Q NO 1:

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member being selected for
a sample cannot be calculated. It’s the opposite of probability sampling, where you can calculate the
odds. In addition, probability sampling involves random selection, while non-probability sampling does
not–it relies on the subjective judgement of the researcher.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

 Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample from somewhere convenient
to you: the mall, your local school, your church. Sometimes called accidental sampling, opportunity sampling
or grab sampling.
 Haphazard Sampling: where a researcher chooses items haphazardly, trying to simulate randomness.
However, the result may not be random at all and is often tainted by selection bias.
 Purposive Sampling: where the researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about the population
and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s purpose. There are several types of
purposive sampling. For a full list, advantages and disadvantages of the method, see the article: Purposive
Sampling.
 Expert Sampling: in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list of experts in the field.
 Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling: a type of sampling where you deliberately choose members
so that all views are represented. However, those views may or may not be represented proportionally.
 Modal Instance Sampling: The most “typical” members are chosen from a set.
 Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample are proportional to the groups in the
population.
 Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for the study. This method is
particularly useful when participants might be hard to find. For example, a study on working prostitutes or
current heroin users.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

 Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample from somewhere convenient
to you: the mall, your local school, your church. Sometimes called accidental sampling, opportunity sampling
or grab sampling.
 Haphazard Sampling: where a researcher chooses items haphazardly, trying to simulate randomness.
However, the result may not be random at all and is often tainted by selection bias.
 Purposive Sampling: where the researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about the population
and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s purpose. There are several types of
purposive sampling. For a full list, advantages and disadvantages of the method, see the article: Purposive
Sampling.
 Expert Sampling: in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list of experts in the field.
 Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling: a type of sampling where you deliberately choose members
so that all views are represented. However, those views may or may not be represented proportionally.
 Modal Instance Sampling: The most “typical” members are chosen from a set.
 Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample are proportional to the groups in the
population.
 Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for the study. This method is
particularly useful when participants might be hard to find. For example, a study on working prostitutes or
current heroin users.
B

Probability sampling uses random sampling techniques to create a sampleProbability sampling uses
random sampling techniques to create a sample
 Probability sampling is based on the fact that every member of a population has a known and equal
chance of being selected. For example, if you had a population of 100 people, each person would have
odds of 1 out of 100 of being chosen.

Types of Probability Sampling

 Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting subjects. These can include assigning
numbers to all subjects and then using a random number generator to choose random numbers. Classic ball and
urn experiments are another example of this process (assuming the balls are sufficiently mixed). The members
whose numbers are chosen are included in the sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling involves splitting subjects into mutually exclusive groups and then using simple
random sampling to choose members from groups.
 Systematic Sampling means that you choose every “nth” participant from a complete list. For example, you
could choose every 10th person listed.
 Cluster Random Sampling is a way to randomly select participants from a list that is too large for simple
random sampling. For example, if you wanted to choose 1000 participants from the entire population of the
U.S., it is likely impossible to get a complete list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas
(i.e. cities or counties) and randomly selects from within those boundaries.
 Multi-Stage Random sampling uses a combination of techniques
Q NO 2:
 Non-Response—Non-response errors occur when respondents are different than
those who do not respond. This may occur because either the potential
respondent was not contacted or they refused to respond. The extent of this non-
response error can be checked through follow-up surveys using alternate modes.
 Respondent-related error refers to error in a survey measure that is directly or indirectly
attributable to the behaviors or characteristics of respondents; it is distinguished from error
resulting from other survey components, such as questionnaires, interviewers, or modes of
administration. However, respondents may interact with these other components of survey
design in producing errors. It is useful to dichotomize respondent-related errors into those
that arise from nonobservation or nonresponse (e.g. during efforts to obtain interviews) and
those that result from observation or measurement (e.g. during the administration of the
survey).

 Errors in survey measures have two components: bias and variable errors. Bias results when
responses provided in the survey differ from their true values, which are typically unknown
and unmeasured, in a systematic way across repeated ...

Q NO 3
 A continuous variable is a numeric variable. Observations can take any value between a certain set of real
numbers. The value given to an observation for a continuous variable can include values as small as the instrument
of measurement allows. Examples of continuous variables include height, time, age, and temperature.
Categorical variables have values that describe a 'quality' or 'characteristic' of a data unit, like
'what type' or 'which category'. Categorical variables fall into mutually exclusive (in one category or in
another) and exhaustive (include all possible options) categories. Therefore, categorical variables
are qualitative variables and tend to be represented by a non-numeric value.
Continuous Data Discrete Data

Height, weight, age Number of batteries sold

Salary from $1 to infinity Number of product

defects

Categorical Variables

Ordinal (Ordered categories) of Data Nominal (Unordered categories) of Data

Product quality Gender (male/female)

Better, same, worse Styles of Jaguar Cars (XJS, S Type, XJ8)

Disagree, neutral, agree Sales Region (Western, Eastern, Southern, Northern,

Midwestern)

B:

Quantitative and Qualitative

Quantitative research is the collecting of objective numerical data. Features are classified and
counted, and statistical models are constructed to analyze and explain the information that has been
gathered. Some of the tools used for this type of research include questionnaires that are given to
test subjects, equipment that is used to measure something and databases of existing information.
The goal of quantitative research is to compile statistical evidence,

Observational and Experimental

Observational research is the collection of information without interference or input from the
researcher. It is the examination of things as they naturally or inherently are. The researcher simply
observes, measures or records what occurs. That information is then analyzed and used to draw
conclusions.

This is in contrast with experimental research, in which the researcher sets the parameters or
conditions and is able to change them to determine their effects.
 Market Research enables you to:
 Ask the questions you want to ask

 Begin with and test a hypothesis

 Predict what might happen in the future

If improving your ability to retain and grow business with existing customers is important to you, then
conduct research. Research in its most basic form is to inquire, to examine. There is a rigor to
research. Research begins with a question and the question helps you formulate your approach or
methodology. In addition to conducting research, a number of companies are exploring adding a
market research function to their organization.

Categorical variables may be further described as ordinal or nominal:

 An ordinal variable is a categorical variable. Observations can take a value that can be logically ordered or
ranked. The categories associated with ordinal variables can be ranked higher or lower than another, but do not
necessarily establish a numeric difference between each category. Examples of ordinal categorical variables include
academic grades (i.e. A, B, C), clothing size (i.e. small, medium, large, extra large) and attitudes (i.e. strongly agree,
agree, disagree, strongly disagree).
 A nominal variable is a categorical variable. Observations can take a value that is not able to be organised in
a logical sequence. Examples of nominal categorical variables include sex, business type, eye colour, religion and
brand.

The data collected for a categorical variable are qualitative data.