ELECTRO MAGNETIC BRAKING

SYSTEM
 ABSTRACT
The braking system was designed and applied on a car to make the driving process safety
using embedded system design. Most of the accident occurs due to the delay of the driver to
hit the brake, so in this project work braking system is developed such that when it is active it
can apply brake depending upon the object sensed by the ultrasonic sensor and speed of
vehicle. Currently, vehicles are often equipped with active safety systems to reduce the risk
of accidents, many of which occur in the urban environments. The most popular include
Antilock Braking Systems (ABS), Traction Control and Stability Control. All these systems
employ different types of sensors to constantly monitor the conditions of the vehicle, and
respond in an emergency situation. An intelligent mechatronic system includes an ultrasonic
wave emitter provided on the front portion of a car producing and emitting ultrasonic waves
frontward in a predetermined distance. An ultrasonic receiver is also placed on the front
portion of the car operatively receiving a reflective ultrasonic wave signal. The reflected
wave (detected pulse) gives the distance between the obstacle and the vehicle and RPM
counter gives speed of vehicle. Electromagnetic braking system is used to apply the brake
Chapter 1
 Literature Review
Applications of metal matrix composites in defense, aerospace and light vehicles have been
reported by Rittner (2001). She has concluded that the scope for MMC in all the above areas
were optimistic and suggested further improvement in processes, selection of alloy, selection
of reinforcement and selection of components to reduce the cost of end product. [12-15]
Robert (2001) has presented various forms of aluminum alloys and their applications. Based
on his survey on the growth of aluminum alloys, he concluded that 32.2 % of the aluminum
was consumed in transport industry in different forms. Foltz and Charles (1991) have
presented various matrix alloys, reinforcements and their applications in space, defense,
automotive and electronic packaging. [9] They also presented the possible applications of
MMCs in making automotive components like pistons, cylinder sleeve, [10]connecting rod
and brake discs. Many Researchers (Suresh et al.1993; Kevorkijan 1999; Rohatgi 1991;
Nakanishi et al. 2002) have presented the applications of MMCs for the automotive
components and the feasibility of manufacturing these materials. Surappa (2003) has
presented an overview of aluminum matrix composite material systems on aspects relating to
processing, microstructure, [2]properties and applications. Many challenges of using the
metal matrix composites are producing high quality and low cost reinforcements, developing
simple economical and portable non-destructive kits to quantify undesirable defects,
developing less expensive tools for machining and cutting and also developing re-cycling
technology. The following chapters discuss the issues in design and manufacturing of an
automobile brake drum.[16-20]
Chapter 2
 INTRODUCTION
Braking systems of commercial vehicles were always given the highest importance
concerning safety issues and in particular active safety. Inappropriate braking of these
vehicles may cause heavy accidents due to relatively longer stopping distances and higher
energy output of brakes particularly in the case of vehicle combinations. The traditional
medium used for brake system (compressed air) can be now controlled with the speed and
precision offered by modern electronic abilities. Intelligent Braking System (IBS) introduced
in commercial vehicles providing rapid brake response and release for every single wheel
therefore ensuring safety. The extremely rapid response time provided by the electronic
control can be used for crucially shortening the braking distance by introducing advanced
control of braking system operation. Such a complex task imposed to the control of braking
system cannot be based on the driver abilities and need to be done independently of the
driver. An improved IBS braking forces management would certainly enable to reach the
given task. The advanced strategy for the braking force management, proposed here, is based
on intelligent controlling of the braking forces distribution between the front and rear axle of
power-driven vehicle and/or between towing/trailer combination and/or between tractor/semi-
trailer. Intelligent braking system has a lot of potential applications especially in developed
countries where research on smart vehicle and intelligent highway are receiving ample
attention. The system when integrated with other subsystems like automatic traction control
system, intelligent throttle system, and auto cruise system, etc. will result in smart vehicle
maneuver. The driver at the end of the day will become the passenger, safety accorded the
highest priority and the journey will be optimized in term of time duration, cost, efficiency
and comfortability. The impact of such design and development will cater for the need of
contemporary society that aspires quality drive as well as to accommodate the advancement
of technology especially in the area of smart sensor and actuator. The emergence of digital
signal processor enhances the capacity and features of universal microcontroller. The overall
system is designed so that the value of inter-vehicle distance from ultrasonic laser sensor and
speed of follower car from speedometer are fed into the DSP for processing, resulting in the
DSP issuing commands to actuator to function appropriately [1]. The most popular systems
like Antilock Braking Systems (ABS), Traction Control and Stability Control employ
different types of sensors to constantly monitor the conditions of the vehicle, and respond in
an emergency situation. An intelligent mechatronic system includes an ultrasonic wave
emitter provided on the front portion of a car producing and emitting ultrasonic waves
frontward in a predetermined distance. An ultrasonic receiver is also placed on the front
portion of the car operatively receiving a reflective ultrasonic wave signal. The reflected
wave (detected pulse) gives the distance between the obstacle and the vehicle. Then a
microcontroller is used to control the speed of the vehicle based on the detection pulse
information to push the brake pedal and apply brake to the car stupendously for safety
purpose

WORKING PROCEDURE

 Above block diagram and circuit diagram shows the systematic representation of
automatic brake failure indicator and braking system.

 The system contains the battery, drum brake, buzzer, motor, electrical relay and the
connecting system.

 When the automobile vehicle is in motion and the unfortunately brakes are fail at that
time the chances of accident were increase.

 To reduce that kind of accident we doing the research and doing the project on this,
for reducing accident.

 For doing the experiment or for checking the ability of project, first we take a one
vehicle and install the system on the vehicle.

 When the vehicle is in motion without brake failure, at this condition the system is not
in working.

 Here we are transfer the signal voltage through the Brake Wire from one end to other
end.

 At the other end in the wheel the signal conditioning unit identify that whether the
signal voltage in the Brake wire is available or not.

 At this condition the voltage is pass throughout the circuit, then we brake the circuit
by disconnecting the wire, means the brake rod of braking system get brake. we
replace or consider the wire as a brake rod which is to be broken.

 The one connection of the relay is given to the battery and the second to the motor.
  As the brake fail, the relay which switch the circuit and connect to the motor circuit
and power supply is given to the motor.

 As well as the power is also supply to the buzzer, buzzer starts and give the indication
the driver in the form of sound.

 After this the motor rotates and apply the additional brake by using brake wire.

 Due to this the brake apply and vehicle stops after the some second.

 Then we press the switch for releasing the brake, the motor rotates anticlockwise and
the brake wire get wound on the motor shaft.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Block diagram of brake failure indicator

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A BRAKE:

The brake must be strong enough to stop the vehicle with a minimum distance. The distance
should be the shortest during Emergency braking. The distance moved by the vehicle after
the application of the brake is known as braking.
The brakes must have good ant fade characteristic. In other words the brakes should not loose
their effectiveness on prolonged application. This is only possible by proper and effective
cooling of brakes.

PURPOSE OF BRAKES:

1. To control the speed of the vehicle as well as to stop it when and where desired
quickly and efficiently without sticking.

2. To keep the vehicle is any possible position after it had been actually brought to a
complete rest when the driver is not present.

3. These purposes are accomplished by providing two independent braking systems

in a motor vehicle service brake and a parking (or) emergency on hand brake.
 PRINCIPLES OF BRAKING

PRINCIPLES OF BRAKING:

The principle of braking is the reverse of that applied during accelerating

a vehicle. in accelerating, the heat energy of the fuel is converted into the
power of kinetic energy is converted into heat by means of friction produced
between low mating surface of the brake drum. similar to the effective effort
produced at the peripheries of the driving of the motor vehicle, the braking
torque introduced at the brakes drums due to application of brake produces a
retarding effort (or) a negative attractive effort is limited bay the adhesion
available between the brake lining and the brake drum similar to the limit
providing by the adhesion available between the wheels and the grant. the force
of friction (or) force exerted on the shoes by the retarding mechanism and the
co-efficient of friction for the two materials.

BRAKE TESTING:

BRAKE TESTING:

When the vehicle is moving, it can be stopped by applying the brakes. It

is to be noted here that brake pedals cannot be passed instantaneously and the
vehicle cannot be stopped instantaneously. First the drive thinks, then lift the
leg., presses the brake pedal and the vehicle stops after moving some distance.
So it is necessary to note how much time is required to stop the vehicle and how
long it will travel after applying the brake. These two factors are directly
dependent on the speed o the vehicle.
STOP TEST:

For testing the brakes, this test is usually adopted by mechanical or driver
after overhauling the brakes the moves the vehicle at a speed and suddenly
applies the brakes. Then he checks how much time it has taken to stop and how
long it has moved after spring the brakes. Also, he sees the impressions of the
four tyres on the road, whether equal or not, and whether the vehicle is pulling a
side or not.

STOP WATCH TEST:

To perform this test, the vehicle is moved at about 70km/hr. then the brakes are
applied. The time and distance are noted.

Let T = time taken to stop the vehicle after applying the brakes.

D = distance moved by the vehicle after applying the brakes.

Then, brake efficiency is given by

N = (D-T2)*6 ¼

Brake testers are also used for testing the brakes. They work on the principle of
decelerometer. Taply brake meter is a type of brake tester. This brake meter is
placed on the vehicle floor for testing the brakes. It consists of a round ring with
numbers. There is a pendulum inside the dial which remain dipped in oil. As
soon as the brake are applied, the vehicle speed decreases which causes the
pendulum ring to move. The number on the ring gives reading which can be
obtained by an inspection plate.
 BRAKESERVICE

BRAKE SERVICE:

Following is the procedure to service the brakes

1. Check the fluid level in the master cylinder

2. Check brake pedal adjustments.
3. Check brake pedal travel: If the pedal travels more than halfway to the
floor, the brakes may require adjusting to compensate for lining wear or
they may be require relining.
 4. If the brakes pull to one side after adjustment, check tyre pressure. All
tyros must be inflated to recommended pressures to ensure even braking.
Check brake linings for foreign materials and clean as required. If the
side pull persists, check from wheel alignment and balance.
5. Check the bake system for leaks by applying a steady pressure on the
break pedal. If the pedal falls away the break system has leak somewhere.
Find the leak points and remove them.
6. A spongy brake pedal indicates the presence of air in the hydraulic
system. This condition must be corrected by bleeding the brakes.
7. If the brakes become locked so that the vehicle cannot be moved the
brakes must be released by opening, the bleeder screw on any one of the
wheel cylinders.

DESCRIPTION OF BRAKE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Brakes are one of the most important control components of the vehicle. They
are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance and this is
done by converting the kinetic energy of the wheels into the heat energy which
is dissipated into the atmosphere.

Types of brakes based on method of actuation:

1. Mechanical brakes
2. Hydraulic brakes

3. Electric and electronic brakes

4. Vacuum brakes

5. Air brakes

Types of brakes based on application

1. Drum brakes

2. Disc brakes

3. Parking Brakes

DRUM BRAKES

The modern automobile drum brake was invented in 1902 by Louis Renault,
though a less - sophisticated drum brake had been used by Maybach a
year earlier. In the first drum brakes, the shoes were mechanically
operated with levers and rods or cables. From the mid-1930s the shoes were
operated with oil pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons, though some
vehicles continued with purely-mechanical systems for decades. Some designs
have two wheel cylinders.
 The shoes in drum brakes are subject to wear and the brakes needed to be
adjusted regularly until the introduction of self adjusting drum brakes in the

1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s brake drums on the front wheel of cars were
gradually replaced with disc brakes and now practically all cars use disc brakes
on the front wheels, with many offering disc brakes on all wheels. However,
drum brakes are still often used for handbrakes as it has proved very difficult to
design a disc brake suitable for holding a car when it is not in use. Moreover, it
is very easy to fit a drum handbrake inside a disc brake so that one unit serves
for both footbrake and handbrake.

Early type brake shoes contained asbestos. When working on brake

systems of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present in the
brake assembly. The United States Federal Government began to regulate
asbestos production, and brake manufactures had to switch to non- asbestos
linings. Owners initially complained of poor braking with the replacements;
however, technology eventually advanced to compensate. A majority of daily-
driven older vehicles have been fitted with asbestos-free linings. Many other
countries also limit the use of asbestos in brakes.
 Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel
cylinder, return springs and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When you
apply the brakes, brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel cylinder
which, in turn, pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on
the inside of the drum. When the pressure is released, return springs pull the
shoes back to their rest position. As the brake linings wear, the shoes must
travel a greater distance to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain
point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest
position of the shoes so that they are closer to the drum.

BRAKE SHOES

Like the disc pads, brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the friction
material or lining riveted or bonded to it. Also like disc pads, the linings
eventually wear out and must be replaced. If the linings are allowed to wear
through to the bare metal shoe, they will cause severe damage to the brake
drum.

BACKING PLATE
 The backing plate is what holds everything together. It attaches to the
axle and forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted
hardware. It rarely causes any problems.

BRAKE DRUM

Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on the inside where
the shoes make contact. Just as with disc rotors, brake drums will show signs of
wear as the brake linings seat themselves against the machined surface of the
drum. When new shoes are installed, the brake drum should be machined
smooth. Brake drums have a maximum diameter specification that is stamped
on the outside of the drum. When a drum is machined, it must never exceed that
measurement. If the surface cannot be machined within that limit, the drum
must be replaced.

WHEEL CYLINDER

The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each
side. Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with a
brake shoe. When brake pressure is applied, the pistons are forced out pushing
the shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must be rebuilt or
replaced if they show signs of leaking.

The major components of the drum brake assembly is shown in the following
figure the detailed exploded view of drum brake components.

RETURN SPRINGS

Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the pressure
is released from the wheel cylinder. If the spring are weak and do not return the
shoes all the way, it will cause premature lining wear because the linings will
remain in contact with the drum. A good technician will examine the springs
during a brake job and recommend their replacement if they show signs of
fatigue. On certain vehicles, the technician may recommend replacing them
even if they look good as inexpensive insurance.

SELF ADJUSTING SYSTEM

The parts of a self adjusting system should be clean and move freely to insure
that the brakes maintain their adjustment over the life of the linings. If the
self adjusters stop working, you will notice that you will have to step down
further and further on the brake pedal before you feel the brakes begin to
engage. Disc brakes are self adjusting by nature and do not require any type of
mechanism. When a technician performs a brake job, aside from checking the
return springs, he will also clean and lubricates the self adjusting parts where
necessary.

PARKING BREAKS

The parking brake (a.k.a. emergency brake) system controls the rear brakes
through a series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot
pedal. The idea is that the system is fully mechanical and completely by passes
the hydraulic system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is
a total brake failure.

In drum brakes, the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the rear brake and is
directly connected to the brake shoes. This has the effect of by passing the
wheel cylinder and controlling the brakes directly.

1. Support plate

2. Park brake shoes

3. Equalize

4. Springs

5. Hold down clips

6. Adjuster

Disc brakes on the rear wheels add additional complication for parking brake
systems. There are two main designs for adding a mechanical parking brake to
rear disc brakes. The first type uses the existing rear wheel caliperand adds a
lever attached to a mechanical corkscrew device inside the caliper piston.
When the parking brake cable pulls on the lever, this corkscrew device pushes
the piston against the pads, thereby bypassing the hydraulic system, to stop the
vehicle. This type of system is primarily used with single piston floating
calipers, if the caliper is of the four piston fixed type, then that type of
system can’t be used. The other system uses a complete mechanical drum
brake unit mounted inside the rear rotor. The brake shoes on this system are
connected to a lever that is pulled by the parking brake cable to activate the
brakes. The brake “drum” is actually the inside part of the rear brake rotor.

On cars with automatic transmissions, the parking brake is rarely used. This can
cause a couple of problems. The biggest problem is that the brake
cables tend to get corroded and eventually size up causing the parking brake to
become inoperative. By using the parking brake from time to time, the cables
stay clean and functional. Another problem comes from the fact that the self
adjustingmechanism on certain brake systems uses the parking brake actuation
to adjust the brakes. If the parking brake is never used, then the brakes never get
adjusted.

DISC BRAKES

INTRODUCTION

Disc brakes consist of a metal disc attached to the wheel hub that rotates with
the wheel. Calipers are attached to the frame or fork along with pads that
squeeze together on the disc. Such brakes have been successfully used on
motorcycles for decades, and been the principal choice there. The disc brake is a
lot like the brakes on bicycle. Bicycle brakes have a caliper, which squeezes the
brake pads against the wheel. In a disc brake, the brake pads squeeze the rotor
instead of the wheel, and the force is transmitted hydraulically instead of
through a cable. Friction between the pads and the disc slows the disc down.
CONSTRUCTION

Theory Of Conventional Hydraulic Disc Brake

A Disc brake uses a flat, round disc or rotor, attached to the wheel hub instead
of a drum. Brake pads are positioned on the opposite sides of the rotor and are
mounted in the brake caliper. The caliper contains the hydraulic piston used to
apply the shoes and to transmit the braking forces from the shoes to the
suspension members.

All disc brakes are non energized, non servo brakes; lining pressure is
directly proportional to brake pedal pressure. Centrifugal force will throw the
contaminants off the rotor. A disc brake will have much cooler operation than
drum brakes because of increased area that is exposed to the air flowing past it.

All modern automotive brake system uses a hydraulic system to transmit the
application forces from the brake pedal to the brake shoes.

The brake’s hydraulic system begins at the master cylinder. The master
cylinder is basically a piston type hydraulic pump operated by the brake pedal.
As brake pedal is pushed, brake fluid is pumped to the caliper or wheel cylinder
piston. This fluid pushes on the pistons, which push the brake shoes against the
rotor.

ADVANTAGES OF DISC BRAKES OVER DRUM BRAKES

 In case of disc brakes the frictions surface is directly exposed to the

cooling air, so the heat dissipation is much easier in disc brake than drum
brakes.
 The frictional surface in case of disc brakes are flat when compared to
curved surface of drum brakes, this mean in disc brakes there is uniform
wear.
  Frictional pad material is not subjected to any bending, thereby
increasing the range of materials from which to choose the suitable one.
 The design of disc brakes is such that there is no loss efficiency due to
expansion, as the system becomes hot, expansion of drum of
internally expanded shoe types if brake tends to move the friction surface
apart, causing a loss of effective pedal travel, on the friction surfaces
slightly without tending to increase the clearance.
 Disc brake weigh less than their conventional drum type counterpart a
saving approximately 20% being possible.
 Disc brake has a better anti fade characteristics than drum brakes.

DISADVANTAGES

 Any leakages of hydraulic fluid leads to brake failure

 Air bubbles if any got trapped in the hydraulic circuit will result is brake
failure.
 Sufficient level of brake fluid should always be maintained all the time.
 Hydraulic disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed
the brake systems.
 Repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc
brakes rarely fail completely.
Considering the above mentioned advantages and superior nature of disc brakes
we decided to choose modifications in disc brakes to make it much simpler and
more effective and cheaper design.
HYDRAULIC VS MECHANICAL

Two main disc brake systems exist: hydraulic and mechanical (cable-
actuated). Mechanical disc brakes (which are almost always less expensive than
hydraulic) have less modulation than hydraulic disc brake systems, and since
the cable is usually open to the outside, mechanical disc brake tend to pick up
small bits of dirt and grit in the cable lines when ridden in harsh terrain.
Hydraulic disc rakes use fluid from a reservoir, pushed through a hose, to
actuate the pistons in the disc caliper that then actuate the pads. Hydraulic disc
brake systems generally keep contaminants out better. However, since hydraulic
disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed the brake
systems, repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc
brakes rarely fail completely. Hydraulic disc brakes occasionally require
bleeding of the brake lines to remove air bubbles. There are two types of
brake fluid used in disc brakes today: mineral oil and DOT fluid. Mineral oil
is generally inert and while DOT has a higher boiling point, it is known to be
corrosive to frame paint. The two

are generally not interchangeable, as the different fluids may cause seals to
swell or be corroded. Also, the hydraulic fluid may boil on steep, continuous
down hills. This is due to heat building up in the disc and pads and can cause
the brake to lose its ability to transmit force through incompressible fluids, since
some of it has become a gas, which is compressible. To avoid this problem, 203
mm (8 inch) diameter disc rotors have become common on downhill bikes.
Larges rotors dissipate heat more quickly and have a larger amount of mass to
absorb heat. For these reasons, one must weigh the advantages and
disadvantages of using a hydraulic system versus a mechanical system.
Chapter 3
 PROJECT HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS

Hardware:

1. AC Single phase Motor

2. Brake Drum
3. Solenoid
4. Power supply
5. Ultrasonic sensor

1) AC Single Phase Motor:

An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current (AC).

The AC motor commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stator having
coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and
an inside rotor attached to the output shaft producing a second rotating magnetic
field. The rotor magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets,
reluctance saliency, or DC or AC electrical windings.

Less common, AC linear motors operate on similar principles as rotating motors

but have their stationary and moving parts arranged in a straight line
configuration, producing linear motion instead of rotation.

Operating principles:
The two main types of AC motors are induction motors and synchronous
motors. The induction motor (or asynchronous motor) always relies on a small
difference in speed between the stator rotating magnetic field and the rotor shaft
speed called slip to induce rotor current in the rotor AC winding. As a result, the
induction motor cannot produce torque near synchronous speed where induction
(or slip) is irrelevant or ceases to exist. In contrast, the synchronous motor does
not rely on slip-induction for operation and uses either permanent magnets,
salient poles (having projecting magnetic poles), or an independently excited
rotor winding.

Fig: AC Single Phase Motor

The synchronous motor produces its rated torque at exactly synchronous

speed. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed synchronous motor system has an
independently excited rotor winding that does not rely on the principles of slip-
induction of current. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed motor is a
synchronous motor that can function exactly at the supply frequency or sub to
super multiple of the supply frequency.

3) SOLENOID:

A solenoid (from the Frenchsolénoïde, derived in turn from

the Greek solen ("pipe, channel") and eidos ("form, shape") is a coil wound into
a tightly packed helix. The term was invented by French physicist André-Marie
Ampère to designate a helical coil.

In physics, the term refers to a coil whose length is substantially greater

than its diameter, often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a
uniform magnetic field in a volume of space (where some experiment might be
carried out) when an electric current is passed through it. A solenoid is a type
of electromagnet when the purpose is to generate a controlled magnetic field. If
the purpose of the solenoid is instead to impede changes in the electric current,
a solenoid can be more specifically classified as an inductor rather than an
electromagnet. Not all electromagnets and inductors are solenoids; for example,
the first electromagnet, invented in 1824, had a horseshoe rather than a
cylindrical solenoid shape.
 Fig: Solenoid

In engineering, the term may also refer to a variety of transducer devices

that convert energy into linear motion. The term is also often used to refer to
a solenoid valve, which is an integrated device containing an electromechanical
solenoid which actuates either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a solenoid
switch, which is a specific type of relay that internally uses an
electromechanical solenoid to operate an electrical switch; for example,
an automobile starter solenoid, or a linear solenoid, which is an
electromechanical solenoid. Solenoid bolts, a type of electronic-mechanical
locking mechanism, also exist.

Pneumatic solenoid valve:

A pneumatic solenoid valve is a switch for routing air to any pneumatic

device, usually an actuator, allowing a relatively small signal to control a large
device. It is also the interface between electronic controllers and pneumatic
systems.

Hydraulic solenoid:
 Fig: Hydraulic solenoid

Hydraulic solenoid valves are in general similar to pneumatic solenoid

valves except that they control the flow of hydraulic fluid (oil), often at around
3000 psi (210 bar, 21 MPa, 21 MN/m²). Hydraulic machinery uses solenoids to
control the flow of oil to rams or actuators. Solenoid-controlled valves are often
used in irrigation systems, where a relatively weak solenoid opens and closes a
small pilot valve, which in turn activates the main valve by applying fluid
pressure to a piston or diaphragm that is mechanically coupled to the main
valve. Solenoids are also in everyday household items such as washing
machines to control the flow and amount of water into the drum.

Transmission solenoids control fluid flow through an automatic

transmission and are typically installed in the transmission valve body.

Automobile starter solenoid:

In a car or truck, the starter solenoid is part of an automobile starting

system. The starter solenoid receives a large electric current from the car
battery and a small electric current from the ignition switch. When the ignition
switch is turned on (i.e. when the key is turned to start the car), the small
electric current forces the starter solenoid to close a pair of heavy contacts, thus
relaying the large electric current to the starter motor.

Starter solenoids can also be built into the starter itself, often visible on
the outside of the starter. If a starter solenoid receives insufficient power from
the battery, it will fail to start the motor, and may produce a rapid 'clicking' or
'clacking' sound. This can be caused by a low or dead battery, by corroded or
loose connections in the cable, or by a broken or damaged positive (red) cable
from the battery. Any of these will result in some power to the solenoid, but not
enough to hold the heavy contacts closed, so the starter motor itself never spins,
and the engine doesn't start.

4. POWER SUPPLY UNIT;

INTRODUCTION:

DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such power

supplies will employ a transformer to convert the input voltage to a higher or
lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer output voltage
to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to
convert it to an unregulated DC voltage.

Step down Bridge Filter Regulator Output

Transformer Rectifier
 Block Diagram For Regulated Power Supply (RPS):

Fig: Power Supply

The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the
remaining AC voltage is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of
ripple dictates the minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by a
power supply. In some applications, high ripple is tolerated and therefore no
filtering is required. For example, in some battery charging applications it is
possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply with nothing more
than a transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with
the output to limit charging current.

Fig: Basic AC –DC Power supply circuit

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:

When AC is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer, it

can either be stepped down or stepped up depending on the value of DC needed.
In our circuit the transformer of 230V/15-0-15V is used to perform the step
down operation where a 230V AC appears as 15V AC across the secondary
winding. Apart from stepping down voltages, it gives isolation between the
power source and power supply circuitries.

RECTIFIER UNIT:

In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid

state diode. Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily in one
direction at proper biasing condition. As AC is applied to the diode, electrons
only flow when the anode and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of
voltage will not permit electron flow. A commonly used circuit for supplying
large amounts of DCpower is the bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier of four
diodes (4 x IN4007) are used to achieve full wave rectification. Two diodes
will conduct during the negative cycle and the other two will conduct during the
positive half cycle, and only one diode conducts. At the same time one of the
other two diodes conducts for the negative voltage that is applied from the
bottom winding due to the forward bias for that diode. In this circuit due to
positive half cycle D1 & D2 will conduct to give 0.8V pulsating DC. The DC
output has a ripple frequency of 100Hz. Since each alteration produces a
resulting output pulse, frequency = 2 x 50 Hz. The output obtained is not a pure
DC and therefore filtration has to be done.

The DC voltage appearing across the output terminals of the bridge

rectifier will be somewhat less than 90% of the applied rms value. Normally
one alteration of the input voltage will reverse the polarities. Opposite ends of
the transformer will therefore always be 180 degree out of phase with each
other. For a positive cycle, two diodes are connected to the positive voltage at
the top winding.

3)ELECTROMAGNETIC COIL UNIT;

 This unit having one solenoid coil operated in 12VDC supply voltage.
There is a metal rod centrally mounted in the coil under spring force. When the
supply is given to the coil unit ,the solenoid core rod moves inward in

to the coil and the metal rod pull the brake lever pedal downward
direction. This coil is connected to the power supply through a button.

4) BRAKING UNIT

Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel
cylinder, return springs and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When you
apply the brakes, brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel
cylinder which, in turn, pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined
surface on the inside of the drum. When the pressure is released, return springs
pull the shoes back to their rest position. As the brake linings wear, the shoes
must travel a greater distance to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a
certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically
reactsbyadjustingtherestpositionoftheshoessothattheyareclosertothedrum.

5.ultrasonic sensor

As the name indicates, ultrasonic sensors measure distance by using ultrasonic

waves.
The sensor head emits an ultrasonic wave and receives the wave reflected back
from the target. Ultrasonic Sensors measure the distance to the target by
measuring the time between the emission and reception.
An optical sensor has a transmitter and receiver, whereas an ultrasonic sensor
uses a single ultrasonic element for both emission and reception. In a reflective
model ultrasonic sensor, a single oscillator emits and receives ultrasonic waves
alternately. This enables miniaturization of the sensor head
 WORKING OPERATION

. In this project we propose to deal with a new type of electromagnetic

brake using solenoid switch.

This unit having one solenoid coil operated in 12VDC supply voltage. There is
a metal rod centrally mounted in the coil under spring force. When the supply is
given to the coil unit ,the solenoid core rod moves inward in to the coil and
the metal rod pull the brake lever pedal downward direction. This coil is
connected to the power supply through a button.

The electro magnetic brake operates in 12VDC power supply. When the supply
given to the electromagnetic coil which pulls the brake lever to apply the
brake to the rotating wheel.

ADVANTAGE:

1. Easy to install and low cost.

2. Repair and maintenance is simple.

3. It is used as a safety device duo to over load

DISADVANTAGES
1. Braking speed is constant

2. This braking is not a smooth one.

3. High battery power is required.

4. May be chance of electro-magnetic coil failure.

APPLICATIONS

1. Used in machinetool spindle gear box system to change the speed.

2. Used in crane control system

3. Used in winch controlling

4. Used in lift controlling

5. Used in automobile purpose

CONCLUSION

We make this project entirely different from other projects. Since

concepts involved in our project is entirely different that a single unit is used to
various purpose which is not developed by any of other team members.

We have successfully complete this project work at our Institute.

By doing this project work we understood the working principle of uses

of various Brakes, switches, control systems.

Once again we express our sincere thanks to our staff members.

 FINISHING AND PAINTING

JOB PREPARATION:

Before welding, remove any bend in the L angle with the sludge hammer
on the anvil block. Then it is cut to the required length with the hacksaw blade
and fabricated to required dimensional shape with arc welding.

FINISHING OPERATION BEFORE PAINTING:

After welding, any slag on the welded area is removed with the chipping
hammer and cleaned with the metal wire brush. Then all the surfaces are rubbed
with the emery sheet.

Metal primer is applied on the surfaces with the brush. After drying the metal
primer, the second coating is applied with the paint.

REFERENCES

1. Elangovan, S., Semeer, S., and Prakasan, K. (2009). Temperature and stress distribution in
ultrasonic metal welding—An FEA-based study. Journal of materials processing technology,
209(3), 1143-1150.

2. Siddiq, A., and Ghassemieh, E. (2008). Thermomechanical analyses of ultrasonic welding

process using thermal and acoustic softening effects. Mechanics of Materials, 40(12), 982-
1000.

3. Konchakova, N., Balle, F., Barth, F. J., Mueller, R., Eifler, D., and Steinmann, P.(2010).
Finite element analysis of an inelastic interface in ultrasonic welded metal/fibre- reinforced
polymer joints. Computational Materials Science, 50(1),184-190.
4. Levy, A., Le Corre, S., Chevaugeon, N., and Poitou, A. (2011). A level set based approach
for the finite element simulation of a forming process involving multiphysics coupling:
Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composites. European Journal of Mechanics-A/Solids,
30(4), 501-509.

5. De Vries, E. (2004). Mechanics and mechanisms of ultrasonic metal welding(Doctoral

dissertation, The Ohio State University).

6.Fuat kara, kubilayAslantas, AdemCieck, et al. Prediction of cutting temperature in

orthogonal machining of AISI 316L using artificial neural network. Applied soft
Computing.2015,3864-74.

7Girish kant, kuldipsinghsangwan .Oredictivemodeling and optimization of machining

paramaters to Minimize surface Roughness using Artificial Neural Network Coupled with
Genetic Algorithm. 15th CIRP Conference on modeling of Machining
Operations2015,31453-458

8. Amin, S. G., Ahmed, M. H. M., and Youssef, H. A. (1995). Computer-aided design of

acoustic horns for ultrasonic machining using finite-element analysis. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 55(3), 254-260.

9. Pandya Bhavik, Patel Saral, and Patel Viral (2014). Effect of horn (sonotrode) profile on
weld strength of HDPE plastic by using ultrasonic welding. International Journal for
Technological Research and Engineering, 2(4), 2347-4718.

10. Derringer, G. and Suich, R. (1980) “Simultaneous Optimization of Several Response

Variables”. Journal of Quality Technology 12, pp. 214-219.

11.Yosuke Tamada (2018).Welding characteristics of Cu and Al plates using planar vibration

by a dumbbell-shaped ultrasonic complex vibration. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 57
07LE12.