LASER

1. INTRODUCTION
The quest for obtaining a light source with high degree of coherence led to the invention of laser. The
word ‘LASER’ is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a source
which emits an intense, almost perfectly monochromatic, directional, and highly coherent beam of light.
Highly coherent beam means coherence length is high, e.g. for an ordinary light the coherence length is
of the order of 10-2m, whereas the coherence length for a laser light can be as long as 10 5 m!

The basic concept of laser devices was first discussed by Einstein in 1917. He considered the
equilibrium between matter and electromagnetic radiation in a black body chamber at a constant
temperature in which exchange of energy takes place due to absorption and spontaneous emission of
radiation by the atoms. He found that usual absorption and emission processes alone are not sufficient
to explain the equilibrium He then predicted that there must be a third process also, now called
‘stimulated emission’. This prediction was partly proved in 1954 when Townes and Gordon developed
microwave amplifier MASER using ammonia (NH3).In 1958 Schawlow and Townes showed that the
MASER principle could be extended into visible region and in 1960 Maiman built the first laser using
ruby as the active medium, then Javan constructed the first gas laser, the He-Ne laser. Soon a large
variety of materials, including liquids, ionized gases, plastics, dyes, semiconductors are been used as
active materials. Now days, laser is used in medicine, science, manufacturing and so many other fields
that it is considered to be one of the most important discovers in physics in recent years. In the words of
C.H. Townes, inventor of Maser and Laser,” What the laser does essentially is to give us electronic type
control over light.” It is indeed, a marriage of optics and electronics.

2. INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER:

An atomic system is characterized by discrete energy state, and usually the atoms occupy the lowest
energy state, known as grounded state. An atom in a lower energy state, known as grounded state. An
atom in a lower energy state may be exited to a higher energy state through a number of processes.
They are- (1) Stimulated absorption of radiation; (2) Spontaneous emission of radiation; (3) Stimulated
emission of radiation. Einstein first predicted from purely thermodynamic consideration that an atom in
the exited state can make a radioactive transition to the ground state (with emission of photon, hν=E 2-
E1) in two ways; one is the spontaneous emission not influenced by any other extraneous effect while
the other is stimulated emission caused by the presence of electromagnetic radiation of proper
frequency.

1. Stimulated emission of radiation:

An atom initially in a lower state 1, rises to a higher state 2 by absorbing a quantum radiation(photon) of
frequency ν given by,

1
 𝐸2 −𝐸1
ν= , --- --- --- (1)
ℎ
where E2 and E1 are the energies of the atom in the states 1 and 2 respectively (fig 1). This is
stimulated absorption of radiation, the absorbed photon being the stimulating photon.
1
E2 E2

hν

2 E1 E1

(STIMULATED ABSORPTION)

fig 1

2. Spontaneous emission of radiation:

Let us now consider an atom initially in the higher (exited) energy state (fig 2). Observation
show that it’s life time in higher state is usually very small (=10 -8 second) and it, of it’s own
𝐸2 −𝐸1
accord decays to lower energy state 1,emiting a photon of frequency,ν = . This is
ℎ
‘spontaneous’ emission of radiation. If there is an assembly of atoms, then the radiation emitted
spontaneously by each atom has a random direction and a random phase, and is therefore
incoherent from one atom to another.

1 BEFORE AFTER
E2 E2hν

2 E1 E1

(SPONTANEOUS EMISSION)
fig 2

3. Stimulated emission of radiation :

According to Einstein, an atom in an exited energy state, under the influence of the correct
electromagnetic field of a photon of some frequency ν incident upon it, decays to a lower
energy state, emitting an additional photon of same frequency ν (fig 3). Thus two photons of
same frequency, one incident and the other emitted, move on. This is ‘stimulated’ or induced
emission of radiation. The critical details of stimulated emission is that direction of propagation,
energy, phase and state of polarization of the emitted photon is exactly the same as that of the
incident stimulating photon so it is completely coherent with the stimulating photon. Thus the
problem in designing laser reduces to one of preparing material in which most of the atoms are
in exited state, so that when electromagnetic wave of right frequency passes through it
stimulates the emission of a chain of photon and the emitted radiation is amplified.

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 1BEFORE
E2 E2hν

hν

2 E1 E1

(STIMULATED EMISION)

fig 3

 Difference between Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission

(1) In spontaneous emission process the photons emitted from different atoms have no phase
relationship between them i.e. resultant radiation is incoherent. In the stimulated emission the
emitted photons have frequency and are in phase with the incident photons i.e. resultant radiation
is coherent and unidirectional.
(2) In spontaneous emission process the photons can move in any direction whereas in the
stimulated emission, for every incident photon, there are two outgoing photons moving along the
same direction.
(3) In spontaneous emission process the rate of transition from excited state E2 to lower energy
state E1 is proportional to the number of atoms in excited state E 2. In case of stimulated emission,
the rate of emission is proportional to number of atoms in excited state E2 and the energy density of
incident radiation.
(4) Spontaneous emission dis-favours laser action whereas stimulated emission favours laser action.

3. EINSTIEN ‘S A-B COEFFICIENTS

Let us consider an atomic system placed in a radiation field of energy density u(ν) under equilibrium
condition. The figure shows that the atomic system of two energy levels E1 and E2 with number of atoms
per unit volume N1 and N2 respectively at any instant. The photons corresponding to transitions
between these two levels ( E2  E1 ) must have an energy h  E2  E1 ; if the photon frequency is
different from the above frequency then there will be no interaction at all. Following Einstein, let us
write down the rates of spontaneous and stimulated emission and the rate of absorption of radiation.
The rate of spontaneous emission will be independent of the energy density of the radiation field
because for this process to occur, presence of photon is not required. The rate of spontaneous emission
will be proportional to N2 , the number of atoms in the excited state E2 and if the proportionality
constant is denoted by A21, then N2A21 will represent the number of spontaneous emission/unit volume.
In presence of some external field of energy density u(ν), the probability of stimulated emission and
absorption depends on energy density of radiation u(ν) and population of states from which transition
take place. Thus the rate of stimulated emission is N 2B2`u(ν) and the rate of absorption is N 1B12u(ν);

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where B12 and B21 are constant of proportionality. The constants A 21, B12, B21 are known as Einstein’s
coefficients and are determined by atomic system.

When the system is in thermal equilibrium, the net rate of downward transition must be equal to the
rate of downward transition must be equal to the net rate of upward transition. Thus we may write,
N2 A21  N2 B21u( )  N1B12u( )
Dividing both sides by N1 we get,
A21  u   B21   B12 u  
So that,
N2 B12u ( )

N1 A21  u   B21
According to Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, the ratio of population of atoms in different levels for the
system in thermal equilibrium is given as,
 ( E2  E1 )  h
N2
e K BT
 e K BT --- --- ---(2)
N1
Where 𝐾𝐵 is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature.
𝑁2
Substituting the value of from eqn. (2) in eqn. (1) obtains,
𝑁1
B12u ( )  h h
 e K BT  B12u ( )e K BT
 A21  u   B21
A21  u   B21
h
 
  B12 e K BT  B21  u ( )  A21
 
A /B
 u ( )  h 21 12         (3)
e K BT
 B21 / B12
This is a formula for spectral density of radiation of frequency 𝜈 in thermal equilibrium with atoms in
energy states 1 and 2, at temperature T. thus it must be consistent with Plank’s law of radiation given
by:

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 8 h 3 1
u ( )  ( 3
) h --- --- --- (4)
c e K BT  1

As may be noted, eqn. 3 and (4) are strikingly similar, though they have been obtained from completely
different arguments. On comparing these expressions, we obtain

B12  B21 --- --- --- (5a)

8 h 3
A21 / B12  --- --- --- (5b)
c3

Eqn.s (5a) and (5b) are known as Einstein’s relations.

4. OUTCOMES OF EINSTEIN’S RELATION

On the basis of Einstein’s relations, we can conclude the following:

1. Eqn. (5a) indicated that the probabilities of absorption and stimulated emission are the same. In other
words, when an atomic system is in equilibrium, the absorption and emission take place side by side.
Normally N2>N1 and absorption dominate stimulated emission. An incident photon is more likely to be
absorbed than to cause stimulated emission. But if we could find a material that could be induced to
have a majority of atoms in the higher state than in the lower state, i.e. N 2>N1, the stimulated emission
may dominate absorption. This condition of atomic system is known as population inversion. And when
the stimulated emission dominates over the absorption in the atomic system, it is said to loss.

2. From Eq ( ) we see that the ratio of spontaneous emission coefficient to stimulated emission
coefficient varies with 𝜈 3 . It means that larger the energy difference between the two states (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 =
ℎ𝜈), the much more likely is the spontaneous emission compared to stimulated emission.

3. If we substitute B12 =B21 in eqn. (3), we get the ratio of spontaneous emission probability to stimulated
emission probability y,

𝐴21 ℎ𝜈
=𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1 (6)
𝐵21 𝑢(𝜈)

If ℎ𝜈 >> 𝐾𝐵 𝑇, spontaneous emission is much more probable than stimulated emission which can be
neglected. This holds true in case of electronic transitions in atoms and molecules. But if, ℎ𝜈 << 𝐾𝐵 𝑇,
as in the microwave region of the spectrum, it is observed that stimulated emission may dominate over
spontaneous emission . That is, the resulting emission is due to forced atomic oscillation and bears a
constant phase relation with the incoming radiation. As a result all the atoms (or molecules) radiate in
phase. That is why stimulated radiation is coherent. This remarkable characteristic of stimulated
emission is utilized in Laser and Masers.

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In the visible region of ordinary optical sources, ℎ𝜈 >> 𝑘𝐵 𝑇, for atoms in thermal equilibrium with
radiation, spontaneous emission is far more probable than stimulated emission. As an example, for an
ordinary optical source,

𝑇~103 K and ν 𝜈~ 5 × 1014 𝑠 −1 (corresponding to ≈ 6000 𝐴 ). Then we have,

ℎ𝜈 6.63 ∗ 10−34 𝐽𝑠 ( 5 ∗ 1014 𝑠 −1 )
≈ ≈ 24
𝑘𝑇 1.38 ∗ 10−23 𝐽 𝐾 −1 ( 103 𝐾)
This gives,

𝐴21 ℎ𝜈
=𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1 ≈ 1024 − 1 ≈ 1010 .
𝐵21 𝑢(𝜈)

Thus , from ordinary light sources, the emission is predominantly due to spontaneous transitions and

hence the emitted light is incoherent.

 Prob 1. Assume that an atom has two energy levels separated by an energy corresponding to a
frequency 4.7 × 1014 𝐻𝑧, as in the He-Ni laser

5. CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO ACHIEVE LASER ACTION

The transition between two energy levels in an atom can occur by induced absorption, spontaneous
emission and stimulated emission. To achieve laser action the following conditions must satisfy.

1. The rate of (stimulated) emission must be greater than the rate of absorption: Under normal
situation of thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms in the higher energy state E 2 is considerably
smaller than that in lower energy state E1 (i.e. N2<N1), so that there is very little stimulated emission
compared with absorption. If by some means, the number of atoms in the higher energy state is made
sufficiently larger than the number in the lower energy state, then the stimulated emission is promoted
and the light in the system undergoes a net increase in intensity. There are several methods to invert
the population of higher energy levels,; this is known as population inversion. The population inversion
of higher energy state can be achieved by continuous pumping of atoms from lower energy state to
higher energy states.

2. The probability of spontaneous emission must be as small as possible in comparison with the
probability of the stimulated emission: This condition can be achieved by taking working substance
(active medium) such that the atoms have detestable states which have a life-time of 10−3 𝑠 or more
instead of the usual 10−8 𝑠. If certain atoms are excited to a metastable state the possibility of the
spontaneous emission will be quite negligible.

3. The coherent beam of light must be sufficiently amplified: For this the active medium must be placed
between two reflective mirrors. One of the mirrors must be fully reflecting while the other is partially
transmitting. The photons emitted by stimulated emission are reflected back and forth in the medium

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by these mirrors, so that they confine within the system long enough to allow them to stimulated
emission further from other excited states. In this way reflected photons, travelling through the active
medium stimulated further emission as well as produces amplified, amplified coherent and intense
beam of light which is emitted by partially transmitting mirror.

6. POPULATION INVERSION: A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR LIGHT AMPLIFICATION

Let us consider an assembly of atoms (an active medium) distributed over different energy states.
Suppose a light beam of frequency n which coincides with one of the characteristic frequencies of the
atoms, in passing through the medium. Now, one of the following two processes takes place:

(i) A light photon of frequency 𝜈 is absorbed by the atom in an energy state E1 and the atom is excited to
a higher energy state E2, such that 𝜈 = (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 )/ℎ. In this case, the intensity of the beam passing
through the medium gradually decreases, until the beam is totally attenuated.

(ii) A light photon of frequency 𝜈 is incident on an atom which is already in an excited energy state E 2
The atom comes down to lower energy state E1, emitting a photon of frequency, 𝜈 = (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 )/ℎ. The
emitted photon is in perfect coherence with the incident photon; this is stimulated emission of
radiation. If these two photons are incident on two other atoms in the energy state E 2, they give rise to
the emission of two more photons, thus resulting in four coherent photons. This process continues and
the intensity of the light beam increases enormously. This increase in light intensity is known as light
amplification.

Population Inversion
Under ordinary condition of thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms in the higher energy state E 2 is
considerably smaller than that in lower energy state E1 (i.e. N2<N1), so that there is very little stimulated
emission compared with absorption. If the population of two states are same (i.e. N 1=N2), the rate of
absorption of radiation exactly balances the rate of emission when the medium is said to be optically
transparent. If, however, by some means, the number of atoms in the higher energy state is made
sufficiently larger than the number in the lower energy state, then the stimulated emission is promoted
and the light in the system undergoes a net increase in intensity. It is thus clear that to produce a faster
rate of stimulated emission than absorptions, it is required that the ratio of the populations of the states
be such that N2/N1 > 1; in other words, a population inversion is required for laser operation. The
situation in which the number of atoms in the higher energy state exceeds that in lower energy state (N 2
> N1) is known as population inversion. Under this situation, the assembly of atoms would exhibit lasing
action.
Stimulated emissions are further encouraged by increasing the radiation density 𝑢(𝜈) of the stimulating
radiation. This is achieved by enclosing the emitted radiation in a cavity between two parallel reflectors.
The radiation repeatedly travels back and forth and the photons passing through the atoms go on

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multiplying by repeated stimulated emission. Hence a strong coherent beam of light emerges from the
system.
7. ACIEVEMENT OF POPULATION INVERSION: PUMPING
The critical detail of stimulated emission is that the induced photon has the same frequency and phase
as the incident photon. In other words, the two photons are coherent. It is this property that allows
optical amplification and the production of a laser system. During the operation of a laser all three light-
matter interactions i.e absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emissions take place. For any
laser device to operate, the achievement of population inversion (i.e. larger number of atoms of the
medium should be excited to higher energy states) is necessary to dominate the (stimulated) emission
process which results in optical amplification. The process by which atoms are raised from a lower to
higher energy state is called pumping of atoms. Some of these atoms decay via spontaneous emission,
releasing incoherent light as photon of frequency. These photons are fed back into the laser medium.
However, some photons cause stimulated emission, releasing another coherent photon which is known
as optical amplification.
As discussed above, a population inversion is essential for laser operation but cannot be achieved in
ordinary theoretical group of atoms witch two energy levels when they are in thermal equilibrium. In
fact, any method by which the atoms are directly and continuously excited from the ground state to
excited state (such as optical absorption) will eventually reach equilibrium with the de-excitation
process of spontaneous sand stimulated emission. At best, an equal population of the two states,
𝑁1 = 𝑁2 = 𝑁/2, can be achieved, resulting in optical transparency but no net optical gain.

(a) Three - Level Laser

To achieve non-equilibrium conditions, an indirect method of populating the excited state must be sued.
To understand how this is done, we may use slightly more realistic model, that of three-level laser . In
this, we look for three levels in an atom such that energy states E 1, E2 and E2 have population N1, N2 and
N3, respectively. We assume that E1<E2<E3 with a fast decay between levels 3 and 2 and slow decay
between 2 and 1. Initially, the system of atoms is at thermal equilibrium and the majority of the atoms
will be in the ground state i.e. 𝑁1 ≈ 𝑁, 𝑁2 ≈ 𝑁3 ≈ 0. If the atoms are subjected to radiation of

8
frequency 𝜈13 = (𝐸3 − 𝐸1 )/ℎ , the process of optical absorption will raise as many atoms as possible
from level 1 to 3. It is to be noted that population inversion cannot be obtained between levels 3 and 1,
because when the number of atoms N3 in level 3 equals the number N1, absorption will be balanced by
stimulated emission and the material will become transparent at the frequency 𝜈13 .

If level 3 decays rapidly to level 2, a population inversion can be obtained between level 2 and 1. An
example is the ruby laser. A ruby laser is a crystalline aluminum oxide (Al 2O3), which contains Cr3+ ions.
These Cr3+ ions are excited by green light  = 550𝑛𝑚 to a number of closely levels. Interaction with the
crystal lattice de-exites these levels by a non-radiative process to a metastable level 2, which possesses
a particularly long life ~10−3 s. Laser action can be initiated between the levels 2 and 1, resulting in red
light  = 694.3𝑛𝑚

Drawback: There is a in the three level laser such as ruby. The laser requires high pumping power
because laser transition terminates at the ground state and more than half of the atoms must be
pumped to the higher state to achieve population inversion. Moreover, ions which happens to be in
their ground state absorbs the 694.3 nm photons from the beam as it builds up.

(a) Four - Level Solid State Laser

The ruby laser is a three-level laser and hence not very efficient. There are more efficient solid state
lasers based on the four-lavel system shown in fig. Lavel 0 is the ground state while 1, 2, and 3 are the
excited states of the system. Atoms from level 0 are lifted by a pump right to level 3, from where they
rapidly decay to level 2 through some non-radiative transition. Level 2 is a metastable state with a long
life-time(~10−3 𝑠). This level becomes the upper laser level with level 1 being the lower laser level
having very short life-time; so that the incoming atoms (to this level) from level 2 decays at once to 0
from where they are again pumped to level 3. If the rate of decay of atoms from level 1 to level 0 is
faster than the rate of arrival of atoms into level 1, population inversion is established between level 2
and 1 and laser action is initiated.

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C.U. 2016, 14

The necessary condition for lasing action between two states is that the number of atoms in the higher
energy state is sufficiently enhanced. Usually the number of atoms in the higher energy state is less than
that in the lower energy state. As a consequence the time rate of downward induced transitions (i.e.
stimulated emission) is much less that of upward transition. However, to enhance the rate of stimulated
emission population inversion has to be ensured. In the four level laser scheme, shown in figure, atoms
are pumped from the ground level 0 to the level 3, which decay rapidly to level 2, as in the three-level
system. By emitting laser radiation the atoms descend to level 1 and then decay rapidly to the ground
level. The quick removal of the atoms from level 1 enhances the population inversion.

Let 𝑛0 , 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 and 𝑛3 denote the populations (i.e. number of atoms per unit volume) of the four levels
respectively. As the decay from the level 3 to level 2 is almost instantaneous (very fast), we may assume
the population of level 3 i.e. 𝑛3 ≈ 0. The population rate equations are, therefore, given by:
dn0
  Pn0   10 n1
dt
dn1
  10 n1   21n2
dt
dn2
 Pn0   21n2
dt
Where P is the pumping rate of the ground level 0 and  21 and  10 are the spontaneous decay
rates for 2 → 1 and 1 → 0, respectively. The rate equations must satisfy the conservation law
n0  n1  n2  const  N
where N is the total number of atoms per unit volume. In the steady state we have
dn0 dn1 dn2
   0 . Setting these values we find the steady state populations to be
dt dt dt
NP(1/  21  1/  10 )
n2  n1 
1  P /  10  P /  21

Hence
NP(1/  21  1/  10 )
n2  n1 
1  P /  10  P /  21
Clearly, if 𝑃 ≠ 0then in order to achieve population inversion for lasing 𝑛2 > 𝑛1 whenever 1/𝛾21 >
1/𝛾10 i.e. when 𝛾10 > 𝛾21 .

8. CHARACTERISTICS OF A LASER BEAM

Extraordinary monochromacity, high intensity, high degree of coherence and high directionality of a
laser beam make it superior than any other source of light. Some characteristic properties of laser beam
are as follows:

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(i) High Directionality: In contrast to an ordinary light source which radiates light in all directions, laser
source radiates light only in one direction with almost zero divergence, that is, a laser beam is highly
directional and it can travel to a long distance without any noticeable spreading.
The spread 𝜃 of a beam of wavelength  on one side is given by 𝜃 = /𝑑, d being the diameter of the
aperture. For a typical laser the divergence angle is about 10−5 radian, that is, beam spreads only 0.01
mm for every one meter of propagation.
(ii) High Intensity: Laser beam is highly intense only because it emits light as a narrow beam and its
intensity is maintained even at large distance from the source. Because of its high energy density and
directional property, a laser beam can produce temperature of the order of 104 𝐾 at focused point. Thus
it can even vaporize even the hardest metal.
(iii) Extra Ordinary Monochromaticity: Laser beam is almost perfectly monochromatic because of its
∆𝑣 1
large coherence time (𝜏). The monochromaticity depends on a factor 𝜀 = = . For laser source
𝑣 𝜏𝑣
𝜀~10−12 while for ordinary light source it is ~10−5 .
(iv) Highly Coherent: Laser beam is highly coherent- temporally as well as spatially. The coherence time
and coherence length for a laser beam are much larger than those for an ordinary source of light.
Typically, coherence time for a laser beam is about 2 ms, giving a coherence length of 600 km, whereas
for a red cadmium light the coherence time of 1 ns and coherence length of 30 cm.

9. SOLVED PROBLEMS AND HINTS

1. Show that for a normal optical source with temperature about 103 𝐾 and wavelength 600 nm, the
emission is predominantly due to spontaneous transition. *C.U ‘03+

2. In a HE-Ne laser, the transition from 3s to 2p level gives a laser emission of wavelength 632.8 nm. If
the 2p level has the energy 15.2 × 10−10 𝐽, how much pumping energy is required assuming no loss?
Hints:- The desired pumping energy = ℎ𝑣 + 15.2 × 10−10 𝐽 = 11.5 𝑒𝑉 [C.U 1997]
3. For 2𝑝 → 1𝑠 transition in the hydrogen atom, the mean spontaneous lifetime is 1.66 × 10−8 𝑠 and
the frequency of the emitted radiation is 2.4 × 1015 𝐻𝑧. Calculate the probability of the stimulated
emission. *C.U ‘03+
Hints:- The desired probability is
c3
B12  A21 ; A21  1/ (1.66 108 ) s 1
8 h 3
(Ans. 7.07 × 1018 𝑚3 𝐽 −1 𝑠2 )
4. A 3 mW of laser beam of wavelength 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 is focused by a convex lens. The focal length of the
lens is 5 cm and radius of the circular aperture is 1 cm. Find the intensity of the focused spot. If the
coherence time of the laser beam is 50 ns, find the monochromacity of the source. [C.U ‘02+
2 −5 −12
(Ans. 0.955 mW/cm , 6 × 10 ± 1.2 × 10 𝑐𝑚 )
5. Line width of He-Ne laser is as low as 20 Hz. Calculate the coherence length. (Ans. 15000 km)
[Hints. – Coherence length 𝐿 = 2 /∆ ]
6. Calculate the population ratio of two lines in He-Ne laser that produces light of wavelength 600 nm at
300 K.

11
7. A laser beam of wavelength632.8 nm and aperture 5 × 10−3 𝑚 from He-Ne laser can be focused on
an area equal to square of its wavelength. If the power of laser radiation is 10 mW, find the angular
spread and the intensity of the focused beam. (Ans.1.265 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑, 2.5 × 1016 𝑊𝑚2 )

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