the electrical design by limiting the choice of material and
builds. For large airborne radomes, the enclosed antenna may be required to exhibit both low angular aber-
rations and small sidelobe degradations. Radomes for these applications may also be required to operate in
either a dual-, broad- or multiband role. Metallic or dielectric bodies, such as lightning conductors, the pitot
tube and pitot-static pressure tubes, either within or on the radome surface, also present potential sources
of electromagnetic degradation. Missile radomes share most of these effects, but to varying degrees because
. of their relatively smaller size and different operational constraints. The paper reviews the electromagnetic
design and analysis of such radomes, examines the sources of degradation of the enclosed-antenna radiation
pattern and discusses the design requirements with reference to the operational environment.

1 Introduction
The rapid growth in the use of the electromagnetic spectrum
for both civil and military applications over the last few
decades has led to a growing pressure for improvements in
the performance of electromagnetic sensors. Antenna systems
offering lower sidelobes, multiple frequencies, dual polaris-
ations, improved tracking and wider bandwidths are of particu-
lar importance in this respect and are receiving considerable
attention [ 1 ] . Airborne antennas are almost invariably
enclosed by a radome whose transmission characteristics can
negate, or at least seriously degrade, the improved antenna
performance. The electromagentic characteristics of the
radome are a key factor in the overall performance of any
radiating or receiving system, but airbome-radome design is
often dominated by other factors, such as the aerodynamics
and structural requirements of the airframe. In this area,
advances in the performance of high-speed aircraft have led
to even greater demands on the nonelectromagnetic properties
of the radome. In any meaningful review of airborne-radome
design, the electromagnetic aspects cannot be considered
in isolation from the other factors which impinge strongly
on the shape of the radome and the choice of dielectric
materials which can be used in its construction.
Radomes for airborne applications will be considered here
in three main categories. The first is the class of aero-
dynamically shaped radomes which are large with, respect to
the operating wavelength and which typically form the nose
or tail cone of the aircraft, or which are realised either as
under-fuselage 'bubbles' or as rotating appendages which are
commonly referred to as 'rotodomes' [2,3]. The second
category is that of missile radomes, which must also be aero-
dynamic but with an additional facility to withstand much
higher accelerations and velocities and with dimensions which
are not necessarily very large with respect to the wave-
length. Finally, the third category comprises small radome
Paper 16S2F, first received 8th July and in revised form 20th August
1981
Dr. Rudge is, and Dr. Crone was formerly, with ERA Technology
Ltd., Cleeve Road, Leatherhead KT22 75A, England. Dr. Crone is now
with the European Space Research & Technology Centre, Domeinweg,
Noordwijk, Netherlands. Mr. Taylor is with the Royal Signals & Radar
Establishment, St. Andrews Road, Great Malvern WR14.3PS, England
covers which are either flush mounted or sited on the leading
or trailing edges of a wing or tail fin.
Airborne radar antennas are required to operate with
minimum angular aberrations (boresight errors) and low
copolar and crosspolar sidelobes. The specifications for mod-
ern systems are becoming increasingly demanding in these
respects, and the degree of performance degradation intro-
duced by the radome is likely to be critical in many appli-
cations. The fundamental requirement for a good aerodynamic
shape will often complicate the electromagnetic design prob-
lem, and the choice of dielectric materials will be constrained
by requirements for structural strength, low weight, thermal
stability and rain-erosion resistance. The radome performance
may also be compromised by the scattering of electromagentic
waves from metallic pitot tubes and lightning protection
strips outside the radome and dielectric pressure tubes within
it.
Missile radomes share most of the design problems of the
larger aircraft radomes, but in this case the choice of materials
is further restricted by the higher accelerations and terminal
velocities which are involved and the resultant increase in
thermal shock and rain erosion effects. Boresight error, the
angular deviation of boresight from its position in the absence
of the radome, and its rate of change with the seeker antenna
look angle (i.e. boresight error slope) can seriously impair
the performance of a guided weapon by limiting its useful
velocity and manoeuvrability. The electromagnetic analysis
of missile radomes is complicated by their very pointed
shapes and the fact that the curvature dimensions are not
large with respect to the operating wavelength.
As a consequence of electronic warfare, the use of small
radome covers is increasing significantly. The geometries
and locations of radomes of this type are dominated by a
variety of factors, almost all of which are outside of the
control of the radome designer. The outer surfaces of such
covers must follow the contours of the aircraft and are often
located in environments which have been described as structur-
ally difficult and electromagnetically hideous. The small
radome cover is often employed to enclose a broadband
antenna, and thus its electromagnetic performance must be
maintained over wide frequency ranges. Rain erosion can
represent a very severe problem for such radome covers,
particularly for those which present a relatively blunt surface
to the forward direction.

IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981 0143-7070/81/070451 +14 $01.50/0 451
2 Radome wall configurations Unfortunately, the core usually has to be so dense as to
Ideally, the radome wall must offer structural strength and incur a severe weight penalty, and airborne applications are
rigidity with electromagnetic transparency over the operating thus uncommon. The A-sandwich, on the other hand, is
frequency bands. There are three basic types of wall construc- widely used. This design can be made broadband and has
tion which are commonly employed: reasonable performance over a range of incidence angles
(see Fig. 3).
(a) thin wall
(b) half-wavelength thick (A/2) or multiples thereof
(c) sandwich or multilayer.
The properties and design formulas for the various types of
wall geometry have been given by Cady etal. [4], and typical
performances have been illustrated in many review articles
[5, 6 ] . Some basic wall constructions are illustrated in Fig. 1.

skin 1mm E =
core 6mm E = 1.5

4 6 8 10 12 14 16
frequency , GHz
ram erosion
layer Fig. 3 Transmission properties of an A-sandwich radome
a,- = angle of incidence
Fig. 1 Radome wall constructions
a Thin wall Many variations on the basic sandwich structures exist.
b Halfwave For example, two A-sandwiches may be placed back to back
c A-sandwich to produce the so-called C-sandwich, which has good perform-
d Multilayer
ance at high incidence angles. Alternatively, the dielectric
The thin-wall radome, usually less than 0.02 X thick, is may be inductively loaded with very thin wires to modify its
seldom used in airborne applications owing to its low mechan- transmission properties [5,7—9]. In this way, the perform-
ical strength. Halfwave walls find application for small-to- ance of an electrically thin randome may be achieved from
medium size radomes and most missile radomes employ this a physically thick structure. An example of such loading is
design. With this configuration, reflectionless transmission is shown in Figs. 4A and B, where a GRP laminate 0.1 X thick is
achieved at a 'typical' angle of incidence by constructive loaded to achieve a performance equivalent to laminate
cancellation of reflected energy from each of the two air- 0.02 X thick in the same material. Alternatively, multiband
dielectric interfaces. Reasonable transparency can be main- or broadband transmission can be achieved [9, 10].
tained over a relatively large range of incidence angles, making
it a useful design for nose radomes, since with highly tapered parallel incidence plane
shapes the incidence angle may vary from 30° to 80° between dielectric sheet
the tip and the base. Fig. 2 shows a typical frequency response
of such a design for one polarisation. It is fairly narrowband, embedded wire grating
and multiple-halfwave structures are even more so. Halfwave
wall structures are often too heavy for very large aircraft wires
radomes, for which a sandwich configuration is generally ielectric sheet
perpendicular
preferred. incidence plane
halfwave radome E =4 0.75cm

Zo C

Fig. 4A Wire loaded dielectric sheet and simplified transmission-

line analogy

perpendicular with wires

— 100°/
90
Z parallel without
wires \
I 80 V--'
70
2 4 6 8 10
frequency, GHz
12 14 16
1
S 60 perpendicular
Fig. 2 Transmission properties of halfwave thickness radome u without wires
50
c
af- = angle of incidence
Three-layer sandwich structures have relatively thin inner
and outer skins of the same thickness and permittivity with
a thicker core. The A- and B-sandwiches have cores with,
10c 20° 30° 40" 50° 60° 70° 80°
respectively, lower and higher permittivities than the skins.
The B-sandwich is analogous to a bloomed optical lens, with Fig. 4B Theoretical transmission efficiency for a dielectric sheet
the quarter-wavelength skins acting as reflectionless coatings. (e = 4, d/\ = 0.1) with and without inductive matching

452 IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981

 At frequencies where a true halfwave structure is too
heavy, a somewhat lighter equivalent structure may be
achieved by loading the core of an A-sandwich with particles
of metals or high permittivity dielectric [11].
It is also useful to use gradient walls, in which the thickness
or permittivity of the wall is made a function of position
(and thus of antenna pointing angle). This technique provides
reduced reflections at high angles of incidence by means of
equalisation of the insertion phase delay, and was used for this
purpose in the US E-3A airborne surveillance radar antenna
system [3]. Feldman and Rulf have recently described the
design features of this radome, which employs the 'rotodome'
concept where the radome rotates with the scaning antenna
[12].
3 General characteristics of aircraft and missile radomes
Fig. 5 shows a schematic diagram of a typical axially sym-
metric aircraft nose-cone radome enclosing a scanning antenna
system. The passage of the electromagnetic field through the
dielectric wall of the radome can lead to transmission loss
and distortion of the antenna radiation pattern characteristics.
These undesirable effects can be minimised for a fixed position
of the antenna and dielectric interface, but the design process
is made more difficult when, as shown in Fig. 5, the wall
geometry, as presented to the antenna, varies with the antenna
pointing angle.
lightning conductors
pitot
Fig. 5 Problem areas in airborne radomes
For an airborne radar antenna, the most important aber-
rations are those associated with boresight error, boresight
error slope and the degradation of the antenna sidelobes.
To minimise these undesirable effects, the transmission loss
and the variation of the insertion phase delay (IPD) as the
electromagnetic wave passes through the radome must be
made small, and polarisation must be made independent
over a wide range of incident angles and antenna pointing
angles.
Clearly from an electromagnetic viewpoint, a spherical
radome with a centrally located antenna represents the opti-
mum configuration, but aerodynamic considerations may
demand a more tapered structure. Practical designs are usually
circularly symmetric with surfaces such as cones, ogives and
parabolas finding common application. In some instances,
IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981
other profiles such as Von Karmann or Sears Hack are used,
with nonaxially symmetric configurations finding some
application, such as the 'shark nose' radome employed on the
US F-5 advanced fighter aircraft [13]. The departure from
axial symmetry is likely to complicate the radome design, but
it must be remembered that from the electromagnetic view-
point it is the symmetry, or lack of it, as seen by the antenna
which is the important factor. An outwardly asymmetric
radome may, in fact, offer a more uniform dielectric interface
to the enclosed antenna system over its scanning range.
In Fig. 5, the principal sources of radiation pattern degra-
dation introduced by a large airborne radome are indicated.
In addition to the aberrations resulting from the asymmetry
of the dielectric interface presented to the antenna, there are
other major contributors. For example, under certain con-
ditions, the geometry of the inner air-dielectric interface can
result in the reflected energy forming a semicollimated beam
at a wide angle from the antenna boresight. This reflected
beam, which is often termed the 'flash lobe', can seriously
degrade the overall sidelobe performance of the radar system.
Large radomes often require some form of lightning protec-
tion, and this may take the form of metallic strips or closely
spaced studs on the skin of the outer dielectric layer. The
presence of these strips can result in electromagnetic scattering
which will again degrade the antenna sidelobe performance.
The metallic pitot-head boom, which is generally sited at the
apex of a nose-cone radome, can be a major source of electro-
magnetic scattering, a situation that would still prevail even
for a dielectric pitot tube. The pressure tubes, which may be
metal or plastic, and which run from the head on the inside
of the radome, will also have undesirable sidelobe and aber-
ration effects.
Fig. 6 shows a representative boresight error characteristic
of an axially symmetric radome, while Fig. 7 provides an
antenna look angle
Fig. 6 Representative boresight error characteristic
-20
CD
^-30
£-50
< 36° > angle
Fig. 7 Radome-induced sidelobe modifications
antenna alone
radome-induced modifications
453
example of the undesirable sidelobe modifications introduced provide adequate angular coverage, but at prime sites on the
by a typical aircraft nose-cone radome [14]. In Fig. 8, the aircraft the aerodynamic performance almost always takes
level and position of a 'flash lobe' is shown for various antenna precedence. The radome designer is thus often faced with
pointing angles within a conical radome. oddly shaped protuberances from tail fins and wing-leading
-30r edges on which to base his 'flush-mounted' cover. The radome
outer geometry is governed by local airflow conditions, and
this may result in a shape which is far from optimum electri-
cally. Kinetic and rain erosion effects can be a problem on
faster aircraft, demanding materials with stable properties
over wide temperature range which are able to survive the
very severe forces imposed by high-velocity impact with
water droplets.
-A0 Missile radomes, while sharing many of the problems
associated with larger radomes, are further complicated by
the need to withstand very high initial accelerations and high
terminal velocities. These conditions imply kinetic tempera-
ture rises of the order of 400° C during the first second of
flight with terminal temperatures varying from 450° C at
Mach 3 to 1150° C at Mach 5. Only few materials are available
which permit the missile radome to maintain its structural
integrity and its electrical parameters to the necessary close
-50
tolerances. Even for Mach 3 operation, a dielectric is required
with a permittivity which remains stable within 10% over a
temperature range of perhaps 0—500° C with a loss tangent
not exceeding 0.01.
To reduce the stresses on nose-cone radomes at very high
velocities, the use of very tapered shapes is common. The
dielectric wall presented to the scanning antenna will then
vary dramatically with the antenna pointing direction, and
-60 large incidence angles between the electromagnetic waves and
the dielectric wall are unavoidable. In some lower-velocity
missiles, use is made of more hemispherically shaped radomes

J fronted by a metal nose spike. However, the nose spike

tends to degrade the boresight error characteristics of the
missile. For example, Fig. 9 shows a comparison between a
hemispherical radome and an ogival radome (1:5:1 fineness
90 180 ratio) both with and without a nose spike [15]. It is note-
angle, deg worthy that, even with the spike, the hemispherical radome
Fig. 8 Radome flash offers superior electrical performance to the ogive.
The high structural strength and low weight requirements metal spike
of large airborne radomes will generally dictate the type of
wall construction and limit the range of materials which can 0.05 I \ dielectric spike
be adopted. The radome must maintain its electrical and %s
mechanical properties over a temperature range which is I v\^^ x-x hemisphere
strongly influenced by kinetic effects and will therefore \
depend largely on the maximum speed of the aircraft. 2 0
For slower vehicles, such as long-range surveillance aircraft,
the nose cones can be more blunt, but in these cases the
wide-angle sidelobe specifications are likely to be more | 0.05
demanding. To provide the necessary full azimuthal coverage,
radomes for surveillance applications can be sited in pairs, ~o- 1.5 ogive
metal spike
fore and aft on the aircraft, as in the UK Nimrod Airborne 0.1
10 30
Early Warning system [3], or as a single installation either
scan angle , deg
above or below the fuselage. The US long-range surveillance
designs (e.g. AWACS and E2C) have favoured a single above- Fig. 9 Spike protected radomes
fuselage rotodome approach [2, 3 ] . This has the advantage
that the radome presents a constant dielectric interface to the
4 Radome riiaterials
antenna which can be optimised during the design process.
However, the mechanical problems are increased in this case It is evident that radome designs, in all three categories con-
since the complete rotodome structure must be rotated in sidered here, are heavily influenced by the limited availability
the airstream. of materials which can maintain the required balance of
Small radome covers are tending to proliferate on modern structural and electromagnetic properties in the very
aircraft mainly because of the needs of electronic warfare demanding airborne environment. Unfortunately, low dielec-
(EW). Such covers are fitted to many types of aircraft, but tric constant and high mechanical strength are often mutually
design problems are most severe with high-speed aircraft. exclusive characteristics, requiring the radome designer to
EW antennas, and their radome covers, are required to operate settle for a compromise solution. The choice of material is
over wide bandwidths, typically within the band 0.5—40 GHz. very much dependent on the role in which the vehicle is
Siting these antennas is a major problem since they must deployed.
454 IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981
 For subsonic or low supersonic applications, glass-fibre
reinforced plastics (GFRP) are widely used in either mono-
lithic or sandwich configurations. GFRPs, when employed as
skins for A-sandwich radomes, can offer low weight and
relatively low production costs, but these materials cannot
withstand high temperatures and for higher-velocity missile
applications the use of inorganic materials, such as glass
ceramics, has become common. The inorganic materials offer
better temperature and rain erosion properties but result in
radomes which are relatively heavy and expensive to fabricate.
Some of the principal features of radome materials are briefly
reviewed in the following Sections.
4.1 Glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP)
Radome wall materials for large airborne radomes are usually
realised in the form of resins laminated with a reinforcement
material. Polyester and epoxy resins remain the most common
with the occasional usage of other varieties. For high-
temperature applications, polymide materials [17, 20], whose
thermal characteristics have been known for many years, are
receiving attention. They possess structural and electrical
stability at up to 500° F over protracted duty cycles with
the same having been achieved for very short-term exposures
up to 1200° F. These materials, together with polybutadiene
resins (PBD), owing to their low dielectric constants compared
with epoxy and polyester laminates, offer advantages in
broadband applications [20, 21].
Reinforcements applied to resins to enable them to with-
stand the structural loads on an airborne radome differ
depending on the application of the vehicle. In general, a
compromise solution is required since in most cases reinforced
laminates with very good mechanical properties possess
inferior electrical characteristics and vice versa. These fibres
are generally orientated in either a knitted, woven or filament-
wound form [16] with the laminates being made by either a
'wet lay up', injection moulding or vacuum impregnation
technique. Press moulding is also suitable for small radomes
based on thermoplastic resins. Terylene, quartz, Kevlar,
E-, D- and S-glass are the most common reinforcement fibres.
For S-glass, structural strength is maintained up to tempera-
tures of 650° C, with D-glass providing better electrical proper-
ties at the expense of structural stability. Quartz fibre is a
good reinforcement since it possesses good thermomechanical
properties and has a dielectric constant close in value to many
of the recipient resin materials. However, it is costly to pro-
duce.
Table 1 summarises the properties of some sample
reinforced laminates. In this Table, the resin used is either
polyester or RP12, a proprietary brand manufactured by
Plessey Materials [8]. Many of these materials possess severe
thermal limitations, rendering them unsuitable for applications
at very high speeds. Quartz-reinforced polymide laminates
[17—20], however, appear suitable for high-temperature
application with proposed usage in the manufacture of missile
radomes [19]. Also, rain erosion has marked effects on most
GFRP materials often necessitating the use of an additional
protective material over the outer surface of the radome.
The core materials of A-sandwich-type radomes typically
take the form of either honeycomb structures or expanded
resins or foams. For airborne applications, foams have the
advantage that a closed-cell structure can be obtained, and so
penetration by moisture can be avoided. Foams offer the
potential of a high strength/weight ratio, a low dielectric
constant (since the structure is largely air) and low loss.
A number of polyurethane rigid foams are available with
various advantages and disadvantages. For example, Rohacell
(PM1) has a good strength/weight ratio and dielectric constant,
but it has an open-cell structure which makes it susceptible
to moisture pick-up. Clocell (PE2) has excellent electrical
properties and can be produced at low cost, but the material
is severely temperature limited and its mechanical strength
fails off rapidly at temperatures above 100° C. The Plessey
P10 foam has good strength/weight and dielectric properties
and is a closed-celi structure with good antimoisture character-
istics. Its electrical and chemical properties are stable to
temperatures up to 150° C. However, this foam is friable and
is therefore more sensitive to rain erosion effects.
Syntactic foams are currently receiving considerable atten-
tion as an alternative to polyurethane foams. These foams are
formed using small hollow glass microspheres and, since their
closed-cell structure is inherent, their antimoisture properties
should be good, with dielectric constants of the order of 1.8.
The dielectric constant is higher than that of polyurethane
foams, and in other respects the electrical and mechanical
properties of these foams appear attractive. The rain erosion
properties will remain dependent on the skin materials and the
use of protective coatings, but the avoidance of friability
could be an improtant advantage. If this is achieved without
incurring any other serious penalty, syntactic foams could
ultimately supersede the polyurethane foams. •
4.2 Modified dielectric core materials
Artificial dielectric materials are lightweight core materials
for use in sandwich radomes. By matching the core permit-
tivity to that of the skins, the structure behaves electrically
as a solid GFRP panel but is lighter in weight [11]. Artificial
dielectrics have been developed in which the required core
permittivity is obtained by incorporating small conducting
elements in a suitable matrix material which is then dispersed
over the open cells of a polyurethane reticulated mat. The
finished material is impregnated with polyurethane foam to
give the desired closed-cell structure, which can then be varied
according to mechanical strength requirements. These
materials offer relative dielectric constants (e r ) in the range
e r = 2.0 to 4.5 with loss tangents in the range 0.01-0.05.
They can be machined by sawing, turning or grinding and are
thermally stable up to 150° C. At temperatures between
220°—240° C, the materials can be formed to curved shapes,
and, since they offer additional parameters which can be
optimised in a specific design, the artificial dielectric materials

Table 1: Details of sample laminates (RP12) at 9.45 GHz using two theoretical models employing linear and logarithmic mixture characteristics
Sample F5P12 RP12 RP12 RP12 RP12 Polyester/ Polyester/
Terylene quartz Kevlar 49 E-glass D-glass Kevlar 49 E-glass

Density, gm/cm 1.19 1.49 1.22 1.75 1.56 1.42 1.26 1.84
% fabric by weight 51.9 57.9 52.7 66.0 68.3 59.3 50.9 65.2
% fabric by volume 46.8 39.3 44.5 45.0 5i:9 42.2 44.7 47.1
Calculated e linear 2.76 3.00 . 3.20 4.16 3.30 3.16 3.24 4.35
Calculated e log 2.75 2.95 3.12 3.78 3.22 3.08 3.18 4.03
Measured e 2.80 2.98 3.24 4.19 3.29 3.12 3.28 4.43
Measured tan 6 0.003 0.002 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.01 0.01
Fabric e 3.0 3.7 4.0 6.13 4.0 4.0 6.13
Fabric density, gm/cm3 1.38 2.20 1.44 2.55 2.16 1.44 2.55

IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981 455

can provide a means of reducing aberrations through the 4.3 Missile radome materials
radome. The extreme thermal conditions arising from the high acceler-
The electrical properties of conical or ogive airborne ations and terminal velocities of missile radomes has led to
A-sandwich radomes may be controlled by either introducing the widescale use of relatively costly and difficult to fabricate
correcting wire grids or a controlled dielectric anisotropy into inorganic materials, such as alumina, silica, and proprietary
the radome core. The transmission performance of these wall materials, such as Pyroceram 9606. However, with the recent
constructions have been previously considered. In Fig. 10 [9], advent of noncharring ablative coatings, lighter weight and
the effect is demonstrated of one such loaded core scheme on cheaper plastic radomes are receiving considerable attention at
the radiation pattern of a low gain antenna. The radome, the research and development level [23—27].
designed for a much higher frequency, is wire loaded. Fig. With current missile radomes, various forms of loaded
10A shows the undisturbed radiation pattern with Figs. 10B alumina are used for velocities up to Mach 2. Patridge and
and C demonstrating the degradations experienced in both the Ward [28] have provided a useful review of the glass ceramic
unloaded and loaded situation. The advantages of such a materials commonly used for missile radomes. Those suitable
design technique for dual-band operation is obvious. for supersonic velocities include Pyroceram 9606 [29, 30],
slip-cast fused silica (SCFS) [31,32] and reaction-sintered
and hot-pressed silicon nitride [33,34], Table 2 [35] shows
typical mechanical and electrical properties of these materials.
OdB Pyroceram 9606, a magnesium-aluminium silicate com-
pound has excellent thermal shock and rain erosion properties
for moderately high velocities, but, with the demand for
weapon velocities approaching Mach 5, a material with better
environmental performance is required. In response to this
demand, Corning has recently developed two new compo-
sitions which are predominantly cordierite but contain differ-
ent amounts of secondary phase such as cristobolite and
magnesium titanate. Hallse et al. [29] have shown that one
such material called Pyroceram 9603 offers improved thermal
performance with only a marginal increase in electrical loss.
The simple manufacturing process of slip-cast fused silica
90 60 30 0 30 60
[31] together with its good thermal shock resistance render
90
degrees it an attractive material for this application. Its poor rain
erosion performance, however, necessitates the inclusion of
Fig. 10A Radiation pattern of monopulse antenna
a rain erosion tip, usually made of metal. This inclusion
obviously has an effect on the boresight error performance
OdB. of the radome similar to that already discussed for a nose
spike obscuration.
Silicon nitride, also a strong candidate for high-temperature
applications, is manufactured by hot pressing or reaction
. sintering. It is a very good material from both a mechanical
and thermally stable point of view, but its very high pro-
duction costs may prohibit its widespread application. Plastic-
radomes must be protected from aerothermal and rain erosion
effects by the use of ablation and rain erosion layers. Fibre
reinforced fluorocarbons such as Duroid 5870 [28],
reinforced tetrafluorethylene (Teflon) Avcoat 8027—29, a cast
epoxy polyurethene, a fluoroelastomer and a particle loaded
90 60 30 0 30 60 90
Teflon, are typical examples of ablative materials. In general,
antenna scan angle, deg fibre reinforced Teflon offers both good thermal and rain
Fig. 10B Radiation pattern of antenna in presence of unmatched erosion protection at elevated velocities, whereas the particle
radome reinforced Avcoat offers less protection.
Both ceramic and ablative plastic radomes will exhibit
OdB some variations in their electrical performance during flight.
For ceramics, the temperature dependence of permittivity
and loss tangent, together with the thermal expansion of the
wall material [36,37], can have significant effects on the
boresight error profile. Fig. 11A shows the variation of tem-
perature, permittivity with loss angle 8 with normalised
displacement yjt through the wall of a Pyroceram 9606 Von
Karmann radome halfway through its flight, at its axial mid-
point. Fig. 1 IB demonstrates that large axial temperature
gradients exist over the missile surface, where axial station is
the axial displacement in inches of an observation point
from the radome tip.
For ablatively coated radomes, surface recession will also
90 60 30 0 30 60 90 have an effect on their electrical performance. Crowe [26]
antenna scan angle,deg
has demonstrated these effects for an Avcoat 8029 ablater
Fig. 10C Radiation pattern of antenna in presence of wire matched supported on an epoxy/glass substrate. This showed that the
radome boresight error performance was retained over typical flight
456 IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981
 Table 2: Radome material properties
Material Elastic Expansion Thermal Dielectric Loss Maximum Bending
modulus coefficient conductivity constant tangent use strength
(106 psi) (10- 6 /°F) (Btu/fth°F) temperature
RT 1500°F RT 1500°F RT 1500°F RT 1500° F RT 1500°F (°R) (psi)

HPSN
p = 3.2g/cm 3 43.5 43.5 1.77 1.77 12.1 9.0 7.59 8.55 0.00275 0.0065 3870 58000
RSSN
p = 2.4g/cm 3 15.0 15.0 1.1 2.05 5.4 4.05 5.56 6.1 0.005(?) 0.005(?) 3870 20000
SCFS
p = 1.926g/cm 3 8 10 0.45 0.175 0.31 0.40 3.4 3.5 0.0014 0.002 3600 4000
Pyroceram 9606
p = 2.6g/cm 3 16.5 16.8 2.5 3.0 2.2 1.74 5.515 5.805 0.0003 0.01 2930 22 500

recession cycles, whereas transmission loss increased signifi- nation of low losses and erosion resistance over broad band-
cantly after only 10 mils of recession probably due to a build widths is difficult to realise. The angle of impact of the drop-
up of char residue on the surface. lets is a key parameter. Broadside impact represents the worst
case, and damage falls off rapidly with increasing incidence
angle. Blunt forward-facing radomes are thus a much greater
problem in this respect than the tapered nose-cone type. Such
0.7n " 5.7-, radomes mounted in forward-facing locations on tail fins are
particularly vulnerable.
Resistance to rain erosion damage depends on a multiplicity
c 0.65- S 5.6^ elevated temperature e | of factors, such as type of material, surface finish, shape and
4.646
room temperature e speed [38—41]. Inorganic ceramic materials, often employed
4.646 (fortified layer) in missile radomes, generally have good erosion resistance,
0.6J ••fi 5.5-J 570 although at high Mach numbers one candidate, slip-cast fused
0 0.20.6 0.8
0.4 1.0
y/t
silica (SCFS) [42], may prove to be inadequate, requiring
the inclusion of a metallic rain erosion tip or in some cases
Fig. 11A Temperature, dielectric constant and loss tangent variation
through radome wall an electrically more suitable silicon nitride tip.
Rain erosion has an effect both on the aerothermal and
600 electrical properties of the radome [43]. For an SCFS radome
with a silicon nitride tip, little reduction in transmitted power
is detected, whereas quite significant increases in boresight
error result. Fig. 12 illustrates increases in the error in the
D increase in boresight error, mrad
o
t, 500
a.
E

400
5 10 15 20 25
axial station # in
Fig. 11B External surface temperature against axial station
a b
4.4 Rain erosion Fig. 12 Increase in boresight error due to erosion against scan angle
The provision of adequate protection from rain erosion a In E plane
represents a major challenge in the design of high-performance b In H plane
;
radomes. Rain erosion is defined as the damage sustained by
aircraft materials or components in collision with precipitation 180
and has been observed in aviation for over 30 years. It remains polyurethane
a key factor for radomes on vehicles whose operational speed 150
can exceed 250 mile/h (112m/s) in rain. Radomes are required
to last for at least 500 flying hours in mixed weather, and it is | 120 velocity-500 miles / h , simulated
rainfall 1 in / h, substrate-
unfortunate that materials which can best meet these require- 0. glass -epoxy laminate
ments tend to have poor electrical characteristics. Rain erosion | 90
a
is particularly marked for small radome covers, which may
present a relatively blunt face to the direction of motion, and ° 60
considerable difficulties have been encountered in the design
of such covers for modern high-speed aircraft [38]. I JO neoprene
For example, for frequencies in the 2—18GHz band it is
possible to design either a glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) 0 105 15 20 30 35
sandwich which is electrically satisfactory but which fails at cooting thickness , mils
high speed in heavy rain, or an erosion-resistant moulded Fig. 13 Comparison of rain erosion performance of polyurethane and
thermoplastic radome with high insertion loss. The combi- neoprene using rotating-arm apparatus

IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981 457

principal planes of the antenna radiation pattern. The
boresight error was measured both before and after exposure
of the radome to a Mach 1 rain field. Surface erosion of the
SCFS varied from 0.2 to 0.1 mm with no erosion of the tip.
In general, the rain erosion resistance of reinforced plastic
materials is poor, necessitating the addition of an elastomeric
coat to afford the requisite protection. A 0.25 mm coating
of thick neoprene rubber applied to a GFRP radome can
significantly extend its eiosiion life. More effective protection
is given by fluoroelastomers [44] and polyurethane [45]
coating, with Fig. 13 showing the improved performance of
the latter over neoprene at subsonic velocities.
The most widely used coating, material is polyurethane,
which must be applied in numerous thin coatings, each of
which must be allowed to cure before the next is applied.
The number of coats provided is a compromise between
improved protection and the degradation of the dielectric
properties of the radome. The application process is time
consuming and expensive. In-service repair of damage is
virtually impossible and complete stripping of the coat is
usually necessary prior to recoating. It is sometimes also
required that the coatings be slightly conductive to avoid the
build up of static electrical charge, or that they be white to
resist flash effects, these requirements being difficult to
reconcile with each other.
Sandwich structures are particularly prone to rain erosion
;
because of delamination effects. The problem occurs, for
different reasons, with both foam and honeycomb cores.
Since the problem occurs beneath the surface, the use of
coating will offer only partial protection.
5 Radome obscurations
The electromagnetic design of an airborne radome is con-
strained by the availability of suitable dielectric materials and
the other conditions imposed by the airborne environment.
In addition, the electromagnetic performance which can be
realised can be seriously limited by aberrations arising from
metallic or dielectric obscurations within, or exterior to, the
radome. On missile radomes, the obscuration may arise from
a rain erosion tip or a metallic nose spike, but the problem is
radome wall to airflame
nose spike
internal
earthing
Si conductors
Fig. 14A Internally earthed nose spike
stud wall
to airframe
earthing
conductor
Internally earthed studs
even more severe with large aircraft radomes where the pitot
boom, pitot tubes and lightning protection schemes can
seriously degrade the radome performance.
The possibility of relocating the pitot boom is an obvious
one, and this solution has been adopted in some US aircraft
designs. The lightning protection strips represent a less trac-
table problem. The need for such protection is obvious in that
lightning can strike through the radome and attach itself to
the metallic components within. If the radome wall is punc-
tured in the process, then this will cause serious damage,
resulting at best in the loss of the sensor functions and at
worst in the loss of the aircraft. Since the presence of a light-
ning protection scheme appears unavoidable, and its impact
upon the radome electromagnetic performance can be signifi-
cant, it will be constructive to summarise some of the schemes
commonly employed.
A number of protection schemes have been reported in
the literature [41-49] and these can be classified into two
groups according to whether the earthing system adopted is
internal or external to the radome. Fig. 14A shows an intern-
ally connected nose-spike connected to the airframe by
heavy duty conductors, orientated to minimise radar degra-
dation. As a protection scheme, this type of system has no
serious defects except where the lightning strikes the internal
conductors directly. The internally earthed studs shown in
Fig. 14B are similarly connected to internal conductors and
operate in the same way. This system offers the advantage
that the distributed attachment points minimise the possibility
of a direct strike to the internal conductors. The major draw-
back of this design is the risk of moisture pick-up on the
radome wall, which will degrade the electromagnetic trans-
mission performance.
Fig. 15A shows an externally earthed 'cage of strips'
system. The conductors are either made of foil or are more
substantial metal strips. The foil system is not adequate
short thick^ or foil conductor
shielding the antenna
to airframe
long thick conductor
shielding antenna and
earthing pitot
Fig. 15A External foil or conducting strips
metallic studs ^ 2.5mm diameter
~0.25mm gaps
to airframe
short segmented
strip
long segmented strip
also to earth pitot (note :
radome only with plastic air pipes
and high-resistance
heater wires)
Fig. 15B External segmented strip
IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981
under multistrike conditions, where more substantial conduc- radome. At each point of incidence, the curved surface is
tors are required. Button strip (Fig. 15B) is a similar system, approximated by an infinite flat slab, the incident radiation
but here the conductor comprises metal discs on a GFRP resolved into vector components parallel and perpendicular
substrate. This system can only be used in short lengths, to the plane of incidence and the requisite plane-wave trans-
thus limiting its application. This latter system offers better mission coefficients applied. Transformation to the far field
radar transparency than the former. The effects of these two may then be effected by either tracing through to a secondary
protection schemes on the sidelobe performance of a typical aperture plane exterior to the radome, where integration of
antenna are shown in Figs. 16A and 16B. The effects are the tangential fields over this region yields the far-field pat-
clearly not insignificant. tern, or by performing an integration of tangential fields
over the radome surface.
Early work by Tricoles [52] uses ray tracing to analyse
-20 an antenna enclosed in an infinitely extended dielectric
A
wedge. Later papers [53, 54] use the technique to predict
CO
1
1
|
the boresight error induced by a more realistic radome shape;
'! / an axially symmetric dielectric shell with both E- and //-plane
•5"
1
(D
-30

1 radiation and boresight error characteristics being compared

with measured results in Figs. 17A, B and C with good agree-
ment around the main beam.
a

>
0 -45
-40 .|j .
' '"J*"1
.
'' •
, $ iJ/LA
''''^''ii'lfll1 iI/ '
liI :
\/l1 1
Cary [55] and Dowsett [56] applied the technique with
particular reference being given to the depolarisation effects
caused by radomes. Burks et al. [57] have applied the tech-
nique in the receive formulation, where a ray-tracing pro-
90 angle, deg or

-5
co - 4 0
•D

fc-50 -10

a.
a>
I -15
180 angle, deg 90 o
Fig. 16 Effect of lightning protection schemes on sidelobe per-
formance
a Spiral coil U 2 0 - 2
b Cage of strips angle j*.,deg
clean radome
modifications due to lightning protection Fig. 17A E-plane pattern
Electromagnetic analysis of obscurations such as the pitot x computed without radome
measured without radome
boom and lightning protection schemes have not been dealt o computed with radome
with extensively in the literature. In cases where the body is measured with radome
large compared with wavelength, it may be considered as a
form of aperture blockage and its effect computed by rep-
resentation as an equivalent source of the same magnitude
but opposite in phase to the incident radiation. For bodies
with all dimensions much less than a wavelength, the obscur-
ations may usually be ignored. The problem arises in the -5
situation where the body is of the order of a wavelength. In
these cases [47], a semiempirical method has been used
where the modified equivalent source is obtained by measuring
the diffraction pattern of the obstacle. 1-10
It has been proposed elsewhere [50] to adopt either an
induced field ratio technique [41] or a finite element
approach in the solution of these problems, but no detailed
1-15
•results are as yet available and it is clear that much work
remains to be done in this area.

6 Radome analysis techniques

94 9? 90 88 86
Over the past few decades, simple ray-tracing techniques angle 0. ,deg
have been the dominant technique in the analysis of randome-
enclosed antennas, and these methods are both well estab- Fig. 17BH-plane pattern
lished and well understood. In the transmit formulation, x computed without radome
electromagnetic energy is assumed to propagate in a direction measured without radome
o computed with radome
normal to the radiating aperture to the inner surface of the measured with radome

IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981 459

cedure is employed to find the incident fields at the antenna
with surface integration to obtain the receive voltages.
Many radome shapes, such as ogive and cone, lend them-
selves to exact solution of the intersection of the ray trajec-
tory with the surface, but others such as Von Karmann and
Sears Hack do not. Huddleston [58] has recently presented
a generalised ray-tracing method to analyse such geometries.
lation is obtained between experiment and theory, both in
the main beam and in the sidelobe region.
Booker and Clemmow [62] demonstrated that any electro-
magnetic field may be represented as an angular spectrum of
plane waves and defined the relationship between the aperture
and radiation fields. A full exposition of the technique is
presented in Clemmow [63] with Wu and Rudduck [64]
applying the technique to the antenna radome problem.
They demonstrated its equivalence to, and computational
surperiority over, aperture field techniques for the analysis of
circularly symmetric antennas.

•D
O

i-2

-1

-2 -40
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60
a 9. deg b 6 , deg
-6 -A -2 0 2 4 6
gimbal angle , deg Fig. 18 Measured and calculated patterns for n = 30°
Fig. 17C Radome boresight error for halfwave wall (k = 5.4) without ab if-plane
//-plane
protective layer measured
Upper curve, for if-plane, is for displacement of the receiving antenna x calculated
in a horizontal plane. This plane is parallel to the direction of the E
vector. Lower curve is for //-plane, which is orthogonal to these planes. Employing the plane-wave spectrum approach, the aperture
The curves are measured data. One of the measured curves was obtained field of the enclosed antenna can be expressed in Cartesian
for the radome in its normal position and the other after turning the co-ordinates as
radome upside down. Calculated data are shown the the closed dots
E(x,y,0) = f(x,y)dx + g(x,y)d. 0)
The aperture projection or ray-tracing techniques do not
account for the amplitude and phase variations occurring where dx,dy>dz are the unit vectors in the x,y and z direc-
in the antenna near field. In ray-tracing analysis, the field is tions, respectively.
assumed to propagate as a single plane wave and remain The plane-wave spectrum associated with each component
confined to the cylinder whose cross-section is defined by the can be obtained by taking the Fourier transformation of the
aperture. In reality, a divergence of the field occurs which aperture field components/and g as
can be calculated using more accurate analysis techniques.
The former method is only valid where the surface of the Fx(Kx,Ky) = [ J f(x,y)exp {+ j(Kxx + Kyy)}dxdy
radome lies totally in the paraxial region of the antenna A
field. This may be a valid approximation for more compli- (2)
cated, higher aspect ratio antennas such as slotted waveguide
arrays or elliptical aperture reflectors, where points on the with a similar expression holding for Fy, and if we define a
radome can be anywhere from the very near to far field of combined spectrum function F(K) as
the antenna. In these situations, a technique must be applied
that is valid for all space. The two commonly used methods F(K) = Fxdx + Fydy + Fzdz (3)
for the prediction of the near field of aperture antennas where K, the propagation vector, is defined as
are aperture field integration [59] and plane-wave spectrum
analysis [60]. Both techniques have been applied extensively K = Kxdx + Kydy + Kzdz
to the analysis of circularly symmetric antennas, with the
then
latter technique proving to be computationally more efficient
for these cases. Fz = -(KxFx+KyFy)/Kz (4)
Paris [61] used the aperture field technique to predict
the radiation pattern of a A\\ and 6X pyramidial horn with expressions for the field at field point r being
+ OO + OO
enclosed in a multilayered airborne radome. The field incident
on the radome surface is assumed to be locally plane, and E(r) = J J F(K) exp (-jk • r)dkxdky (5)
flat-slab transmission coefficients are applied yielding the —oo— oo

exterior tangential field. This field is integrated over the and

surface to yield the secondary pattern. Fig. 18 summarises + 00+00

the results from this study with E- and //-plane patterns //(/•) = jj K/\F(K)exv(-jk-r)dkxdky (6)
being presented for an antenna look angle of 38°. Good corre-
460 IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981
The integrands of eqns. 5 and 6 can be recognised as plane
waves and the fields at any point as an integration of a spec-
trum of plane waves. In extending the formulation to radome
analysis, each plane wave is resolved into components perpen-
dicular and parallel to the plane of incidence of a flat-slab
approximation to the radome surface, and the respective are
transmission coefficients applied. The exterior field is given
by integration over the plane wave spectrum. Surface inte-
gration is then used to yield the far field.
For circular symmetric distributions, the analysis is greatly
simplified as eqn. 2 can then be solved explicitly and the
near-field calculation of eqn. 6 reduces to a single integration.
The formulation of the near field for circularly symmetric
apertures using this technique is particularly amenable to
solution using stationary phase techniques, as was demon-
strated by Chen [65]. Anderson applied similar methods to
the dielectric flat slab [66].
The analysis of realistic two-dimensional aperture antennas
by the application of plane-wave-spectrum surface-integration
(PWS-SI) techniques can represent a formidable numerical
problem. The scale of the numerical problem may be greatly
reduced by replacing the continuous-spectrum representation
of eqn. 5 by a discrete one, together with truncating the
summation within the visible spectrum. Green [67] postulated
this method, but without full experimental verification. Work
performed at ERA [50] applied the discrete PWS-SI technique
to an elliptical offset reflector antenna enclosed in a radome.
Fig. 19 shows near-field results for x and y polarised field

--130'

-6 -A -2 0 2 U 8
-6 -A - 2 0 2 U 6 . radial displacement r
radial d i s p l a c e m e n t r/h phase

- 0°
r-2 8
- -10

-1

-0 / s 1/ V A ' - -20

- -30°
/
I

f
-2
- -50*

-3« - -60°
A'
•" 1 - -70°

- -80°

U -90°
-7 .-7| 1 -100
-8- - -110° --8/
-110
i ,
- 8J
i ii i i i i
-8 -6 -U -2 0 2 U 6
radial displacement r/A -6 -U -2 0 2 4
r a d i a l displacement r
d

Fig. 19 Near-field distribution of offset reflector antenna components over secondary aperture planes at distances 0,
a z = 0.0,, 0>=0° 2, 10 and 30 X from the primary aperture in the plane of
Ex phase offset. The ripples in the pattern at z = 0 are due to truncation
b z = 2X, 0 = 0°
Ex phase of the PWS within the visible spectrum. Fig. 20 shows the
c z = 10 \ , 0=0° comparison of the theoretically produced near-field result for
Ex phase the same antenna with an experimental measurement showing
d z = 30 X, 0 = 0 °
Ex phase excellent agreement.

IEEPROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981 461

 Joy [68] has presented a more computationally efficient
PWS analysis utilising an equivalent aperture formulation in
conjunction with a fast Fourier transform algorithm. The PWS
is first assessed by fast Fourier transformation of the aperture
separation
field, and a grid is set up in the aperture from which each
plane wave of the spectrum is traced to the radome, where
the appropriate plane-wave transmission coefficients are
applied. The radome is then removed and the weighted plane
waves are traced back to the primary aperture, where their
contributions are added and a fast Fourier transform of the
equivalent aperture distribution gives the radiation pattern
of the antenna radome. Fig. 21A shows the results obtained
using this technique, where curves A, B and C demonstrate
the slightly different results obtained by using, respectively,
a flat-slab approximation, first ignoring and then including
the ray displacement in passing through the dielectric, with
curve C representing the full representation of the curved
radome surface. Finally, Fig. 2IB demonstrates that compar-
able results are obtained using a two-dimensional moments
method formulation for a radome-enclosed slot array.

7 Conclusions

The rapid growth of electromagnetic radiating and receiving

systems for airborne applications, in what is clearly a limited
separation
= 30A
frequency spectrum, has resulted in a general requirement for
increased performance from a wide range of electromagnetic
sensors. The need for improved performance can be observed
in both civil and military spheres, particularly in the areas of
compatibility, avoidance of interference and jamming, radar
tracking accuracy and all aspects of electronic warfare.
Antenna specifications calling for lower sidelobe radiation,
reduced boresight errors, dual polarisations, wider and
multiple-frequency bandwidths, and generally more adaptable
and flexible modes of operation are becoming commonplace.
For airborne systems, almost all the electromagnetic
systems will be located behind radomes, and the need for
azimuth
"aperture
improved overall performance will require significant improve-
ments in their electromagnetic properties. The parallel
Fig. 20 Comparison of near-field calculations and measured patterns
(15 XX 45 \ elliptical offset reflector antenna) advances being made in aircraft and missile performance only
serve to compound the radome design problem, since higher
Separation z = 30 X
experiment speeds will increase the thermal and structural stresses imposed
• • theory (discrete) PWS on the radome and will give added emphasis to the already
dominant aerodynamic requirements.
At the current state of the art in radome design, both
materials technology and electromagnetic design techniques
are being severely stretched by the levels of performance
demanded. Significant advances will be necessary in both
spheres if the radome is to avoid becoming the principal
limiting factor in future airborne electronics systems.

8 Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank J. Summers of the Royal

10 20 30 50 Signals & Radar Establishment and British Aerospace
scan angle, deg Reinforced and Microwave Plastics Group for their help in
Fig. 21A Boresight error against antenna azimuth scan angle using the preparation of this paper, and S. Gupta of ERA Tech-
three-dimensional equivalent aperture plane-wave spectra analysis nology Ltd. for his technical input.

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IEE PROC, Vol. 128, Pt. F, No. 7, DECEMBER 1981