 INTRODUCTION

1
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Driving is a compulsory activity for most people. People use their vehicle to move from
one place to other place. The number of vehicles is increasing day by day. Nowadays, accidents
are increasing and are uncertain. Accident will occur every time and everywhere and cause worst
damage, serious injury and even death. These accidents are mostly caused by delay of the driver
to hit the brake.
This project is designed to develop a new system that can solve this problem where
drivers may not brake manually but the vehicles can stop automatically by detecting obstacles.
This project is about a system that can control braking system for safety. Using infrared as a
ranging sensor, its function based on heat and motion. After transmitting by transmitter, the wave
can reflect when obstacle is detected and then received by receiver. The braking circuit’s
function is to slow down or stop the car automatically after receiving signal from the sensor.

OBJECTIVES
 To develop a safety car braking system using infrared sensors.
 To design a vehicle with less human attention to the driving.
 Scope of project is to develop an infrared sensor to detect the obstacle and to
process the output from the infrared sensor and to drive the solenoid valve as an
actuator.

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  LITERATURE SURVEY

3
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 SAFETY CONSIDERATION IN CARS

There are various safety consideration involve to make passenger comfortable while
traveling, and it has been modified as generation of automobile goes by. Here are some area the
modification has been take place.

2.1.1 STRONG CHASSIS

In old days the chassis were made of wooden floor and not good enough to sustain the
load. But now days the chassis is made of alloy of lightweight aluminum and strong cast iron to
give chassis immense strength such that it withstand load and sustain in accident.

2.1.2 DASH BOARD MODIFICATION

The Dash board is modified and simplified in recent days such that it can be user
friendly. Economics (the relation between man & machine) of dash board include various
sensors and meters to make it comfortable.

2.1.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF AIR BAGS

Airbags (passive restraints) have saved many lives and reduced injuries in vehicle
crashes, there are accidents where they have been the cause of injury and or death. Knowledge of
the history of airbag systems and how they work is important in understanding if they are a
factor in an occupant’s injury or death. An overview of these subjects is presented in this paper.
In addition, potential airbag defects are defined.

2.1.4POWER BRAKING, ABS, POWER STARRING, TRC

Today many path braking technologies and brake components such as brake boosters,
brake cylinders, brake hydraulic valve, brake lines, etc., lend a braking system high efficiency.
They are also the key behind advanced braking systems such as the anti-lock braking system.
The following are some braking systems and their components.

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2.1.5 ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM:
An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety anti-skid braking system used
on aircraft and land vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, trucks and buses. ABS operates by
preventing the wheels from locking up during braking, thereby maintaining tractive contact with
the road surface.
ABS is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence
braking, techniques which were once practiced by skilful drivers before ABS braking systems
were widespread. ABS operates at a much faster rate and more effectively than most drivers
could manage. Although ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping
distances on dry and some slippery surfaces, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces ABS may
significantly increase braking distance, while still improving steering control. Since ABS was
introduced in production vehicles, such systems have become increasingly sophisticated and
effective. Modern versions may only prevent wheel lock under braking, but may also alter the
front-to-rear brake bias. This latter function, depending on its specific capabilities and
implementation, is known variously as electronic brake force distribution, traction control
system, emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).

2.2 TYPES OF BRAKES

2.2.1 DISC BRAKES

Disc brakes make use of friction generated between the disc attached to a heel and the
wheel itself, to slow or stop an automobile. Disc brakes comprise brake pads that serve as
friction material and are fixed onto a device called a brake caliper. When the brake pedal is
pushed by a driver the brake pads are mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically forced against both sides of the disc mounted on wheels thus regulating the
speed of the vehicle or slowing down the vehicle.

2.2.2 HAND BRAKES

Hand brakes are latching brakes and are normally used to keep an automobile stationary,
when not being driven. Also known as e-brake, emergency brake, park brake, parking brake or
slide stick, the brakes are often configured on the floor and between front passenger and the

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driver. However, they can even be configured as a lever at the bottom of the dashboard, or as a
foot operated pedal. The brake comprises a cable that connects the braking system at one end and
a lever on the other. The driver operates the hand-lever (or a pedal) to actuate or release the
brake.

2.2.3 POWER BRAKES

A braking system employing power braking uses the engine's power and/or the power of
batteries to assist the driver in braking. Although conventional brakes generate enough force to
regulate the speed of an automobile, power brakes further enhance this power by supplementing
it from other sources (i.e. engine/batteries), thus causing highly efficient braking. Examples: air
suspended brakes, vacuum suspended brakes, hydraulic booster and electro-hydraulic boost
brakes.

2.2.4 HYDRAULIC BRAKES

Hydraulic brakes consists of a braking mechanism that uses brake fluid, to apply the
braking force from the controlling unit (viz. brake pedal) to the actual brake mechanism. They
are based on a multiple piston system, wherein the brake pedal when pushed, produces an
equivalent force on each of the output pistons, thus multiplying the force and cause efficient
braking.

2.3 REAR END COLLISIONS

Three databases from three different countries are used as the basis for the problem
definition to find types of collisions. Volvo's statistical accident database contains Volvo
vehicles in Sweden in which the repair cost due to an accident exceeds a specified level,
currently SEK 45000. The database, which contains information about the crash, the vehicles and
the occupants including injuries if any, is further described. The GIDAS database (German In-
Depth Accident Study) is the second European database used in this study Traffic accidents
within Hanover and Dresden and the rural areas surrounding these cities are investigated
according to a statistical sampling process.
As a complement to the European data, NASS/CDS (National Automotive Sampling
System Crashworthiness Data System) is also used. CDS provides in-depth crash investigations

6
of a representative sample of police-reported tow-away crashes throughout the United States.
Data is weighted to provide a nationwide estimate of all types of crashes and injuries. Focusing
on light vehicle crashes in the NASS/GES database, show that rear-end collisions are most
frequent among all crash types accounting for 29% of all crashes. Approximately 50% of all
impacts are to the front of the vehicle. Frontal impacts into an opponent motor vehicle's rear end
account for 6-9% of the total share.
In Germany approximately 12% of all accidents with persons injured and approximately
20% of all material damage accidents are caused by cars in rear end collisions. As a
consequence, Bosch is introducing collision avoidance and mitigation systems for rear impact
scenarios. Warning, brake support, and autonomous emergency braking are part of Bosch's
Advanced Emergency Braking Systems which address such accidents. This study determines the
benefit of these assistance and safety systems and estimates the collision avoidance capability
considering the driver’s behavior. By analyzing representative accidents with injuries from the
GIDAS (German In-Depth Accident Study) database, a high potential for collision warning and
avoidance systems was determined.
For the first time in such a study, this analysis considers the effects of different driver
reactions due to warning, braking support, or autonomous braking with respect to the possible
driver behavior.
Accidents with casualties by kind of accident as proposed in the NHTSA review for the
New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) from July 2008, new test requirements will be introduced
for Forward Collision Warning (FCW) systems.

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  WORKING PRINCIPLE

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 CHAPTER-3
WORKING PRINCIPLE
WORKING
The normal power supply is passes through all the circuits. When the IR sensor senses the
obstacles on road or etc. It sends the signal to micro-controller. The micro-controller actuates the
solenoid valve. Then solenoid valve controls the direction of flow of fluid.
It actuates the cylinder, the piston rod pulls the bended plate toward the disc. Then brake
will be applied. When the IR sensor is not sensed, then ECM actuates the solenoid valve to the
normal position. The return fluid is sends to the tank. Then brake will be released.
In normal condition, the braking system is control by the driver.

LAYOUT

9
  DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

CHAPTER-4
10
 DISCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS
4.1 HYDRAULIC SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER
Hydraulic cylinder consist of
A) PISTON
B) CYLINDER
The cylinder is a Single acting cylinder, which means that the oil pressure operates
forward and spring returns backward. The oil from the compressor is passed through the
regulator which controls the pressure to required amount by adjusting its knob.
A pressure gauge is attached to the regulator for showing the line pressure. Then the
compressed oil is passed through the single acting 3/2 solenoid valve for supplying the oil to one
side of the cylinder.
One hose take the output of the directional Control (Solenoid) valve and they are attached
to one end of the cylinder by means of connectors. One of the outputs from the directional
control valve is taken to the flow control valve from taken to the cylinder. The hose is attached to
each component of a hydraulic system only by connectors.

Fig: 1. hydraulic cylinder

PARTS OF HYDRAULICS CYLINDER

4.1.1 PISTON
The piston is a cylindrical member of certain length which reciprocates inside the
cylinder. The diameter of the piston is slightly less than that of the cylinder bore diameter and it
is fitted to the top of the piston rod. It is one of the important parts which convert the pressure
\energy into mechanical power.

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 The piston is equipped with a ring suitably proportioned and it is relatively soft rubber
which is capable of providing good sealing with low friction at the operating pressure. The
purpose of piston is to provide means of conveying the pressure of OIL inside the cylinder to the
piston of the oil cylinder.
Generally piston is made up of:

 Aluminum alloy-light and medium work.

 Brass or bronze or CI-Heavy duty.
The piston is single acting spring returned type.
The piston moves forward when the high-pressure OIL is turned from the right side of
cylinder.
The piston moves backward when the solenoid valve is in OFF condition. The piston
should be as strong and rigid as possible. The efficiency and economy of the machine primarily
depends on the working of the piston. It must operate in the cylinder with a minimum of friction
and should be able to withstand the high compressor force developed in the cylinder and also the
shock load during operation.
The piston should possess the following qualities.
a. The movement of the piston not creates much noise.
b. It should be frictionless.
c. It should withstand high pressure.
4.1.2 PISTON ROD
The piston rod is circular in cross section. It connects piston with piston of other
cylinder. The piston rod is made of mild steel ground and polished. A high finish is essential on
the outer rod surface to minimize wear on the rod seals. The piston rod is connected to the piston
by mechanical fastening. The piston and the piston rod can be separated if necessary.
One end of the piston rod is connected to the bottom of the piston. The other end of the
piston rod is connected to the other piston rod by means of coupling. The piston transmits the
working force to the oil cylinder through the piston rod. The piston rod is designed to withstand
the high compressive force. It should avoid bending and withstand shock loads caused by the
cutting force. The piston moves inside the rod seal fixed in the bottom cover plate of the

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cylinder. The sealing arrangements prevent the leakage of OIL from the bottom of the cylinder
while the rod reciprocates through it.

4.2 MICRO-CONTROLLER
A Microcontroller is an IC chip that executes programs for controlling other devices or
machines. It is a micro (small size as it’s an Integrated Circuit chip) device which is used for
control of other devices and machines that why it is called Microcontroller. It is a
Microprocessor having RAM, ROM and I/O ports.

Fig: 2. micro-controller

WORKING:
Although, there are many microcontrollers and even more programs available for
microcontrollers, but most of them have common things.
        Microcontroller is very fast device, so every instruction executed in Microcontroller at very
fast speed. Its functioning are given below:
o When the power supply is turned ON, the quartz oscillator being enabled by Control
Logic Register. In the first few milliseconds, while the first preparations are in progress,
the parasite capacitors are being charged.
o When the Voltage level reaches its max value and frequency of quartz oscillator becomes
stable, the process of writing bits on special function registers started. Everything occurs
according to the clock of the oscillator and over all electronics starts working.

13
 o PC or Program counter is reset to zero address of the program memory. Then the address
of the instructions sent to Instruction Decoder which decodes the instructions and thus
executes them.
o After execution of one instruction, the address of program counter is incremented by 1
and thus sending the address of next instruction to instruction decoder and executes the
next instructions.

4.2.1 APPLICATION
o Microcontrollers did you use today?
o A microcontroller is a kind of miniature computer that you can find in all kinds of
Gizmos. Some examples of common, every-day products that have microcontrollers are
built-in. If it has buttons and a digital display, chances are it also has a programmable
microcontroller brain.
o Every-Day the devices used by ourselves that contain Microcontrollers. Try to make a list
and counting how many devices and the events with microcontrollers you use in a typical
day. Here are some examples: if your clock radio goes off, and you hit the snooze button
a few times in the morning, the first thing you do in your day is interact with a
microcontroller. Heating up some food in the microwave oven and making a call on a cell
phone also involve operating microcontrollers. That's just the beginning. Here are a few
more examples: Turning on the Television with a handheld remote, playing a hand held
1game, using a calculator, and checking your digital wrist watch. All those devices have
microcontrollers inside them that interact with you. Consumer appliances aren't the only
things that contain microcontrollers. Robots, machinery, aerospace designs and other
high-tech devices are also built with microcontrollers.

4.3 IR SENSOR
An infrared sensor is an electronic device. That emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensor measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as a
passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal
radiations. These types of radiation some form of thermal radiations. These types of radiations

14
are invisible to our eyes. That can be detected by an infrared sensor. The emitter is simply an IR
LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR
light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the
photodiode. The resistance and these output voltages, change in proportion to the magnitude of
the IR light received.

Fig: 3. IR sensor

4.3.1 IR SENSOR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor module in an electronic
device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be used to detect
obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real time. This circuit comprises of the
following components.
 LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair.
 Resistors of the range of kilo ohms.
 Variable resistors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode).
4.4 SOLENOID VALVE

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 A solenoid valve is an electromechanical device in which the solenoid uses an electric
current to generate a magnetic field and thereby operate a mechanism which regulates the
opening of fluid flow in a valve.
The valve can use a two-port design to regulate a flow or use a three or more port design
to switch flows between ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.
Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluids. Their tasks are to
shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium
compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design.

Fig: 4. solenoid valve

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature actuators and
rocker actuators are also used.

4.4.1 SOLENOID VALVE WORKING

A solenoid valve, otherwise known as an electrically-operated valve is an automatic
valve which serves the purpose of removing the need for an engineer to operate a valve
manually.
Solenoids operate using an electromagnetic solenoid coil to change the state of a valve
from open to closed, or vice-versa. If the solenoid valve is ‘normally closed’, when the coil is
energized, the valve gets lifted open by the electromagnetic force produced by the coil.

4.4.2 TECHNOLOGIES OF SOLENOID VALVES

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 There are 3 main different technologies; direct acting, In-direct acting and Forced-lift
piston type.
 Direct-acting valves  require no differential pressure to remain in their rest state and in the
NC version, they will only allow flow once energized. These valves are very robust and can
be used in a process line for simple isolation purposes of for safety purposes. The can also be
used on the outlet to a tank where sometimes pressure can get very low but the valve needs to
remain open.
 In-direct acting valves require a pressure differential across the inlet and outlet to allow
them to stay in their rest state. For example if a valve was normally open and there was not a
large enough pressure differential, the valve could be intermittent and possibly close if inlet
pressure dropped too low. These valves should only be used if pressure levels are within the
parameters specified in the datasheet and IOM instructions.
 Forced-lift valves are used in high pressure applications where neither of the above valve
types can deal with the higher pressure processes such as 40 Bar plus. This valve uses a much
bigger and higher power coil to open or close and the seat of the valve is directly connected to
the bottom of the piston/plunger assembly eliminating the need for a diaphragm.
In what applications would you use a Solenoid Valve or an electrically operated valve?
Any application where a clean (non-viscous) process media, such as very clean
liquids/gases/light oils need to be controlled.
Simple on/off valves are the most popular as many process lines only need flow or no
flow.  Solenoid valves can be used in factories/plants where compressed air is not available.
They can also be used in place of larger valves such as electrically actuated ball valves, but
without taking up anywhere near as much space. Operation is also much quicker than other valve
technologies.
Other solenoid operated valves use a more advanced technology meaning they can be
used to proportionally control flow or pressure depending on a varying input signal. This is
where another component further downstream needs a specific pressure or flow to maintain the
correct working conditions. Most common input signal used would be a 4-20mA loop signal
which most factories will have at their disposal usually controlled by a PLC or similar system.
Many different valve body and seal materials are available, ranging from Brass, Cast
Steel, Aluminium and Stainless Steel. Standard seals are usually NBR (Buna Nitrile) but EPDM

17
and PTFE available for more corrosive environments. Material choice all depends on the media
going through the valve.

4.4.3 APPLICATIONS
Pressure operated angle seat piston valves are commonly used for high flow applications.
Angle seat valves have a bigger orifice through the valve allowing more viscous fluids to be
passed through them without clogging.
Pressure operated valves are sometimes used where electricity is not easy accessible. As
well as compressed air, some pressure operated valves can actually be piloted using some inert
gases or water.
The Purpose of such a model is to advance a system to detect fatigue symptoms in drivers
and reduced the speed of vehicle to avoid accidents. The main components of the system consists
of an Infrared sensor, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the surroundings and an
adaptive speed controller designed using stepper motor for providing the accurate positioning of
the throttle valve to control the speed of vehicle.

4.5 PUMP:
Pumps is a device used to pressurize the fluid and supply that fluid to the actuating
cylinder from the master cylinder through the solenoid valve by using the hoses.

4.6 BATTERY
Almost every portable and handheld device consist a battery. The battery is a storage
device where energy is stored to provide the power whenever needed. There are different types
of batteries available in this modern electronics world, among them Lead Acid battery is
commonly used for high power supply. Usually Lead Acid batteries are bigger in size with hard
and heavy construction, they can store high amount of energy and generally used in automobiles
and inverter.
An automobile battery is an example of a wet cell battery, with six cells. Each cell of a
lead storage battery consists of alternate plates made of a lead alloy grid filled with sponge lead
(cathode plates} or coated with lead dioxide (anode).Each cell is filled with a sulfuric acid
solution, which is the electrolyte. Initially, cells each had a filler cap, through which the

18
electrolyte level could be viewed and which allowed water to be added to the cell. The filler cap
had a small vent hole which allowed hydrogen gas generated during charging to escape from the
cell.
The cells are connected by short heavy straps from the positive plates of one cell to the
negative plates of the adjacent cell. A pair of heavy terminals, plated with lead to resist
corrosion, are mounted at the top, sometimes the side, of the battery. Early auto batteries used
hard rubber cases and wooden plate separators. Modern units use plastic cases and woven sheets
to prevent the plates of a cell from touching and short-circuiting.
In the past, auto batteries required regular inspection and maintenance to replace water
that was decomposed during operation of the battery. "Low maintenance" (sometimes called
"zero maintenance") batteries use a different alloy for the plate elements, reducing the amount of
water decomposed on charging. A modern battery may not require additional water over its
useful life; some types eliminate the individual filler caps for each cell. A weakness of these
batteries is that they are very intolerant of deep discharge, for example when the car battery is
completely drained by leaving the lights on. This coats the lead plate electrodes with sulfate
deposits and can reduce the battery's lifespan by a third or more.
VRLA batteries, also known as absorbed glass mat (AGM) batteries are more tolerant of
deep discharge, but are more expensive.] VRLA batteries do not permit addition of water to the
cell. The cells each have an automatic pressure release valve, to protect the case from rupture on
severe overcharge or internal failure. A VRLA battery cannot spill its electrolyte which makes it
particularly useful in vehicles such as motorcycles.
Batteries are typically made of six galvanic cells in a series circuit. Each cell provides
2.1 volts for a total of 12.6 volts at full charge. During discharge, a chemical reaction
releases electrons, allowing them to flow through conductors to produce electricity. As the
battery discharges, the acid of the electrolyte reacts with the materials of the plates, changing
their surface to lead sulfate. When the battery is recharged, the chemical reaction is reversed: the
lead sulfate reforms into lead dioxide. With the plates restored to their original condition, the
process may be repeated.
Some vehicles use other starter batteries. The 2010 Porsche 911 GT3 RS has a lithium-
ion battery as an option to save weight. Heavy vehicles may have two batteries in series for a
24 V system or may have series-parallel groups of batteries supplying 24 V.

19
 Fig: 5. battery

CONSTRUCTION
In this project, rectangular shape frame is used. A flat rod is welded in the beam for the
mounting of cylinder. It has four legs for supporting the frame. A single acting cylinder is used.
The rear end of the cylinder is mounted on the bolt. The other end of the cylinder has piston rod.
The piston rod is thread at end. The nut is fixed at the piston rod for connecting the bended plate
by the bolt provision. The bended plate is pivoted at one end and other end is connect to the
piston rod with welded bolt.
The axle is mounted on bearing in the frame. It will rotate freely. A disc plate is fixed at
the axle and welded together. The disc plate is positioned to the bended plate. The dummy
wheels are attached to the axle. A motor is attached under the frame. The axle gets the drive from
the motor by the teethed belt. The belt is connected to the axle shaft.
An accelerator is fixed at the front of the frame. The acceleration controlling wire is
connected to the drive motor. A tubular pipe is welded vertically on the frame at the rear. A fluid
tank is attached to the frame at top. A solenoid valve is fixed with frame by using the bolt and
nut.
The hoses are connected to cylinder from the solenoid valve for their drives. A gate valve
is connected to the tank for ON/OFF. The micro-controller unit is attached to the frame. The
circuit connection are made as per the circuit. The micro-controller has an ECM, trigger and an
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IR sensor. The tank is filled with the hydraulic fluid. The fluid return hose is connected at the top
of tank.

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  MERITS

CHAPTER-5
MERITS

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1. Automatic emergency braking system is effective to avoiding forward collisions.
2. It maintain the safe distance between vehicles, when the brake applied suddenly to avoid
collision.

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  APPLICATION

CHAPTER-6
APPLICATION
24
1. It is used in light vehicles like passenger cars, autoricksaw.
2. The same concept can also be extended for use in heavy vehicles.

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  COST ESTIMATION

CHAPTER-7
COST ESTIMATION
26
MATERIALS COST:
S.NO COMPONENTS PRICE

1 HYDRAULIC CYLINDER 2000

2 FLOW CONTROL VALVE 500

3 SOLENOID VALVE 400

4 IR SENSOR 350

5 RUBBER TUBE 200

6 TOUCH PIECE 250

7 FRAME 800

8 HDRAULIC PUMP 400

9 MOTOR 750

10 ACCELERATOR 350

11 FLUID TANK 200

12 MICRO-CONTROLLER 2000

TOTAL 8200

LABOUR COST:
Lathe, drilling, welding, grinding, power hacksaw, sheet bending.
Cost = Rs1200
TOTAL COST:
Total cost = Material cost + Labour cost
= 8200+1200
= 9400

TOTAL COST OF THE PROJECT = Rs 9400/-

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  CONCLUSION

CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSION

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 Automatic emergency braking system has a lot of potential applications especially in
developed countries where research on smart vehicle and intelligent highway are receiving ample
attention. We can use this system in the four wheeler vehicle and it can reduce the number of
accidents taking place on road.

The system when integrated with other subsystems like automatic traction control system,
intelligent throttle system, and auto cruise system etc., will result in smart vehicle maneuver. In
modern industries AGV’S are used for material handling and AEBS can be used in these type of
vehicles.
In future, this system can improved by electronics based control system.

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  BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER-9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
30
REFERENCES:
 W.H Crouse & D.L Anglin, automotive mechanics,TMH publishing company ltd.
 James E. Duffy, modern automotive technology.
 Andrew Parr, hydraulics and pneumatics, Jaico publishing house, Mumbai.

WEBSITE:
 www.bosch.co.jp/automotive/en/products/catalog/pdf/38_39
 www.bosch.com.cn/start/en/report2.htm
 http://auto.sensorsmag.com

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  PHOTOGRAPHY

CHAPTER-10
PHOTOGRAPHY

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